Thermal Sensors

Topics
• Gas thermometric Sensors, Thermal Expansion Type Thermometric
Sensors,
• Acoustic Temperature Sensor, Dielectric Constant and Refractive Index
Thermo-sensors,
• Helium Low Temperature Thermometer, Magnetic Thermometer,
• Resistance Change Type Thermometric Sensors.
 Gas Thermometer Sensor

• where bi’s are virial coefficients which are different for different gases and
are functions of temperature
• A gas thermometer is a thermometer that measures temperature by
the variation in volume or pressure of a gas.

• This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that when the
temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume.
• Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of
gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to
the correct levels of the device that is holding the gas. This works on the same
principle as mercury thermometers.
 Helium Gas Thermometric Sensors
• Temperature cannot be measured directly (for instance, as a length is measured by
its segment).
• Only the measurement of another physical property being a function of temperature
may provide temperature determination. A property used to measure temperature is
termed a thermometric parameter and must meet the following requirements:
●be independent of the influence of other factors,
●be strictly reproducible,
●be a continuous and monotonic function of temperature,
●be a temperature coefficient of a property which is sufficiently large and its
measurement sufficiently simple.
• Most often used for temperature measurement are:
●a volume of a liquid or a gas (liquid-in-glass and gas thermometers);
●electrical resistance of metals, semiconductors

Contd…
• Gas thermometry reduces temperature measurement (from helium temperatures to 1063°C) to
measurement of pressure or a gas volume in a closed vessel followed by temperature calculation
using the measurement results and the ideal gas laws. A gas thermometer is a primary instrument
for determination of thermodynamic temperature.

• Application of exact relations requires design of complicated devices inconvenient for practical
use. In practice, temperature scales are used in which a simple and convenient secondary
thermometer is used and methods of transfer of thermodynamic temperature from a primary
instrument to the secondary thermometer are employed.

• A schematic drawing of a gas thermometer is shown in figure reservoir 3 is immersed into a

medium whose temperature is to be measured; gauge 1 is connected via capillary 2 to the
reservoir; the reservoir and the capillary are filled with a working gas.

• A gas thermometer allows the determination of pressure p and volume V of mass m of the ideal
gas with molecular weight μ converting from thermodynamic state 1 to state 2, with the gas mass
m = Vpμ/TR remaining constant in both states.
• Depending on the character of gas transition from 1-to-2 state, three gas thermometers are
distinguished: constant volume, constant pressure, and constant temperature.
• A constant-volume gas thermometer is used at low temperatures (typically with helium as a
working substance) and possesses the highest sensitivity.
• At high temperatures, when gas desorption on reservoir walls becomes pronounced and helium
penetrates through the walls, gas thermometers of other design are used with nitrogen as a
working substance.

Thermal Expansion type Thermometric

Sensor
Thermal Expansion
type Thermometric
Sensor

Thermometers RTDs Thermocouple

Filled System
Thermometer

Bimetal
Thermometer
1. Thermometers
• Thermal expansion is the basis of which a thermometer works. This is due to
the thermodynamic properties “a substance expanding and retracting due to
changes in heat”.
• Generally, material expands when it receives heat and contracts at lower
temperatures.
• In the case of a thermometer, there is a thin glass tube with a colorful liquid in
it. The tube is made thin to get a more precise reading. The tube is so thin that
the liquid can either move up or down. And this is where thermal expansion
comes in as the liquid will rise or fall when the liquid expands or contracts
according to temperature.
• When a liquid receives energy in the form of heat, the atoms of the liquid will
gain energy and will get "excited", due to this energy they move further apart
i.e., they have expanded.

2. RTDs – Resistance Temperature Detectors

Working
• The RTD contains an outer sheath to prevent contamination from the
surrounding medium. Ideally, this sheath is composed of material that
efficiently conducts heat to the resistor, but resists degradation from
heat or the surrounding medium.
• The resistance sensor itself is responsible for the temperature
measurement, as shown in the diagram. Sensors are most commonly
composed of metals, such as platinum, nickel, or copper.
• The material chosen for the sensor determines the range of
temperatures in which the RTD could be used. For example, platinum
sensors, the most common type of resistor, have a range of
approximately -200°C – 800°C. Connected to the sensor are two
insulated connection leads. These leads continue to complete the
resistor circuit.

Contd…
• The principle behind RTDs is based upon the Callendar – Van Dusen
equation, which relates the electrical resistance to the temperature in
°C.

• This equation is merely a generic polynomial that takes form based

upon experimental data from the specific RTD. This equation usually
takes on a linear form since the coefficients of the higher-order
variables (a2, a3, etc.) are relatively small.
Contd…
• Another type of RTD is the thermistor, which operates based upon an
exponential relationship between electrical resistance and
temperature.
• Thermistors are primarily composed of semiconductors, and are
usually used as fuses, or current-limiting devices. Thermistors have
high thermal sensitivity but low temperature measuring ranges and
are extremely non-linear.
• Instead of the Callendar - Van Dusen equation, the thermistor
operates based upon the nonlinear equation.

3. Thermocouple
• Similar to the RTD, the thermocouple provides an electrical measurement of
temperature.
• The thermocouple contains an outer sheath, or thermowell. The thermowell
protects the contents of the thermocouple from mechanical and chemical
damage.
• Within the thermowell lies two metal wires each consisting of different metals.
Various combinations of materials are possible for these metal wires.
• Three common thermocouple material combinations used for moderate
temperature measurements are the Platinum-Rhodium, Iron-Constantan, and
Chromel-Alumel metal alloys.
• The metal alloys chosen for a thermocouple is based upon the emf value of the
alloy pair at a given temperature. For a given pair of materials, the two wires are
connected at one end to form a junction.
• At the other end, the two wires are connected to a voltage measuring device.
These ends of the wires are held at a different reference temperature.
 Working
• The main principle upon which the thermocouple function is based on is
the difference in the conductivities of the two wire materials that the
thermocouple is made of, at a given temperature.
• This conductivity difference increases at higher temperatures and
conversely, the conductivity difference decreases at lower temperatures.
This disparity results in the thermocouples being more efficient and useful
at higher temperatures. Since the conductivity difference is small at lower
temperatures and thus more difficult to detect, they are inefficient and
highly unreliable at low temperatures.
• The conductivity difference between the two wires, along with a
temperature difference between the two junctions, creates an electrical
current that flows through the thermocouple.
• The first junction point, which is the point at which the two wires are
connected, is placed within the medium whose temperature is being
measured. The second junction point is constantly held at a known
reference temperature. When the temperature of the medium differs from
the reference temperature, a current flows through the circuit.

Contd…
• The strength of this current is based upon the temperature of the medium, the reference
temperature, and the materials of the metal wires. Since the reference temperature and
materials are known, the temperature of the medium can be determined from the
current strength.
• To determine the temperature of the medium from the current strength, the emf or
voltage values of the current and of the wire materials at the reference temperatures
must be known.
• Often, the measured temperature can be found by using standard thermocouple tables.
However, these tables are often referenced at 0°C. To correct for this different reference
temperature, equation (3) can be used to calculate the temperature from a given
current.
Acoustic temperature sensor
• a technique for measuring the temperature of something (such as a region
of ocean water) by measuring how long it takes sound to travel through it
• Because sound travels faster in warm water than in cold, this method,
called acoustic thermometry, could provide a precise method of taking the
ocean's temperature, they reasoned.
• The speed of sound through a substance changes in a predictable way as
the temperature of the substance changes. By timing a pulse of sound as it
passes through a substance, it is possible to determine exactly how warm
or cold the substance is.
• The acoustic thermometer works by transmitting sound waves along a gas-
filled tube from a speaker at one end to a microphone at the other. By
measuring the amount of time it takes the sound waves to travel along the
tube, the temperature can be calculated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIPLWzcSOlA
Dielectric constant and Refractive Index
Thermo Sensor
Dielectric Constant
• A material's dielectric constant can vary significantly with frequency,
and is often measured under direct current to determine the static
dielectric constant. The dielectric constant is used in sensing
applications such as capacitive sensors, dielectric spectroscopy, and
permittivity imaging. For example, a dielectric resonator-based sensor
can use the effect of temperature change on the dielectric constant to
improve its sensitivity.
Contd…
Refractive index
• A material's refractive index is a dimensionless number that indicates
how much it can bend light. The refractive index is defined as the
ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
material. It determines how much light is refracted when entering a
material, and also affects how much light is reflected and the critical
angle for total internal reflection. The refractive index can also vary
with wavelength, which is called dispersion and can cause white light
to split into its spectral colors. For example, a refractive index-based
terahertz sensor can be used for THz sensing applications.

Effect of temperature on dielectric constant

• The dielectric constant of a material and its refractive index are
closely linked by the equation κ = n2
• The dielectric constant is inversely proportional to temperature. It
means when one increases other must decrease.

Here, k=dielectric constant,T=temperature.

• As the temperature rises, the dielectric constant decreases.
•
Magnetic thermometer
• A magnetic thermometer is a device that uses the temperature-
dependent magnetic properties of certain materials to measure
temperature. It consists of a magnetic material, typically a
paramagnetic substance, which changes its magnetization in response
to changes in temperature.

• The magnetic material, such as a paramagnetic salt or a thin

ferromagnetic film, is placed in a constant magnetic field.
• As the temperature of the magnetic material changes, its magnetic
susceptibility (the degree to which it can be magnetized) also
changes.
• The change in magnetic susceptibility of the material alters the
strength of the magnetic field it experiences, which can be detected
and measured.
• This change in the magnetic field strength is calibrated to provide a
temperature reading.
• Magnetic thermometers are particularly useful for measuring
temperatures in environments where traditional mercury or
resistance-based thermometers may not be suitable, such as in strong
magnetic fields or in cryogenic applications. They can also be highly
sensitive and accurate, making them valuable for scientific research
and industrial applications.

Resistance Change type Thermometric

Sensors
• RTD