COMPSCI 311 – Computer Network Architecture

Spectrum
Network from an end-user’s point of view
• Different access
technologies
• Cable
• DSL
• Fiber
• WiFi
• 4G
• 5G
• Radio
• Satellite
Spectrum allocation and properties
Spectrum allocation and properties

Better propagation Higher bandwidth

Spectrum allocation
COMPSCI 311 – Computer Network Architecture
Encoding
Encoding/decoding
• Given a link, we need a way to signal bits from one end to another
Encoding/decoding
• Given a link, we need a way to signal bits from one end to another
• Different voltages in copper link
• Different power levels in optical link
• Different amplitudes in radio transmission
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

• Problems with NRZ

• Baseline wander → adaptor might lose track of what is a change in the signal
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

• Problems with NRZ

• Baseline wander → adaptor might lose track of what is a change in the signal
• No clock recovery → adaptor might lose synchronization with remote adaptor
Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

• NRZI inverts the signal on 1 bit, keeps signal unchanged during 0 bit
Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

• NRZI inverts the signal on 1 bit, keeps signal unchanged during 0 bit
• Prevents baseline wander and enforces clock synchronization
during long sequences of ones, but not zeros
Manchester encoding

• Exclusive or (XOR) between clock and bits

Manchester encoding

• Exclusive or (XOR) between clock and bits

• Prevents baseline wander and enforces clock synchronization
Manchester encoding

• Exclusive or (XOR) between clock and bits

• Prevents baseline wander and enforces clock synchronization
• Requires double the number of signal transitions
Manchester vs NRZ: signal efficiency
Manchester vs NRZ: signal efficiency

16 bits,
16 transitions

32 bits,
32 transitions

16 bits,
32 transitions
Manchester vs NRZ: signal efficiency

16 bits,
16 transitions

32 bits,
32 transitions

16 bits,
32 transitions

50%
efficiency
 Data Transmission
4b/5b encoding 0000 11110
0001 01001
0010 10100
• Encode 4 bits into 5 bits 0011 10101
• Remove sequences of 5 bits with many repetitions 0100 01010
• NRZI encoding 0101 01011
• At most 1 zero at the beginning and 2 zeros at end 0110 01110
• Guarantees transitions 0111 01111
• Prevents baseline wander 1000 10010
• Enforces clock synchronization 1001 10011
• Achieves better efficiency (80%) 1010 10110
1011 10111
1100 11010
1101 11011
1110 11100
1111 11101
 Data Transmission
4b/5b encoding 0000 11110
0001 01001
0010 10100
• Encode 4 bits into 5 bits 0011 10101
• Remove sequences of 5 bits with many repetitions 0100 01010
• NRZI encoding 0101 01011
• At most 1 zero at the beginning and 2 zeros at end 0110 01110
• Guarantees transitions 0111 01111
• Prevents baseline wander 1000 10010
• Enforces clock synchronization 1001 10011
• Achieves better efficiency (80%) 1010 10110
1011 10111
1100 11010
• 64b/66b: 97% efficiency (10G Ethernet) 1101 11011
• 128b/130b: 98.5% efficiency (PCI-e 3) 1110 11100
1111 11101
Modulation
• Previously assumed adaptors that differentiate between two signals
• “High” and “low”
• Adaptors may modulate and recognize more signals
• Allows transmission of multiple bits per clock cycle
• For example, differentiating between 4 signals allows transmission of 2 bits

00 01 10 11
COMPSCI 311 – Computer Network Architecture
Framing
Framing: grouping bits
• Bits flow between adaptors, frames flow between hosts
Sentinel-based framing
• BISYNC

• PPP

01111110 01111110
 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

Frame with sentinels STX DLE A ETX B ETX

 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

Frame with sentinels STX DLE A ETX B ETX

Not the end

of the text!
 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

Frame with sentinels STX DLE A ETX B ETX

Decoded data DLE A

(missing 2 bytes)
 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

Frame with sentinels STX DLE A ETX B ETX

Frame with escapes STX DLE DLE A DLE ETX B ETX

 Sentinel-based framing
• Problem:
• Special framing bytes may appear in payload!

Data DLE A ETX B

Frame with sentinels STX DLE A ETX B ETX

Frame with escapes STX DLE DLE A DLE ETX B ETX

Decoded data DLE A ETX B

Escapes work just like in strings
• In many languages some characters have special meaning in strings
• Quotes
• \n
•%
• How do we add special characters in strings? We escape them!
Count-based framing
• DDCMP

Number of bytes in body

Count-based framing
• Problem:
• Byte count can be corrupted during transmission
• Packet reception will be misaligned, and resynchronization is necessary

5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3 Frame 4
Count-based framing
• Problem:
• Byte count can be corrupted during transmission
• Packet reception will be misaligned, and resynchronization is necessary

5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3 Frame 4

Error Now a byte count

5 1 2 3 4 7 6 7 8 9 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Frame 1 Frame 2, corrupted Possibly many corrupted frames
Count-based framing
• This is why we have the SYN bytes

SYN bytes allows adaptor to find

where the next packet starts
Bitwise Sentinel Framing
• Sequence of bits marks the beginning and end of frames
• HDLC

01111110 01111110
Bitwise Sentinel Framing
• Sequence of bits marks the beginning and end of frames
• HDLC

01111110 01111110

• Special sequence of bits can appear in the middle of the body

Bit stuffing
• Special sequence: 0111 1110
• Transmitter: stuffs 0 after five consecutive 1s
• Receiver after receiving five consecutive 1s:
• If sixth bit is 0, it is stuffed: discard and continue receiving
• If sixth bit is 1, then we are receiving the special sequence
• If seventh bit is 0, then we have received the special sequence
• If seventh bit is 1, then we have encountered a transmission error
Bit stuffing

Original bits 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Transmitted bits 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

Decoded bits 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Clock-based framing
• Frames have known size
• After synchronization we know where the next frame starts
• Requires high-precision clocks and synchronization phase
• Higher efficiency
• No stuffing
• No sentinels
• No byte counts
• Corruption impacts
single frame only
COMPSCI 311 – Computer Network Architecture
Error Detection