Research Aptitude

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 Syllabus

• Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics

• Positivism and Post positivistic approach to
research
• Methods of Research: Experimental, Descriptive,
Historical, Qualitative and Quantitative methods
• Steps of Research
• Thesis and Article writing: Format and styles of
referencing
• Application of ICT in research
• Research ethics
Meaning of Research
 Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information
on a particular topic.
 It is a discovery of hidden truths.
 Research can lead to new contributions to existing knowledge.
 Research is indeed civilization and determines the economic, social and
political development of a nation.

Objectives of Research
  to discover new facts
 to verify and test important facts
 to analyses an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and
effect relationship to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to
solve and understand scientific and non-scientific problems
 to find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems
 To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to

gain new knowledge”. In simple terms research refers to a search for
knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search for information on a
particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific investigation.

Essential elements of any research

Empirical: Research is based on direct experience or observation by the
researcher.

Logical: Research must be based on valid procedures and principles.

Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends
with a problem. The result of research can be negative, positive or even nil .

Analytical: Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,

whether historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study .

Critical: Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

Methodical: Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using
systematic method and procedures.

Reliability: The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to

enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

Types of Research
Fundamental or basic research: Fundamental research is also known as basis
research. If the goal of the research is to find out the basic truth or principles, it is
called as fundamental or basic research. This type of research is carried out in a
laboratory or other sterile environment, sometimes with animals also. Examples of
fundamental research Newton Law.

Applied research: Most of the characteristics of fundamental research is found

in applied research. This type of research involves finding new applications of
scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem such as development of the new
system, new device or new methods. Most of the educational research falls under
the category of applied research.

Action research: Action research is used to solve an immediate application, not

on the development of theory or general application. If the researcher finds any
problem at time of his fields, investigation and observation, the researcher
applies action research at that time

Historical research: Historical research talks about the past. In this type of
research, we need investigation, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events
of the past for the purpose of discovering generalization.

Quantitative descriptive research: This method is used to describe what is

being described, recording, analyzing, and interpreting conditions that make this
around ours. It is used to discover the relationship between non-manipulated
existing variables.

Qualitative descriptive research: This type of research use non-quantitative

methods. This method of research is used to discover non-quantified relationship
between existing variable.

Experimental research: It describes “what will happen” in the future if certain

variables are carefully controlled and manipulated. Main focus of this kind of
research is to find out the relationship between variables.

QUALITIES OF A RESEARCHER
 Must be of the temperament that vibrates in unison with the theme which
he is searching
  Intelligence about subject matter of research
 Must having knowledge of research methodology
 Must possess an alert mind
 Must have immense courage and a sense of conviction.
 Should cultivate the habit of reserving judgment when the required data are
insufficient.

RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring
you will effectively address the research problem, it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Exploratory Research Design (Formative research Design)
The main objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research
problem for an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for developing a working
hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the
discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for such
a study should be flexible enough to provide the opportunity for considering
different dimensions of the problem under study. The inbuilt flexibility in research
design is required as the initial research problem would be transformed into a more
precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for collecting relevant data.
Usually, the following three methods are considered in the context of a research
design for such studies.
They are 
1. a survey of related literature;
2. experience survey; and 
3. analysis of ‘insight stimulating’ instances.

2. Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design

 A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of
a particular individual or a group. A diagnostic research design determines the
frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable.
The study analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another
comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned
with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics related
to an individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies.

3. Hypothesis-Testing Research Design

Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the
hypothesis of the causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies
require procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but
also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality.

IMPORTANT TERMNOLOGY IN RESEARCH

Dependent and Independent Variables:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not
quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term.
 The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal
points are known as ‘continuous variables. But all variables need not be
continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called
‘non-continuous variables. In statistical terms, they are also known as
‘discrete variables.
 When change in one variable depending upon the changes in other variable
or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the
variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the
independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
 The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of
the study but affect the dependent variables are known as extraneous
variables.
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the
effect of the extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a
researcher designs the study in such a manner that minimizes the effects of
extraneous variables.

Research Hypothesis:
 When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting
scientific methods, it is known as the research hypothesis. The research
hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable
and an independent variable.
 Whereas the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are
predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not
classified as research hypotheses.
 The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as
‘experimental hypothesis testing research’, whereas the research in which
the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research.

Experimental And Control Groups: -

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in experimental hypothesis-testing
research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is
exposed to a certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental
group’.

Treatments:- Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the

experimental and control groups are subject to.

Experiment: -Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a

statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem.

Hypothesis: The hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of

propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group
of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation in the light of facts
Essential features about Hypothesis:
 must be capable of being put to test.
 must state the relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
  must be specific and limited in scope.
 must be stated in the simplest language, to make it understood by all
concerned.
 must be consistent and derived from the most known facts
 must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period.
 should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for an
explanation.

SAMPLING:
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number
of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to
sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed,
but it may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

METHODS OF SAMPLING:
Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple random sampling:
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of
obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and
then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.
2. Systematic sampling:
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals
are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a
population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For
example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every
1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.
3. Stratified sampling:
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all
share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the
measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to
ensure representation from all the subgroups.
4.Clustered sampling: In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used
as the sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into
subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the
study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or
towns could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members
of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling,
a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion.
Clustering should be considered in the analysis.
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
1. Convenience sampling:
Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because
participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful
results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias
2. Quota sampling:
This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are
given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit.
3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling:
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the
judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate.
4. Snowball sampling:

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach

groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so
the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball.

Bias in sampling:
There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when
selecting a sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be
introduced when:
1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to
contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people
who have recently moved to an area)

STAGES OF A RESEARCH
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalizations and interpretation,
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i. e., formal write-up
of conclusions reached.

Application of ICT in research

Tools & Services for Research
1. Search Engine & Research Papers:
Google/Bing/Yahoo and many other search engines help you to find useful and
relevant contents. This also helps you to explore the millions of thesis and already
published articles and keeps you up to date with the latest happenings in your area
of interest. Below are important Online Tools to explore millions of research article
across the globe.
  Google Scholar – Provides a way to broadly search for scholarly literature
across disciplines and sources.
 Microsoft Academic Search – Find information about academic papers,
authors, conferences, journals, and organizations from multiple sources.
 Science scope – Innovation in the exploration of papers and authors.
 Research Gate – ResearchGate is the professional network for scientists and
researchers. Over 15 million members from all over the world use it to share,
discover, and discuss research.
 Biohunter – Portal with literature search, data statistics, reading, sorting,
storing, field expert identification and journal finder.
 edu -is a platform for academics to share research papers. The company’s
mission is to accelerate the world’s research.
 SSRN – Multi-disciplinary online repository of scholarly research and related
materials in social sciences.
 DeepDyve- provides simple and affordable access to millions of articles
across thousands of peer reviewed journals. Content from the world’s
leading publishers including Reed Elsevier, Springer, Wiley-Blackwell, and
more.
 Wiki Journal Club – Open, user-reviewed summaries of the top studies in
medical research.
2. Shared Dataset & Code
DataBank– Analysis and visualization tool that contains collections of time series
data on a variety of topics.
Google- Google periodically releases data of interest to researchers in a wide range
of computer science disciplines.
GitHub– Online software project hosting using the Git revision control system.
Open Science Framework– Gathers a network of research documents, a version
control system, and collaboration software.
SlideShare– Community for sharing presentations and other professional content
gov.uk-The British government’s official data portal offers access to tens of
thousands of data sets on topics such as crime, education, transportation, and
health
gov- The USA government’s official data portal offers access to tens of thousands
of data sets
gov.in- Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India – is a platform for supporting
Open Data initiative of Government of India. The portal is intended to be used by
Government of India
Code Ocean– Cloud-based computational platform which provides a way to share,
discover and run published code.
Peer Evaluation– Open repository for data, papers, media coupled with an open
review and discussion platform.

3. Connect & Communicate with experts and researchers

Academia– A place to share and follow research and researchers.
net – Online platform for professional networking and sharing of knowledge in life
sciences.
Open Science Framework– Gathers a network of research documents, a version
control system, and collaboration software.
ResearchGate– Social network for researchers.
AcademicJoy– Sharing research ideas and story in research and innovation.
Experiment– Crowdfunding Platform for Scientific Research.
Linkedin- Connect with people in your area of interest.
Thinkable– Platform to mobilize knowledge and fund breakthrough ideas.
ScienceOpen– Freely accessible research network to share and evaluate Scientific
information.
Communication tools– web-ex, skype, TeamViewers, anywhere,

4. Free Digital Library

The National Digital library of India is a project under the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, India. The objective is to integrate several national and
international digital libraries in one single web-portal. The NDL provides free access
to many books in English and the Indian languages.

5. Simulation/Lab and project management

Internet of things is coming to laboratories and connecting instrumentation to the
internet allowing us to perform experiments from anywhere in the world.
Virtual Labs project is an initiative of the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), Government of India under the aegis of National Mission on Education
through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT). This project is a
consortium activity of twelve participating institutes and IIT Delhi is coordinating
institute. It is a paradigm shift in ICT-based education. For the first time, such an
initiative has been taken-up in remote-experimentation.
Lab Suit– Inventory Management, orders Management, materials Trade-In, price
Comparison.
Life technologies Lab Management Tool – Management tool for lab equipment
andservices.
LiveLabSpace– Collaborative research tool that lets you plan experiments, replicate
outcomes and generate research papers.

6. Write & publish research papers

Various online available writing tools are the needs of researchers. Tools are
required to store and manage references, collaborations across labs and continents,
collaborative writing tools & track of the modifications done by others to the
manuscript.
CitationStyles – Find and edit CSL citation styles.
Papers – helps you collect and curate the research material that you’re passionate
about.
Zotero – helps you collect, organize, cite, and share your research sources
Draft – Version control and collaboration to improve your writing.
Typewrite – A simple, real-time collaborative writing environment. 
ScienceOpen – Freely accessible research network to share and evaluate scientific
information.

ICT in Research Sponsored by Govt. of India

National Mission on Education through ICT (NMEICT) is a major initiative of the
Govt. of India in this direction intending to leverage the potential of ICT in providing
high quality personalized and interactive content, free of cost, to all the learners. 
The National Mission on Education through Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) has, under its aegis, created Virtual Labs, Open Source and Access
Tools, Virtual Conference Tools, Talk to Teacher programs, a Non-Invasive Blood
Glucometer and also for simulated lab experiments, a Di. Electric frequency shifts
the application development of resonator for low-cost oscillators.

RESEARCH ETHICS
Research Ethics is a set of guidelines that help researchers to conduct research
successfully. The major principals revolve around the research process, data
collection, interpretation of data, report publication, thesis, confidentiality,
obfuscation and plagiarism.
The ethics are closely related to the moral and value, it explains norms for conduct
that distinguish between ‘what is wrong’ & ‘what is right’.
It fosters a research culture that adheres to ‘relevant legislation governing the
protection of the dignity, rights, safety and privacy of those involved in research;’
‘provide clear and easily accessible guidance on best ethical practice and regulatory
requirements’; ‘offer support and training to staff and students and any others
General Ethical Issues
Ethical issues related to the research process
Ethical issues related to participant or researcher
Ethical issues related to sponsoring institution

Positivism and Post positivism

Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that
can be studied through applying the methods and principles of natural
sciences and scientific inquiry. It maintains that “the object of study is
independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified
through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are
established by taking apart a phenomenon to examine its component
parts” (Krauss, 2005, p. 759). According to this paradigm, the role of the
researcher is to provide material for the development of laws by testing
theories (Bryman, 2008). Positivists believe in five principles which
include phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be
regarded as knowledge), deductivism (the purpose of theory is to
generate hypotheses that can be tested to make laws), inductivism (the
gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and knowledge),
objectivism (science should be value-free) and scientific statements
(Bryman, 2008).
To guide these observations, the positivists raised these five principles:

 The logic of research must be the same for all sciences. It does not matter if
they deal with studying nature or human behavior.
 The aim of science is to observe in order to explain and predict natural and
social phenomena.
 Research must be observable through the human senses and must only use
the logic to interpret the observed facts.
 Science is not the same as"common sense"and scientists should avoid any
interpretation of the data they have collected.
 Science must produce knowledge and must be as objective and free of
values as possible. Therefore, politics, morals or cultural values should not
be interfered with.

Post positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed

as a result of the criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists
also believe in the existence of a single reality, however, they
acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to
understand reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and
intellectual limitations (Guba, 1990). The aim of post positivist research
is also prediction and explanation. Like positivists, post positivists also
strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that the findings fit with the
existing knowledge base. However, unlike positivists, they acknowledge
and spell out any predispositions that may affect the objectivity
(Doucet et al., 2010).