CN UNIT-I PPT

Faculty Name: G.
Lavanya
Design: Assistant Professor
Subject : Computer Networks
Class: III-I CSE
Department Of Computer Science &Engg.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS - ()
Prerequisites
1. A course on “Programming for problem solving”

2. A course on “Data Structures”
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COMPUTER NETWORKS - ()
Course Objectives
1. The objective of the course is to equip the students with a
general overview of the concepts and fundamentals of
computer networks.
2. Familiarize the students with the standard models for the
layered approach to communication between machines in a
network and the protocols of the various layers.
Course Outcomes
1. Gain the knowledge of the basic computer network
technology.
2. Gain the knowledge of the functions of each layer in the OSI
and TCP/IP reference model.
3. Obtain the skills of subnetting and routing mechanisms.
4. Familiarity with the essential protocols of computer
networks, and how they can be applied in network design
and implementation.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS - () - SYLLABUS
UNIT - I
Introduction: Network hardware, Network software, OSI, TCP/IP
Reference models, Example Networks: ARPANET, Internet.
Physical Layer: Guided Transmission media: twisted pairs, coaxial
cable, fiber optics, Wireless transmission.
UNIT - II
Data link layer: Design issues, framing, Error detection and correction.
Elementary data link protocols: simplex protocol, A simplex stop and
wait protocol for an error-free channel, A simplex stop and wait
protocol for noisy channel.
Sliding Window protocols: A one-bit sliding window protocol, A protocol
using Go-Back-N, A protocol using Selective Repeat, Example data
link protocols.
Medium Access sub layer: The channel allocation problem, Multiple
access protocols: ALOHA, Carrier sense multiple access protocols,
collision free protocols. Wireless LANs, Data link layer switching.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS - () - SYLLABUS
UNIT - III
Network Layer: Design issues, Routing algorithms: shortest path
routing, Flooding, Hierarchical routing, Broadcast, Multicast,
distance vector routing, Congestion Control Algorithms, Quality
of Service, Internetworking, The Network layer in the internet.
UNIT - IV
Transport Layer: Transport Services, Elements of Transport
protocols, Connection management, TCP and UDP protocols.
UNIT - V
Application Layer : Domain name system, SNMP, Electronic Mail;
the World WEB, HTTP, Streaming audio and video.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS - (CS503PC) - SYLLABUS
TEXT BOOK:
Computer Networks -- Andrew S Tanenbaum, David. j.
Wetherall, 5th Edition. Pearson Education/PHI
REFERENCE BOOKS:
An Engineering Approach to Computer Networks-S. Keshav,
2 nd Edition, Pearson Education
Data Communications and Networking – Behrouz A.
Forouzan. Third Edition TMH.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
• A computer network is defined as interconnected

collection of autonomous computers.
• A computer network is a set of devices connected through
links. A node can be computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting
the nodes are known as communication channels.
• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with

each other through wires, optical fibers or optical links so that
various devices can interact with each other through a network.
The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources
among various devices. In the case of computer network
technology, there are several types of networks that vary from
simple to complex level.
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NETWORK
8
UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
The purpose of having computer network is to send and

receive data stored in other devices over the network.
These devices are often referred as nodes. There are five
basic components of a computer network
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
 Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one
device to another device over a computer network.
 Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other
device connected to the network.
 Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on
the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device
we need a transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver,
without a protocol two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot
communicate. In order to establish a reliable communication or data sharing
between two different devices we need set of rules that are called protocol. For
example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and post
the data to internet, similarly smtp protocol is used by email services connected to
the internet.
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COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1.Nodes
2.Media
3.Services
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END DEVICES NODES INTERMEDIARY NODES
 Computers  Switches
 printer  Routers
 VoIP phone  Bridges
 Security cameras  Hubs
 Mobile hand held devices  Repeaters
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MEDIA
Wired medium
Wireless medium
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Features of a Computer Network
 Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of

response time. The response time of sending and receiving data from one
node (computer in a computer network are often referred as node) to
another should be minimal.
 Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a computer network is to

share the data between different systems connected with each other through
a transmission media.
 Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the
backup of all the data that is to be shared over a network so that in case of a
failure it should be able to recover the data faster.
 Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not

limit all the computers in a computer network to use same software and
hardware, instead it should allow the better compatibility between the
different software and hardware configuration. 14
UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Features of a Computer Network
 Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs

the recovery from a failure should be fast.
 Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data

transmitting over a network should be safe from un-authorized access.
Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the receiving node, which
means there should not be any loss of data during transmission.
 Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should

always allow to add new computers (or nodes) to the already existing
computer network. For example, a company runs 100 computers over a
computer network for their 100 employees, lets say they hire another 100
employees and want to add new 100 computers to the already existing
LAN then in that case the local area computer network should allow this.
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FAULT TOLERANCE
Ablity to
1.Continue Working Despite Failures
2.Ensure no loss of Service.
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QUALITY OF SERVICE
The Ability to
1.Grow based on the needs
2.Have good Performance after growth
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Applications of Computer Network
Major application computer networks are:
1. Business application
2. Home application
3. Mobile application
1. Business Applications:
Now a days computers are being used in almost all business
processes. For example , use of computers to production ,inventories,
to make payments etc.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Applications of Computer Network: Business Applications
Database Resource
The database is maintained by dedicated servers and clients(users)
can access the data. Servers can provide the services to many
clients.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Communication takes the form of the client process sending a
message over the network to the server process. The client process
then waits for a reply message. When the server process gets the
request, it performs the requested work or looks up the requested
data and sends back a reply.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Communication medium
Computer network is a powerful medium for commutation. E-mail is
very popularly used in many company employees. Video conference is
also other form of computer assisted commutation.
Electronic Commerce
Many companies doing business electronically with suppliers and
customers can place order electrically, this assure fast delivery and
efficient services
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Applications of Computer Network: Home Applications
Now a days use of computers in home is widespread . Popular use of
computers in home are as under
1. Internet Access
2. Personal Communication
3. Entertainment
4. E-Commerce
Internet Access: Information on every field as available on internet
such as Science , Technology, business, government, health, travel
etc.
Personal Communication: E-Mail , instant messaging, chatting,
internet telephony, video phones provide personal communication by
using Internet.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Applications of Computer Network: Home Applications
Entertainment : Entertainment applications includes video,

interactive films and games, live televisions where audience
participating in quiz etc
E-Commerce : E-Commerce facilitates home shopping , on-line

technical support , bill payments, banking, investments, etc.
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UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Applications of Computer Network: Mobile Applications
Mobile applications are includes

1. Geographical Information systems
2. Military Applications
3. Airports
4. Banking
5. Weather reporting
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UNIT-I NETWORK HARDWARE
 The applications and social aspects of
networking to the technical issues involved in
network design.
 Computer networks consists two important
factors: Transmission Technology and Scale.
 There are two types of transmission technology
1. Broadcast links
2. Point-to-Point links.
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 Distance is important as a classification metric
because different technologies are used at
different scales.
 Broadcast Systems it allows the possibility of
addressing a packet to all destinations by using a
address field. When a packet with this code is
transmitted, it is received and processed by on
every machine on the network. This mode of
operation is called Broadcasting.
 Some broadcast systems also support
transmission to a subset of the machines, which
known as Multicasting. 28
 Point-to-Point links connect individual pairs of

machines.
 Point-to-Point transmission with exactly one

sender and exactly one receiver. Its also called as
as Unicasting.
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Based on scale they can be divided into
1. Personal Area Network,

2. Local Area Network,
3. Metropolitan Area Network,
4. Wide Area Networks,
Each with increasing scale. Finally, the connection

of two or more networks is called an Internetwork.
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Personal Area Network
 Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a
range of 1meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
 Personal computer devices that are used to
develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
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 PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices
communicate over the range of a person.
 A common example is a wireless network that
connects a computer with its peripherals.
 Almost every computer has an attached monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and printer. Without using
wireless, this connection must be done with
cables.
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Bluetooth PAN configuration 34

LAN(Local Area Network)
 Local area network is a group of computers
connected with each other in a small places such
as school, hospital, apartment etc.
 LAN is secure because there is no outside
connection with the local area network thus the
data which is shared is safe on the local area
network and can’t be accessed outside.
 LAN due to their small size are considerably
faster, their speed can range anywhere from 100
to 100Mbps. 35
LAN(Local Area Network)
 LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is
a new evolution to the LANs that allows local area
network to work on a wireless connection.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
Typically within a range of 10meters-1k meters
 There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE
802.11, popularly known as WiFi (Wireless
Fidelity)
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LAN (Local Area Network).
 A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within
and nearby a single building like a home, office or
factory.
 LANs are widely used to connect personal computers
and consumer electronics to let them share resources
(e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 When LANs are used by companies, they are called
enterprise networks.
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LAN (Local Area Network).
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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers
a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232,
Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 The standardized as IEEE 802.16 and is popularly
known as WiMax (world Wide Interoperability for
Microwave Access X)
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Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the
banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city., typically

within a range upto 10k meters.
 It can also be used for communication in the
military.
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 A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city.
The best-known examples of MANs are the cable
television networks available in many cities.
 These systems grew from earlier community
antenna systems used in areas with poor over-
the-air television reception.
 In those early systems, a large antenna was
placed on top of a nearby hill and a signal was
then piped to the subscribers’ houses.
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WAN(Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends
over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than
the MAN & LAN. Typically within a range of 100k
meters-1000k meters
 The Internet is one of the biggest WAN in the
world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.
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Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
 Geographical area: Suppose if the branch of our
office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The Internet provides a leased
line through which we can connect with another
branch.
 Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is
centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.
 Get updated files: Software companies work on the
live server. Therefore, the programmers get the
updated files within seconds.
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Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
 Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages
are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
 Global business: We can do the business over the
Internet globally.
 High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our
company then this gives the high bandwidth. The
high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate
which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.
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Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
 Security issue: A WAN network has more security
issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all
the technologies are combined together that creates
the security problem.
 Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is
transferred on the internet which can be changed or
hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be
used. Some people can inject the virus in our system
so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
 High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN
network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches. 46
Internetworks
 An Internetwork is defined as two or more
computer network LANs or MAN or WAN, and they
are configured by a local addressing scheme. This
process is known as Internetworking.
 An internetworking uses the Internet Protocol(IP).
 The reference model used for Internetworking

is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
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UNIT-I NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Computer networks were designed with the
hardware and the software.
 The resultant software was very difficult to test
and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO
has developed a layered approach.
 In a layered approach, networking concept is
divided into several layers, and each layer is
assigned a particular task.
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 Network software used for design,
implementation, operations and monitoring
of computer networks.
 One of Software – Defined Networking
(SDN), software is separated from the hardware
thus making it more adaptable to the computer
network.
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We will discuss on network software
1. Functions of Network Software

2. Layered Architecture
3. Protocol Hierarchies
4. Design Issues for the Layers
5. Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless
Service
6. Service Primitives
7. The Relationship of Services to Protocols
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Functions of Network Software
 Helps to set up and install computer networks.
 Enables users to have access to network

resources.
 Allows administrations to add or remove users

from the network.
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Functions of Network Software
 Helps to define locations of data storage and

allows users to access that data.
 Helps administrators and security system to

protect the network from data breaches(release
of secure or confidential information from an
un-trusted environments) , unauthorized access
and attacks on a network. 52
Layered Architecture
 The main aim of the layered architecture is to
divide the design into small pieces.
 To reduce their design complexity, most networks
are organized as a stack of layers or levels, each
one built upon the one below it.
 The number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of each
layer differ from network to network.
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 Each lower layer adds its services to the higher
layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications.
 It provides modularity and interfaces, i.e., provides
interaction between subsystems.
 Therefore, any modification in a layer will not
affect the other layers.
 In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine
will have a communication with the layer n on
another machine and the rules used in a
conversation are known as a layer-n protocol. 54
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Figure: Layered Architecture
 The basic elements of layered architecture are
services, protocols, and interfaces.
 Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the
higher layer.
 Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to
exchange the information with peer entity. These rules
mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
 Interface: It is a way through which the message is
transferred from one layer to another layer.
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Protocol Hierarchies
 Basically, a protocol is a set of rules and agreement

between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
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 A protocol outlines the what, how and when of a
communication.
 The three aspects of a protocol are −
 Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent
or received.
 Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of
bits that are transferred.
 Timings − It defines the time at which data is
transferred as well as the speed at which it is transferred.
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 Figure 1-13. Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

Figure: Layers, protocols, and interfaces. 59

 In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer
n on one machine to layer n on another machine.
Instead, each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below it, until
the lowest layer is reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium through
which the actual communication takes place.
 In Diagram virtual communication is shown by
dotted lines and physical communication by solid
lines. 60
 Between each pair of adjacent layers is an
interface. The interface defines which primitive
operations and services.
 A set of layers and protocols is known as network
architecture.
 Neither the details of the implementation nor the
specification of the interfaces is part of the
architecture because these are hidden away inside
the machines and not visible from the outside.
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Figure : Example information flow supporting virtual communication

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Design Issues for the Layers
A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer
approach of computer networks. Some of the main
design issues are as follows −
Reliability
 Network channels and components may be
unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data
transfer.
Scalability
 Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are
continually increasing leading to congestion.
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Addressing
 At a particular time, innumerable(too many) messages
are being transferred between large numbers of
computers. So, need to require naming or addressing
system. So that each layer can identify the sender and
receivers of each message.
Error Control
 Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the
data streams that are communicated. So, the layers
need to agree upon common error detection and error
correction methods.
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Resource Allocation
 Computer networks provide services in the form of
network resources to the end users. The main design
issue is to allocate and de-allocate resources to
processes.
Statistical Multiplexing
 It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each
message while transferring from the source to the
destination. So, the data channel needs to be
multiplexed.
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Routing
 There may be multiple paths from the source to the
destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal path
among all possible paths. So requires some routing
algorithms.
Security
 A major factor of computer networks is to defend it
against threats like eavesdropping(to listen some one
conversations without knowing them) and
surreptitious(something is done secret) alteration of
messages. So here requires authentication techniques.
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Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service
 Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone
system. It includes the connection establishment and
connection termination. In connection-oriented service,
Handshake method is used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
 Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It

does not include any connection establishment and
connection termination. Connection-less Service does not
give the guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not
follow same path to reach destination.
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S.NO CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONECTION-LESS SERVICE
1. Connection-oriented service is Connection-less service is

related to the telephone related to the postal system.
system.
2. Connection-oriented service is Connection-less Service is
preferred by long and steady preferred by bursty
communication. communication.
3. Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is not

is necessary. compulsory.
4. Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is not

is feasible. feasible.
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S.NO CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONNECTION-LESS SERVICE
5. In connection-oriented In connection-less Service,

Service, Congestion is not Congestion is possible.
possible.
6. Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service does not
gives the guarantee of give the guarantee of reliability.
reliability.
7. In connection-oriented In connection-less Service,
Service, Packets follow the Packets do not follow the same
same route. route.
8. Connection-oriented Services Connection-less Service requires
requires a bandwidth of high a bandwidth of low range.
range.
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Service Primitives
 A service is formally specified by a set of
primitives (operations) available to a user process
to access the service.
 These primitives tell the service to perform some
actions taken by a peer entity.
 The set of primitives for connection-oriented
service are different from connection less service.
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Service Primitives
Figure : Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-

oriented service. 71
Figure 1-18. A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged
datagrams
Figure : Example of Service Primitives client-server interaction using acknowledged

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datagrams
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 A Service is a set of primitives (operations).
 The Service defines set of operations of the layers is
prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it says,
how these operations are implemented.
 A Service relates to an interface between two layers,
with the lower layer being the service provider and the
upper layer being the service user.
 A Service is like an abstract data type or an object in an
object-oriented language. It defines operations that can
be performed on an object but does not specify how
these operations are implemented.
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UNIT-I REFERENCE MODELS
Figure : The relationship between a service and a protocol. 74

The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 A protocol, is a set of rules governing the
format and meaning of the packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer
entities within a layer.
 They are free to change their protocols, but
they do not change the services visible to their
users.
75
 In computer networks, reference models
give a conceptual framework that
standardizes communication between
heterogeneous networks.
The two popular reference models are −
1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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OSI Reference Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a

reference model that describes how information
from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer

performs a particular network function.
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OSI Reference Model
 OSI model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983, It
was revised in 1995 .
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven

layers. Each layer is different task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned

to each layer can be performed independently.
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OSI Reference Model : Characteristics of OSI Model
 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper
layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals
with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software.
 The upper layer is the application layer interact
with the software applications.
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OSI Reference Model : Characteristics of OSI Model
 The lowest layer is the physical layer of the OSI
model and is closest to the physical medium.
 The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing
the information on the physical medium.
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UNIT-I REFERENCE MODELS: OSI REFERENCE MODEL
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OSI Reference Model : Principles of OSI Model
A layer should be created where a different
abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined
function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen
standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen
information flow across the interfaces.
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OSI Reference Model : Physical Layer
84
OSI Reference Model : Physical Layer
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to
transmit the individual bits from one node to another
node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical

connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural
network interface specifications.
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OSI Reference Model : Functions of a Physical Layer
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more
devices can be connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode
whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode
between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are
arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for
transmitting the information.
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OSI Reference Model : Data Link Layer
87
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer
of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication

between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique
identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
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 It contains two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control Layer
1. It is responsible for transferring the packets to the
Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
2. It identifies the address of the network layer protocol
from the header.
3. It also provides flow control.
 Media Access Control Layer
1. A Media access control layer is a link between the
Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical
layer.
2. It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
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OSI Reference Model : Functions of Data Link Layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the
physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and
trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the
frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.
 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a
header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header. 90
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main
functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is
maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted.
 It ensures that the transmitting station such as a
server with higher processing speed does not exceed
the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
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 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a
calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is
placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted
frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected
to the same communication channel, then the data link layer
protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
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OSI Reference Model : Network Layer
93
 Network Layer manages that device addressing,
tracks the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from
source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other
factors.
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 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and
forwarding the packets.
 Routers are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an
internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are
known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IPv4 and Ipv6.
95
OSI Reference Model : Function of Network Layer
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main

responsibility of the network layer. It provides a
logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing : A Network layer adds the source and

destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
96
OSI Reference Model : Function of Network Layer
 Routing : Routing is the major component of the

network layer, and it determines the best optimal
path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the data

from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It
is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
97
OSI Reference Model : Transport Layer
98
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that

messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to

transfer the data completely.
99
100
 It receives the data from the upper layer and

converts them into smaller units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it

provides a point-to-point connection between source
and destination to deliver the data reliably.
101
Two protocols used in Transport Layer
1. Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

2. User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
102
Transmission Control Protocol
❖ It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to
communicate over the internet.
❖ It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
❖ When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP
protocol divides the data into smaller units known as
segments.
103
Transmission Control Protocol

❖ Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes,
and they arrive in different orders at the destination.
❖ The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in

the correct order at the receiving end.
104
User Datagram Protocol

 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer
protocol.
 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case
receiver does not send any acknowledgment when
the packet is received, the sender does not wait
for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.
105
OSI Reference Model : Functions of Transport Layer
 Service-point addressing: The transmission of data from
source to the destination not only from one computer to
another computer but also from one process to another
process.
 The transport layer adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address.
 The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the
data from one computer to another computer
 The responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.
106
Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer

receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the
message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies
each segment.
 When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
107
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services
Connection-oriented service and connectionless service.
 A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination.
 A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine before delivering
the packets.
 In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the
single route.
108
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible

for flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather
than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also

responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single
link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error. 109
OSI Reference Model : Session Layer
110
UNIT-I OSI REFERENCE MODELS
Session Layer
 The session layer is responsible for dialog control
and synchronization
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems.
111
Session Layer
Functions of Session Layer
 Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to

enter into a dialog. It allows the communication between
two processes to take place in either half-duplex (one way at
a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add

checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.
113
Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax

and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems
114
Presentation Layer
UNIT-I
UNIT-I OSI Reference
OSI REFERENCE models
MODELS
Functions of Presentation Layer
 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two
systems are usually exchanging information in the form of
character strings, numbers, and so on.
 Encryption. Encryption means that the sender transforms
the original information to another form and sends the
resulting message out over the network.
 Decryption. reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
 Compression &Decompression. Data compression reduces
the number of bits contained in the information and
decompression message back to its original form 116
UNIT-I
MODELS
Application Layer
 It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other
types of distributed information services.
117
UNIT-I
MODELS
Application Layer
118
UNIT-I
MODELS
Functions of Application Layer
 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual
terminal is a software version of a physical terminal,
and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File transfer, access, and management. This
application allows a user to access files in a remote
host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files
from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
119
UNIT-I
MODELS
Functions of Application Layer
 Mail services. This application provides the basis

for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides

distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
120
Summary of OSI layers Reference Model
TCP/IP REFERNCE MODEL
The layers in the TCP/IP referrnce model do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: Link Layer (host-to-
network), internet, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Link Layers(Physical & Data Link Layer)

Network Layer(Internet)
Transport Layer
Application Layer
TCP/IP and OSI Reference model
Link Layers
• It is the combination of physical and data link layers.
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all
the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a
TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-
area network.
Network Layers
• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork
layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocols.
Such as : ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
Network Layers
• Internetworking Protocol (IP). It is an unreliable
and connectionless protocol. IP provides no error
checking or tracking. IP transports data in packets
called datagrams.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). It is used to
Map the from logical address to physical address.
ARP is used to find the physical address of the node
when its Internet address is known.
Network Layers
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP). It
is used to Map the from physical address to logical
address.
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). It is
a mechanism to sends query and error reporting
messages.
• The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP).
It is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layers
• Traditionally the transport layer was represented in
TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
• And additionally added SCTP, has been devised to
meet the needs of some newer applications.
• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the

two standard TCP/IP transport protocols. It is a process-to-
process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.
Transport Layers
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides

full transport-layer services to applications.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a reliable

stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this
context, means connection-oriented: A connection
must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.
Transport Layers
• At the sending end of each transmission, TCP
divides a stream of data into smaller units called
segments.
• Each segment includes a sequence number with an
acknowledgment number.
• At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram
as it comes in and reorders the transmission based
on sequence numbers.
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
It provides support for newer applications such as
voice over the Internet.
Application Layers
• The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the
combined session, presentation,and application
layers in the OSI model.
Application Layers
• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer
protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the
data in the form of plain text, audio, video.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network
Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using
the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Application Layers
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer
protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An
IP address is used to identify the connection of a
host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer
to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the
address is known as Domain Name System.
Application Layers
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal
Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is

a standard internet protocol used for transmitting
the files from one computer to another computer.
EXAMPLE NETWORKS : ARPANET
ARPANET
 ARPANET was developed under the direction of
the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA), published in 1967.
 ARPANET took advantage of the new idea of
sending information in small units called packets
that could be routed on different paths and
reconstructed at their destination.
 The initial purpose was to communicate with and
share computer resources.
134
UNIT-I EXAMPLE NETWORKS : ARPANET, INTERNET.
ARPANET
 In the 1980s, ARPANET was handed over to a separate new
Military Networks(MNets), the Defense Data
Networks(DDNets), and NSFNet, a network of scientific
and academic computers funded by the National Science
Foundation(NSF).
 The software was split into two parts: subnet and host. The
subnet software consisted of the IMP end of the host-IMP
connection, the IMP-IMP protocol, and a source IMP to
destination IMP protocol designed to improve reliability.
Then that original ARPANET design.
135
136
EXAMPLE NETWORKS : INTERNET
Internet
 The Internet is a collection of different networks
that are use certain common protocols and provide
certain common services.
 Different networks are combination of any two
types of networks such as LAN ,MAN & WAN
 Common Protocols are TCP & UDP
 Common Services are Connection-Oriented and
Connection Less Services
137
UNIT-I(Part-2) : PHYSICAL LAYER
• The bottom-most layer in OSI reference model is

the physical layer.
• This layer is involved in physically carrying

information from one node to the next node.
• The physical layer must take care about the

physical transmission medium.
UNIT-I : PHYSICAL LAYER
• The transmission medium must be controlled by

the physical layer. The physical layer decides on
the directions of data flow.
• The Physical layer receives the

information(Frames) from Data Link layer then
make it as a 0’s and 1’s organized into bits that are
ready to be sent across the physical transmission
medium.
UNIT-I : GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Transmission media can be divided into two

broad categories:
1. Guided
2. Unguided.
• Guided media include
1.Twisted-pair Cable
2.Coaxial Cable
3.Fiber-optic Cable.
• Unguided medium is Wireless Transmission(free
space)
Twisted-pair Cable :
Twisted-Pair Cable is twisted together it consists of
two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper

wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
Twisted-pair Cable
• One wire is used to carry the signals to the
receiver, and the other wire is used for a ground
reference.
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other

transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair
cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0

to 3.5KHz.
Types of Twisted-pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted pair
• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in

telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
➢ Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that
have low-speed data.
➢ Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
Un shielded Twisted-Pair
Un shielded Twisted-Pair
Advantages :
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because
of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted pair
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission
rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high
and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted
pair cable.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission
rate.
Disadvantages
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP
• It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission
media.
• The coaxial cable contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up
of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted
pair cable.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the

process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the
process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Coaxial Cable
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair
cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the
entire network
Fiber optic cable

• Fiber optic cable is uses electrical signals for
communication.
• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers
coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from
heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other
types of wiring.
• Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than
copper wires.
Fiber optic cable

157
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

• Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow stand
of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of
the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fiber.
• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known
as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding
is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core
so that the light waves are transmitted through the
fiber.
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic

is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket
is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and
extra fiber protection.
Advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:
• Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support

dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data
rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.
• Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter
than copper cables.
Advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

• Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission
distance is significantly greater than that of other
guided media.
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic
cables.
Disadvantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

• Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a
relatively new technology. Its installation and
maintenance require expertise that is not yet available
everywhere.
• Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of
light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional
communication, two fibers are needed.
• Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more
expensive than those of other guided media. If the
demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.
UNIT-I : WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as

wireless communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space

and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.
164
• Radio transmissions are the electromagnetic waves
that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
• Radio transmissions are Omni-directional, i.e., the
signals are propagated in all the directions.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by
any receiving antenna.
• The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency or band.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz
to 1 Ghz.
• An example of the radio transmission is FM radio.
• Radio transmissions are the electromagnetic waves
that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
• Radio transmissions are Omni-directional, i.e., the
signals are propagated in all the directions.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by
any receiving antenna.
• The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may
send signals using the same frequency or band.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz
to 1 Ghz.
• An example of the radio transmission is FM radio.
Applications of Radio transmissions
• Radio waves are used for multicast

communications such as
1. Radio
2. Television
3. Paging Systems
• They can penetrate through walls.
• Highly regulated. Use Omni directional antennas

Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area

networks and mobile cellular phones.
• Radio transmissions cover a large area, and they

can penetrate the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission

rate.
Microwave Transmissions
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1
GHz to 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• This means that the sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned.
• A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering
with another pair of aligned antennas.
Characteristics of Microwave Transmissions
• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10

Mbps.
• Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a
higher tower for a longer distance.
• Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is
affected by environmental conditions and antenna
size.
Applications of Microwave Transmissions
• Cellular Phones
• Satellite Networks
• Wireless LANs
Advantages of Microwave transmission:

• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using
cables.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not require
any land for the installation of cables.
• Microwave transmission provides an easy

communication in terrains as the installation of cable
in terrain is quite a difficult task.
• Communication over oceans can be achieved by

using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
• Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure

communication.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave

transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This
means that any environmental change such as rain, wind
can distort the signal.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in

the case of microwave transmission.
Infrared Transmission
• An infrared transmission is a wireless
technology used for communication over
short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range
from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such
as data transfer between two cell phones, TV
remote operation, data transfer between a
computer and cell phone resides in the same
closed area.
Characteristics of Infrared Transmission
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the

data rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.

Therefore, the infrared communication in one
room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
Characteristics of Infrared Transmission
• An infrared communication provides better

security with minimum interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside

the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.

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Faculty Name: G.

Department Of Computer Science &Engg.

1. A course on “Programming for problem solving”

• A computer network is defined as interconnected

• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with

The purpose of having computer network is to send and

 Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of

 Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a computer network is to

 Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not

 Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs

 Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data

 Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should

Entertainment : Entertainment applications includes video,

E-Commerce : E-Commerce facilitates home shopping , on-line

Mobile applications are includes

 Point-to-Point links connect individual pairs of

 Point-to-Point transmission with exactly one

1. Personal Area Network,

Each with increasing scale. Finally, the connection

Bluetooth PAN configuration 34

 It can be used in a college within a city., typically

 An internetworking uses the Internet Protocol(IP).

 The reference model used for Internetworking

1. Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks.

 Enables users to have access to network

 Allows administrations to add or remove users

 Helps to define locations of data storage and

 Helps administrators and security system to

 Basically, a protocol is a set of rules and agreement

Figure: Layers, protocols, and interfaces. 59

Figure : Example information flow supporting virtual communication

 Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It

1. Connection-oriented service is Connection-less service is

3. Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is not

4. Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is not

5. In connection-oriented In connection-less Service,

Figure : Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-

Figure : Example of Service Primitives client-server interaction using acknowledged

Figure : The relationship between a service and a protocol. 74

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a

 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer

 OSI model divides the whole task into seven

 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned

 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical

 It provides a reliable and efficient communication

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main

 Addressing : A Network layer adds the source and

 Routing : Routing is the major component of the

 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the data

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that

 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to

 It receives the data from the upper layer and

 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it

Two protocols used in Transport Layer

1. Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

❖ It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

Transmission Control Protocol