PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

Photoelectric Effect
By Mansur Ahemad Khan
Class-XII
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
1.1. Definition
1.2. Discovery
1.3. Relevance
2. THEORETICAL EXPLANATION
2.1. Classical Wave Theory
2.2. Einstein’s Quantum Explanation
2.3. Key Concepts
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
3.1. Aim
3.2. Apparatus required
3.3. Procedure
3.4. Observation
3.5. Conclusion
4. DATA ANALYSIS
4.1. Graphical Representation
4.2. Einstein’s Equation
4.3. Calculation of Work Function
5. APPLICATIONS
6. REFERENCES

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.Definition technologies like solar cells, light
The photoelectric effect is the sensors, and electron microscopy.
phenomenon in which electrons are
emitted from a 1.2. Discovery
material (usually The photoelectric effect was first
a metal) when it discovered by Heinrich Hertz in
absorbs light (or 1887, though he did not fully
other understand its significance. Hertz
electromagnetic radiation). The observed that when ultraviolet light
energy from the light is transferred struck a metal surface, it caused
to the electrons, causing them to be sparks to jump more easily across a
ejected from the surface of the spark gap. However, Hertz didn't
material. When photons hit the delve into the underlying causes or
surface of a metal with sufficient mechanisms.
energy, they transfer this energy to The theoretical explanation came
the electrons in the metal, causing in 1905, when Albert Einstein
them to be emitted. This published a groundbreaking paper.
phenomenon is crucial in Einstein proposed that light is made
understanding quantum mechanics up of discrete particles, or photons,
and has practical applications in each carrying energy proportional to
its frequency (E = hf, where h is
Planck’s constant and f is the
frequency of light). According to
Einstein, when a photon strikes a
metal surface, it transfers its energy
to an electron, ejecting it from the
material if the photon’s energy is
above a certain threshold (the
material’s work function). This

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explanation not only clarified the 2. Validation of Planck's
photoelectric effect but also Quantum Hypothesis
provided strong evidence for the 3. Technological Advancements
quantum nature of light, which was 4. Understanding Atomic and
a revolutionary concept at the time Molecular Behavior
and helped establish the foundations 5. Technological Innovation in
of quantum theory. Imaging
Einstein's work on the photoelectric 6. Evolution of Light-Based
effect earned him the Nobel Prize in Communication
Physics in 1921. In short, the photoelectric effect
1.3. Relevance was not only a key discovery that
The photoelectric effect holds advanced our understanding of light
significant relevance in both the and quantum mechanics, but it has
historical development of physics also had broad and lasting
and its numerous practical applications in energy production,
applications. Here are a few key imaging technologies, medical
aspects of its relevance: diagnostics, and electronics. Its
1. Foundation of Quantum relevance extends far beyond
Theory physics, impacting many aspects of
modern technology and daily life.

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2. THEORETICAL EXPLANATION
2.1. Classical Wave Theory
Classical Wave Theory put forward by James Clerk Maxwell
James Maxwell describes light as a (1831-1879)
continuous electromagnetic wave, where James Clerk Maxwell was a
energy is distributed evenly across the renowned Scottish physicist and
wavefront. The key assumptions of the mathematician whose work
classical wave theory are: revolutionized our understanding
of electromagnetism and laid the
1. Light is a continuous electromagnetic
foundation for modern physics.
wave. Impact of Maxwell’s Work
2. Energy of light depends on its
intensity (amplitude), not frequency. • Electromagnetic Waves:
3. Energy is evenly distributed across His theory predicted the
existence of
the wavefront and absorbed gradually
electromagnetic waves
by electrons. beyond visible light, such
This theory put forward the following as radio waves, which
predictions about photoelectric effect: were later confirmed
• Energy Transfer: Electrons absorb experimentally by
energy from the wave over time; Heinrich Hertz.
photoemission occurs after a delay • Foundation for
once enough energy is absorbed. Relativity: Einstein’s
• Intensity Matters: Higher-intensity theory of relativity was
light should eject electrons with more built on Maxwell’s
kinetic energy. understanding of the
constancy of the speed of
• No Threshold Frequency: Any light
light.
frequency can cause photoemission if
the intensity is high enough. Maxwell is often regarded as one
However this theory proved to be wrong in of the greatest physicists,
some fields. The following are the alongside Newton and Einstein.
His work bridged classical and
drawbacks of the wave theory which were
modern physics, earning him the
later fixed by the quantum theory: title of the "father of
• Threshold Frequency: electromagnetism."
Photoemission occurs only above a
certain frequency (ν), regardless of

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 intensity. Classical theory cannot explain why low-frequency light fails to
eject electrons.
• Instantaneous Emission: Electrons are emitted immediately after high-
frequency light hits the surface, contradicting the idea of gradual energy
absorption.
• Kinetic Energy vs. Frequency: The kinetic energy of emitted electrons
depends on light frequency, not intensity, contrary to classical predictions.

2.2. Einstein’s Quantum Explanation

Einstein's Quantum Theory revolutionized our understanding of light and
energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed the theory of the photoelectric effect,
suggesting that light is composed of discrete packets of energy called quanta or
photons. Each photon carries energy that is proportional to its frequency.
Einstein's work on quantum theory earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1921 and laid the foundation for modern quantum mechanics. His theory
includes the following key points:

• Threshold Frequency: Photoemission occurs only when the energy of

the incoming photon (hν) is greater than or equal to the work function (ϕ).
Below this frequency, no electrons are ejected, regardless of the light's
intensity.

• Instantaneous Emission: A photon interacts with a single electron,

transferring energy immediately, which ejects the electron without delay.

• Kinetic Energy Depends on Frequency: The kinetic energy of ejected

electrons is described by the equation:

K.E. = hν - ϕ
This indicates that the energy of the electrons increases with the
frequency of the light, not with its intensity.

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 • Intensity Affects Current: A higher intensity of light means more
photons are present, which leads to more electrons being ejected and thus
increases the current.

This framework fundamentally changed our perception of light and its

interaction with matter.

2.3. Key Concepts

The key concepts and differences between classical wave theory and
quantum theory are enlisted below:

Aspect Classical Wave Theory Quantum Theory

Nature of Light Continuous wave Discrete photons
Instantaneous energy
Energy Transfer Gradual energy buildup
transfer
Determines both number and Affects only the number of
Role of Intensity
energy of ejected electrons electrons ejected
Role of Irrelevant, provided intensity is Must exceed threshold for
Frequency high photoemission
Threshold
Cannot explain Explained by hν≥ϕ
Frequency
Time Delay in
Possible None
Emission
Kinetic Energy of
Depends on intensity Depends on frequency
Electrons

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3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
3.1. Aim
To understand and demonstrate the photoelectric effect.

3.2. Apparatus Required

1. A photoelectric cell (or a setup with a metal plate in a vacuum chamber).
2. A light source with variable wavelengths (e.g., a laser or an adjustable
LED source).
3. Power supply.
4. Multimeter (to measure current and voltage).
5. Filters to change light intensity.
6. Wires and connectors.
7. A notebook for recording observations.

3.3. Procedure

• Setup:
Connect the photoelectric cell to the multimeter and power supply. Place
the light source in front of the cell.
• Varying Wavelength:
Shine light of different wavelengths (e.g., red, green, blue). Observe and
record whether electrons are emitted and note the current on the
multimeter.
• Varying Intensity:
Use the same wavelength but change the light intensity using filters.
Measure the current for different intensities.
• Stopping Potential:
Slowly increase the reverse voltage across the photoelectric cell until the

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 current drops to zero. This voltage is the stopping potential (Vs) and
relates to the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons:

K.E.= (e)(Vs)
Where e is the charge of an electron (1.6×10^(-19)C).
• Record Observations:
Tabulate your results for different wavelengths and intensities.

3.4. Observations
• No electrons are ejected below the threshold frequency, even if the light
intensity is high.
• For frequencies above the threshold, photoemission occurs, and the
current depends on the number of photons (light intensity).
• Higher intensity leads to a larger current (more electrons emitted).
• The stopping potential (related to the kinetic energy of the electrons)
remains constant because it depends only on the frequency of light.
• Stopping potential (Vs) increases with light frequency

3.5. Conclusion
• Photoemission depends on frequency, not intensity, below the threshold
frequency.
• The number of emitted electrons (current) depends on light intensity, but
their energy depends solely on the frequency.
• The stopping potential increases linearly with frequency, demonstrating
the particle-like nature of light.
3.6. Sources of error
• Measurement inaccuracies in stopping potential.
• Impurities or surface irregularities in the photoelectric material.

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• Inconsistent light source frequencies or intensities.

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4. DATA ANALYSIS
4.1. Graphical Representation
A stopping potential vs. work function graph typically illustrates the linear
relationship between the stopping potential (Vs) and the work function (ϕ) for
different metals under identical conditions.

Some of the key features of this graph are:

1. Axes:
• X-axis: Work Function (ϕ), typically in electron volts (eV).
• Y-axis: Stopping Potential (Vs), typically in volts (V).
2. Relationship:
Vs=hν/e−ϕ/e
• The slope of the graph is −1/e-1/e−1/e, showing a linear decrease
in stopping potential as the work function increases.
3. Intercept:
• The intercept on the Y-axis corresponds to the maximum
stopping potential when ϕ=0.

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 4. Interpretation:
• Metals with a lower work function require less stopping potential
to prevent electron ejection.
• Higher work function metals exhibit greater stopping potential for
the same light frequency.

4.2. Einstein’s Equation

Albert Einstein’s equation for the photoelectric effect provides a
quantitative relationship between the energy of incident photons and the kinetic
energy of ejected electrons. It is expressed as:

K.E.=hν−ϕ
Where:
• K.E.: Maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.

• h: Planck’s constant (6.626×10−34 J\cdotps)

• ν: Frequency of the incident light.

• ϕ: Work function of the metal (minimum energy required to eject an

electron).

Einstein’s photoelectric equation was pivotal in establishing:

1. Particle Nature of Light: Light behaves as photons, contradicting
classical wave theory.
2. Wave-Particle Duality: Light exhibits both wave and particle properties.

4.2. Calculation of Work Function

The work function (ϕ) of a metal is the minimum energy required to
eject an electron from its surface. It can be calculated using experimental data,
typically from the photoelectric effect, or determined theoretically. The work

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function depends on the material’s surface properties and electronic structure.
In theoretical models:

1. It is calculated using quantum mechanical methods, considering the

Fermi energy and electron affinity of the material.
2. Surface conditions (e.g., crystal structure, cleanliness) are factored into
theoretical predictions.

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5. APPLICATIONS
The photoelectric effect has numerous practical applications, as it
forms the basis of devices and technologies that rely on the interaction
between light and matter. Some of the key applications include:
1. Photoelectric Cells (Photocells)

• Light Detectors: Used in cameras, solar panels, and automatic lighting

systems to detect light intensity.
• Automatic Doors: Photocells trigger door mechanisms based on the
interruption of light beams.
• Streetlights: Photocells control switching on/off based on ambient light
levels.

2. Solar Panels

• Photovoltaic cells utilize the photoelectric effect to convert sunlight into

electricity.
• Widely used in renewable energy systems, powering homes, industries,
and spacecraft.

3. Photomultiplier Tubes

• Used in scientific instruments to detect faint light signals by amplifying

photoelectrons.
• Applications: Astronomy, particle physics, and medical imaging.

4. Light-Activated Sensors

• Smoke Detectors: Photoelectric smoke alarms detect smoke by scattering

light on photo-sensitive elements.
• Security Systems: Light-based sensors detect motion or break-ins by
sensing interruptions in light.

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5. Electron Microscopy

• High-energy photons in electron microscopes eject electrons to provide

detailed images of microscopic structures.
• Applications: Biology, materials science, and nanotechnology.

6. Spectroscopy

• Photoelectron spectroscopy (e.g., XPS or UPS) uses the photoelectric

effect to analyze the composition and electronic structure of materials.
• Applications: Surface chemistry and material science.

7. Television and Display Technology

• Early cathode ray tubes (CRTs) relied on photoelectric principles for

image display.
• Modern displays use similar concepts in sensors for brightness and color
adjustments.

8. Astronomy and Space Science

• Photoelectric Photometers: Measure the brightness of stars and other

celestial objects.
• Solar Power in Spacecraft: Space missions use photovoltaic systems for
energy supply.

9. Communication Systems

• Fiber-optic communication systems use photodetectors to convert light

signals into electrical signals for data transmission.

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10. Radiation Detection

• Devices like Geiger counters and scintillation detectors use the

photoelectric effect to measure radiation levels.

11. Medical Applications

• X-ray imaging and photodetectors in medical equipment rely on the

photoelectric effect for diagnostics.
• Pulse oximeters use light and photoelectric sensors to measure blood
oxygen levels.

12. Research and Quantum Technology

• Investigating quantum properties of light and matter.

• Basis for quantum computing and quantum cryptography developments.

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6. REFERENCES
The resources that helped me make this project are:
Books:
1. Resnick, R., Halliday, D., & Krane, K. S. (2013). Physics, Volume 2.
Wiley.
2. Tipler, P. A., & Mosca, G. (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
W. H. Freeman.

Research Papers:
1. Einstein, A. (1905). "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light," Annalen der Physik.
2. Millikan, R. A. (1916). "A Direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck's
h," Physical Review, 7(3), 355–388.

Websites:
1. HyperPhysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
2. Physics LibreTexts: https://phys.libretexts.org/

Images and Graphs:

1. Diagrams and illustrations generated using [OpenAI’s DALL·E].
2. Graphs created using Excel/Matplotlib (customized for the project).

Additional Sources:
1. Khan Academy: https://www.khanacademy.org/

And lastly, the combined efforts of my friends and teachers helped me take this
project to completion.

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