RUSSELL L.

HERMAN

AN INTRODUCTION TO
F O U R I E R A N D C O M P L E X A N A LY S I S
W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S T O T H E
S P E C T R A L A N A LY S I S O F S I G N A L S

R . L . H E R M A N - V E R S I O N D AT E : J A N U A R Y 1 3 , 2 0 1 6
Copyright © 2005-2016 by Russell L. Herman

published by r. l. herman

This text has been reformatted from the original using a modification of the Tufte-book documentclass in LATEX.
See tufte-latex.googlecode.com.

an introduction to fourier and complex analysis with applications to the spectral analysis of
signals by Russell Herman is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0
United States License. These notes have resided at
http://people.uncw.edu/hermanr/mat367/fcabook since Spring 2005.

Sixth printing, January 2016

Contents

Introduction vii

1 Review of Sequences and Infinite Series 1

1.1 Sequences of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Convergence Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Sequences of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Infinite Series of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Special Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.11 Binomial Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.12 The Order of Sequences and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2 Fourier Trigonometric Series 37

2.1 Introduction to Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Fourier Trigonometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Fourier Series over Other Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3.1 Fourier Series on [ a, b] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4 Sine and Cosine Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5 The Gibbs Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6 Multiple Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3 Generalized Fourier Series and Function Spaces 73

3.1 Finite Dimensional Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Classical Orthogonal Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4 Fourier-Legendre Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.1 Properties of Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.2 The Generating Function for Legendre Polynomials . . 89
3.4.3 The Differential Equation for Legendre Polynomials . 94
3.4.4 Fourier-Legendre Series Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
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3.5 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.6 Fourier-Bessel Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.7 Appendix: The Least Squares Approximation . . . . . . . . . 103
3.8 Appendix: Convergence of Trigonometric Fourier Series . . . 106
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4 Complex Analysis 117

4.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2 Complex Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.1 Complex Domain Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.3 Complex Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4 Complex Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.4.1 Complex Path Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.4.2 Cauchy’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.3 Analytic Functions and Cauchy’s Integral Formula . . 138
4.4.4 Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.5 Singularities and The Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.6 Infinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4.7 Integration over Multivalued Functions . . . . . . . . . 159
4.4.8 Appendix: Jordan’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

5 Fourier and Laplace Transforms 169

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.2 Complex Exponential Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.3 Exponential Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4 The Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.5 Properties of the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.5.1 Fourier Transform Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.6 The Convolution Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.6.1 Convolution Theorem for Fourier Transforms . . . . . 189
5.6.2 Application to Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.6.3 Parseval’s Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.7 The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.7.1 Properties and Examples of Laplace Transforms . . . . 198
5.8 Applications of Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.8.1 Series Summation Using Laplace Transforms . . . . . 203
5.8.2 Solution of ODEs Using Laplace Transforms . . . . . . 206
5.8.3 Step and Impulse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.9 The Convolution Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.10 The Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.11 Transforms and Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 220
5.11.1 Fourier Transform and the Heat Equation . . . . . . . 220
5.11.2 Laplace’s Equation on the Half Plane . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.11.3 Heat Equation on Infinite Interval, Revisited . . . . . . 224
5.11.4 Nonhomogeneous Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

6 From Analog to Discrete Signals 235

6.1 Analog to Periodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.2 The Dirac Comb Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6.3 Discrete Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.3.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.4 The Discrete (Trigonometric) Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . 245
6.4.1 Discrete Trigonometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.4.2 Discrete Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.4.3 The Discrete Fourier Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.5 The Discrete Exponential Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.6 FFT: The Fast Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.8 MATLAB Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.8.1 MATLAB for the Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . 262
6.8.2 Matrix Operations for MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.8.3 MATLAB Implementation of FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

7 Signal Analysis 277

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.2 Periodogram Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.3 Effects of Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.4 Effect of Finite Record Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.5 Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.6 The Shannon Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7.7 Nonstationary Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.7.1 Simple examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.7.2 The Spectrogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
7.7.3 Short-Time Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.8 Harmonic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Bibliography 317

Index 319
vi

Dedicated to those students who have endured

the various editions of an introduction

to fourier and complex analysis with

applications to the spectral analysis

of signals.