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Computational Intelligence-based
Optimization Algorithms
Computational intelligence-based optimization methods, also known as meta-

heuristic optimization algorithms, are a popular topic in mathematical programming.
These methods have bridged the gap between various approaches and created a
new school of thought to solve real-world optimization problems. In this book, we
have selected some of the most effective and renowned algorithms in the literature.
These algorithms are not only practical but also provide thought-provoking theor-
etical ideas to help readers understand how they solve optimization problems. Each
chapter includes a brief review of the algorithm’s background and the fields it has
been used in.
Additionally, Python code is provided for all algorithms at the end of each
chapter, making this book a valuable resource for beginner and intermediate
programmers looking to understand these algorithms.
Babak Zolghadr-Asli is currently a joint researcher under the QUEX program,

working at the Sustainable Minerals Institute at The University of Queensland in
Australia and The Centre for Water Systems at The University of Exeter in the UK.
His primary research interest is to incorporate computational and artificial intelli-
gence to understand the sustainable management of water resources.
Computational
Intelligence-based
Optimization Algorithms
From Theory to Practice
Babak Zolghadr-Asli
Designed cover image: Shutterstock
First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2024 Babak Zolghadr-Asli
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage
or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-
750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Zolghadr-Asli, Babak, author.
Title: Computational intelligence-based optimization algorithms :
from theory to practice / Babak Zolghadr-Asli.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2024. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023019666 (print) | LCCN 2023019667 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032544168 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032544151 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003424765 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer algorithms. | Computational intelligence.
Classification: LCC QA76.9.A43 Z65 2024 (print) |
LCC QA76.9.A43 (ebook) | DDC 005.13–dc23/eng/20230623
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023019666
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023019667
ISBN: 978-1-032-54416-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-54415-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-42476-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003424765
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
Contents
List of Figures xi
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
1 An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic Optimization 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Components of an Optimization Problem 3
1.2.1 Objective Function 5
1.2.2 Decision Variables 5
1.2.3 State Variables 6
1.2.4 Constraints 6
1.2.5 Search Space 7
1.2.6 Simulator 8
1.2.7 Local and Global Optima 9
1.2.8 Near-Optimal Solutions 12
1.3 The General Theme of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms 13
1.4 Different Types of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms 16
1.4.1 Source of Inspiration 17
1.4.2 Number of Search Agents 17
1.4.3 Implementation of Memory 18
1.4.4 Compatibility with the Search Space’s Landscape 19
1.4.5 Random Components 19
1.4.6 Preserving Algorithms 20
1.5 Handling Constraints 21
1.6 Performance of a Meta-Heuristic Algorithm 23
1.7 No-Free-Lunch Theorem 28
1.8 Concluding Remarks 29
2 Pattern Search Algorithm 32

2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Algorithmic Structure of Pattern Search Algorithm 34
vi Contents
2.2.1 Initiation Stage 35

2.2.2 Searching Stage 35
2.2.3 Termination Stage 42
2.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Pattern Search
Algorithm 42
2.4 Python Codes 43
3 Genetic Algorithm 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Genetic Algorithm 53
3.2.2 Reproduction Stage 55
3.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning of the Genetic Algorithm 61
3.4 Python Codes 62
4 Simulated Annealing Algorithm 68

4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Algorithmic Structure of Simulated Annealing Algorithm 70
4.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Simulated Annealing
Algorithm 75
4.4 Python Codes 76
5 Tabu Search Algorithm 81

5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Tabu Search Algorithm 83
5.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Tabu Search Algorithm 89
5.4 Python Codes 90
6 Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm 94

6.1 Introduction 94
6.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm 99
6.2.2 Foraging Stage 102
Contents vii

6.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Ant Colony
Optimization Algorithm 106
6.4 Python Codes 107
7 Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm 113

7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Particle Swarm Optimization
Algorithm 116
7.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Particle Swarm
8 Differential Evolution Algorithm 130

8.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Differential Evolution Algorithm 133
8.2.2 Reproduction Stage 135
8.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning Differential Evolution
Algorithm 138
9 Harmony Search Algorithm 144

9.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Harmony Search Algorithm 146
9.2.2 Composing Stage 149
9.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Harmony Search
Algorithm 153
10 Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm 158

10.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm 161
viii Contents
10.2.2 Foraging Stage 164

10.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Shuffled
Frog-Leaping Algorithm 169
11 Invasive Weed Optimization Algorithm 176

11.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Invasive Weed Optimization
Algorithm 179
11.2.2 Invasion Stage 182
11.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Invasive Weed
12 Biogeography-Based Optimization Algorithm 192

12.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Biogeography-Based
12.2.2 Migration Stage 199
12.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Biogeography-Based
13 Cuckoo Search Algorithm 210

13.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Cuckoo Search Algorithm 212
13.2.2 Brood Parasitism Stage 215
13.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Cuckoo Search
Algorithm 217
14 Firefly Algorithm 223

14.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Firefly Algorithm 226
Contents ix

14.2.2 Mating Stage 228
14.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Firefly Algorithm 231
15 Gravitational Search Algorithm 236

15.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Gravitational Search Algorithm 239
15.2.2 Repositioning Stage 242
15.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Gravitational Search
Algorithm 245
16 Plant Propagation Algorithm 251

16.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Plant Propagation Algorithm 254
16.2.2 Propagation Stage 256
16.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Plant Propagation
Algorithm 259
17 Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization Algorithm 264

17.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Teaching-Learning-Based
17.2.2 Teaching/Learning Stage 269
17.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Teaching-
Learning-Based Optimization Algorithm 272
18 Bat Algorithm 278

18.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Bat Algorithm 280
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x Contents

18.2.2 Repositioning Stage 283
18.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Bat Algorithm 287
19 Flower Pollination Algorithm 293

19.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Flower Pollination Algorithm 295
19.2.2 Pollination Stage 297
19.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Flower Pollination
Algorithm 301
20 Water Cycle Algorithm 307

20.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Water Cycle Algorithm 309
20.2.2 Hydrological Simulation Stage 312
20.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Water
Cycle Algorithm 317
21 Symbiotic Organisms Search Algorithm 323

21.2 Algorithmic Structure of the Symbiotic Organisms
Search Algorithm 325
21.2.2 Symbiosis Stage 328
21.3 Parameter Selection and Fine-Tuning the Symbiotic
Organisms Search Algorithm 331
Index 337
Figures
1.1 Search space of a standard constrained two-dimensional

optimization problem 8
1.2 The relative and absolute extrema of a generic one-dimensional
optimization problem 10
1.3 The generic scheme of (a) single-modal and (b) multimodal
one-dimensional maximization problem 11
1.4 The generic scheme of near-optimal solutions in a one-dimensional
maximization problem 12
1.5 Convergence of an optimization problem toward the minimum
solution of (a) an algorithm with a preservation strategy and
(b) an algorithm with no preservation strategy 25
1.6 Convergence rate of an algorithm that is considered
(a) robust and (b) non-robust 28
2.1 The computational flowchart of the pattern search algorithm 36
2.2 The mesh grid networks of tentative points are generated by
(a) GPS and (b) MADS methods in a two-dimensional
search space 40
2.3 The schematic structure of the pattern moves in a
two-dimensional search space 41
2.4 Pseudocode for the pattern search algorithm 43
3.1 The computational flowchart of the genetic algorithm 54
3.2 Diffracted methods to conduct crossover: (a) one-point
crossover, (b) two-point crossover, and (c) uniform crossover 58
3.3 Pseudocode for the genetic algorithm 62
4.1 The computational flowchart of the simulating annealing algorithm 71
4.2 A random walk in a two-dimensional search space 72
4.3 Pseudocode for simulating annealing algorithm 76
5.1 The computational flowchart of the tabu search algorithm 84
5.2 The mesh grid network of tentative points generated by the GPS
method in a two-dimensional search space 87
5.3 Pseudocode for the tabu search algorithm 89
xii Figures
6.1 The general scheme of a double-bridge experiment with a single

node at (a) the beginning of the experiment, (b) mid-experiment,
(c) the end of the experiment 97
6.2 The computational flowchart of the ant colony optimization
algorithm 100
6.3 Pseudocode for the ant colony optimization algorithm 107
7.1 The computational flowchart of the particle swarm optimization
algorithm 117
7.2 Pseudocode for the particle swarm optimization algorithm 125
8.1 The computational flowchart of the differential evolution
algorithm 134
8.2 Pseudocode for the differential evolution algorithm 139
9.1 The computational flowchart of the harmony search algorithm 148
9.2 The general theme of composing a new harmony using the
memory stagey 150
9.3 Pseudocode for the harmony search algorithm 154
10.1 The computational flowchart of the shuffled frog-leaping
algorithm 162
10.2 The partition machine of the shuffled frog-leaping algorithm 165
10.3 Pseudocode for the shuffled frog-leaping algorithm 170
11.1 The computational flowchart of the invasive weed optimization
algorithm 180
11.2 The relationship between the number of produced seeds
for each weed plant and their objective functions in a
(a) maximization, and (b) minimization problem 183
11.3 Pseudocode for the invasive weed optimization algorithm 187
12.1 Species relocating rate based on the habitats’ population 195
12.2 The computational flowchart of the biogeography-based
optimization algorithm 198
12.3 The relationship between movement ratings and habitats
suitability index 200
12.4 Pseudocode for the biogeography-based optimization algorithm 204
13.1 The computational flowchart of the cuckoo search algorithm 213
13.2 Pseudocode for the cuckoo search algorithm 218
14.1 The computational flowchart of the firefly algorithm 227
14.2 Pseudocode for the firefly algorithm 232
15.1 Resultant gravitational force for a given particle in space 237
15.2 The computational flowchart of the gravitational search algorithm 240
15.3 Pseudocode for the gravitational search algorithm 246
16.1 The computational flowchart of the plant propagation algorithm 255
16.2 Pseudocode for the plant propagation algorithm 260
17.1 The computational flowchart of the teaching-learning-based
optimization algorithm 268
17.2 Pseudocode for the teaching-learning-based optimization algorithm 273
18.1 The computational flowchart of the bat algorithm 282
Figures xiii
18.2 Pseudocode for the bat algorithm 288

19.1 The computational flowchart of the flower pollination algorithm 296
19.2 Pseudocode for the flower pollination algorithm 302
20.1 The computational flowchart of the water cycle algorithm 310
20.2 The schematic theme of labeling raindrops procedure in the
water cycle algorithm 313
20.3 Pseudocode for the water cycle algorithm 318
21.1 The computational flowchart of the symbiotic organisms search
algorithm 326
21.2 Pseudocode for the symbiotic organisms search algorithm 332
Foreword
This is a unique reference book providing in one place: information on the main
meta-heuristic optimization algorithms and an example of their algorithmic
implementation in Python. These algorithms belong to the class of computa-
tional intelligence-based optimization methods that have addressed one of the key
challenges plaguing mathematical optimization for years –that of dealing with dif-
ficult and realistic problems facing any industry with resource restrictions. What do
I mean by difficult and realistic? Instead of simplifying the problem that needs to be
solved due to the limitations of the method, as was the case with many mathemat-
ical optimization algorithms, these meta-heuristics can now tackle large, complex,
and previously often intractable problems.
The book includes 20 meta-heuristic algorithms, from the now-classical gen-
etic algorithm to more “exotic” flower pollination or bat algorithms. Each of the
algorithms is presented as far as possible using the same structure so the reader can
easily see the similarities or differences among them. The Python code provides
an easy-to-access library of these algorithms that can be of use to both novices
and more proficient users and developers interested in implementing and testing
some of the algorithms they may not be fully familiar with. From my own experi-
ence, it is much easier to get into a subject when somebody has already prepared
the grounds. That is the case with this book, if I had it on my desk 30 years ago,
I would’ve been able to try many more different ways of solving problems in engin-
eering. With this book, I may still do it now!
Dragan Savic
Professor of Hydroinformatics
University of Exeter, United Kingdom
and
Distinguished Professor of Hydroinformatics
The National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Preface
Computational intelligence-based optimization methods, often referred to as meta-

heuristic optimization algorithms, are among the most topical subjects in the field
of mathematical programming. This branch of optimization methods is basically an
alternative approach to accommodate the shortcomings of conventional analytical-
based approaches and unguided sampling-based methods. In a sense, these methods
were able to bridge the gap between these two vastly different approaches and
create a new school of thought to handle real-world optimization problems.
By the early 1990s, many researchers had started conceptualizing CI-based
frameworks to tackle optimization problems. Hundreds of meta-heuristic optimiza-
tion algorithms are out there, which could be overwhelming for beginners who
have just started in this field. As such, in this book, we would not only provide a
rock-solid theoretical foundation about these algorithms, but we tend to tackle this
subject from a practical side of things as well. Any algorithm introduced in this
book also comes with readily available Python code so the reader can implement
the algorithm to solve different optimization problems. We strongly believe that
this could help the readers to have a better grasp over the computational structure
of these algorithms.
We have handpicked some of the literature’s most exciting and well-known
algorithms. Not only are these algorithms very efficient from a practical point of
view, but they all also consist of through-provoking theoretical ideas that can help
the reader better understand how these algorithms actually tend to solve an opti-
mization problem. In this book, we will learn about pattern search, genetic algo-
rithm, simulated annealing, tabu search, ant colony optimization, particle swarm
optimization, differential evolution algorithm, harmony search algorithm, shuffle
frog-leaping algorithm, invasive weed optimization, biogeography-based optimiza-
tion, cuckoo search algorithm, firefly algorithm, gravity search algorithm, plant
propagation algorithm, teaching-learning-based algorithm, bat algorithm, flower
pollination algorithm, water cycle algorithm, and symbiotic organisms algorithm.
Though the chapters are arranged chronically, there are some pedagogical reasoning
behind this arrangement so that the readers can easily engage with the presented
materials in each chapter. Note that the basic idea here is to ensure that each algo-
rithm is presented in a stand-alone chapter. This means that after reading the first
newgenprepdf
xviii Preface
chapter, which we highly encourage you to do, you can go to a given chapter and
learn all there is to understand and implement an algorithm fully. Each chapter also
contains a brief literature review of the algorithm’s background and showcases
where it has been implemented successfully. As stated earlier, there is a Python
code for all algorithms at the end of each chapter. It is important to note that, while
these are not the most efficient way to code these algorithms, they may very well
be the best way to understand them for beginner to intermediate programmers. As
such, if, as a reader, you have a semi-solid understanding of the Python syntax
and its numeric library NumPy, you could easily understand and implement these
methods on your own.
1 An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic
Optimization
Summary
Before we can embark upon this journey of ours to learn about computational
intelligence-based optimization methods, we must first establish a common lan-
guage to see what an optimization problem actually is. In this chapter, we tend
to take a deep dive into the world of optimization to understand the fundamental
components that are used in the structure of a typical optimization problem. We
would be introduced to the technical terminology used in this field, and more
importantly, we aim to grasp the basic principles of optimization methods. As a
final note, we would learn about the general idea behind meta-heuristic optimiza-
tion algorithms and what this term essentially means. By the end of this chapter, we
will also come to understand why it is essential to have more than one of these opti-
mization algorithms in our repertoire if we tend to use this branch of optimization
method as the primary option to handle real-world complex optimization problems.
1.1 Introduction
What is optimization? That is perhaps the first and arguably the most critical
question we need to get out of the way first. In the context of mathematics, opti-
mization, or what is referred to from time to time as mathematical programming,
is the process of identifying the best option from a set of available alternatives.
The subtle yet crucial fact that should be noted here is that one’s interpretation of
what is “best” may differ from the others (Bozorg-Haddad et al., 2021; Zolghadr-
Asli et al., 2021). That is why explicitly determining an optimization problem’s
objective is essential. So, in a nutshell, in optimization, we are ultimately trying to
search for the optimum solution to find an answer that minimizes or maximizes a
given criterion under specified conditions.
Optimization problems became an integrated part of most, if not all, quantita-
tive disciplines, ranging from engineering to operations research and economics.
In fact, developing novel mathematical programming frameworks has managed to
remain a topical subject in mathematics for centuries. Come to think of it, there is
a valid reason that optimization has incorporated itself into our professional and
personal modern-day life to the extent it has. This is more understandable in the
DOI: 10.1201/9781003424765-1
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2 An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic Optimization
context of engineering and management problems, where there are often limited
available resources, and the job at hand is to make the best out of what is at our
disposal. Failing to do so would simply mean that in the said procedure, whatever
that may be, there is going to be some waste of resources. This could, in turn,
imply that we are cutting our margin of profits, wasting limited natural resources,
time, or workforce over something that could have been prevented if the process
were optimized. So, in a way, it could be said that optimization is simply just good
common sense.
There are several formidable approaches to go about mathematical pro-
gramming. The traditional approach to solving optimization problems that are
categorized under the umbrella term of analytical approaches is basically a series
of calculus-based optimization methods. Often these frameworks are referred to
as derivate-based optimization methods, given that they rely heavily on the idea
of differential algebra and gradient-oriented information to solve the problem. As
such, the core idea of these methods is to utilize the information extracted from the
gradient of a differentiable function, often from the first- or second-order deriva-
tive, as a guide to find and locate the optimal solution. The main issue here is that
this could not be a practical method to approach real-world optimization problems,
as these problems are often associated with high dimensionality, multimodality,
epistasis, non-differentiability, and discontinuous search space imposed by
constraints (Yang, 2010; Du & Swamy, 2016; Bozorg-Haddad et al., 2017). As
such, often, these methods are dismissed when it comes to handling intricate real-
world problems as they are not by any means the ultimate practical approach to
tackle such problems.
The alternative approach here would be to use a series of methods that are
categorized under the umbrella term of sampling-based approaches. These, to some
extent, use the simple principle of trial-and-error search to locate what could be
the optimum solution. These methods are either based on unguided or untargeted
search or the searching process that is guided or targeted by some criterion.
Some of the most notable subcategories of unguided search optimization
methods are sampling grid, random sampling, and enumeration-based methods.
The sampling grid is the most primitive approach here, where all possible solutions
would be tested and recorded to identify the best solution (Bozorg-Haddad et al.,
2017). In computer science, such methods are said to be based on brute force com-
putation, given that to find the solution, basically, any possible solution is being
tested here. As you can imagine, this could be quite computationally taxing. While
this seems more manageable when the number of potential solutions is finite, in
most, if not all, practical cases, this can be borderline impossible to implement
such an approach to find the optimum solution. If, for instance, the search space
consists of continuous variables, the only way to implement this method is to
deconstruct the space into a discrete decision space. This procedure, known as
discretization, transforms a continuous space into a discrete one by transposing an
arbitrarily defined mesh grid network over the said space. Obviously, the finer this
grid system, the better the chance of getting closer to the actual optimum solution.
Not only it becomes more computationally taxing to carry this task, but from a
An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic Optimization 3
theoretical point of view, it is also considered impossible to locate the exact optimal
solution for a continuous space with such an approach. However, it is possible to
get a close approximation of the said value through this method.
Another unguided approach is random sampling. The idea here is to simply
take a series of random samples from the search space and evaluate their perform-
ance against the optimization criterion (Bozorg-Haddad et al., 2017). The most
suitable solution found in this process would then be returned as the optimal solu-
tion. Though this process is, for the most part, easy to execute, and the amount
of computational power needed to carry this task can be managed by limiting the
number of samples taken from the search space, as one can imagine, the odds of
locating the actual optimum solution is exceptionally slim. This is, of course, more
pronounced in complex real-world problems where there are often numerous con-
tinuous variables.
The other notable approach in the unguided search category is enumeration-
based methods (Du & Swamy, 2016). These methods are basically a bundle of
computation tasks that would be executed iteratively until a specific termination
criterion is met, at which point the final results would be returned by the method as
the solution to the optimization problem at hand. Like any other unguided method,
here, there is no perception of the search space and the optimization function itself.
As such, the enumeration through the search space would be solely guided by the
sequence of computational tasks embedded within the method. In other words,
such a method could not learn from their encounter with the search space to alter
their searching strategies, which is in and of itself the most notable drawback of all
the unguided searching methods.
Alternatively, there are also targeted searching methods. One of the most notable
features of this branch of optimization is that they can, in a sense, implement what
they have learned about the search space as a guiding mechanism to help navigate
their searching process. As such, they attempt to draw each sample batch from what
they learned in their last attempt. As a result, step by step, they are improving the
possibility that the next set of samples is more likely to be better than the last until,
eventually, they could gradually move toward what could be the optimum solution. It
is important to note that one of the distinctive features of this approach, like any other
sampling method, is that they aim to settle for a close-enough approximation of the
global optima, better known as near-optimal solutions. The idea here is to possibly
sacrifice the accuracy of the emerging solution to an acceptable degree to find a close-
enough solution with considerably less calculation effort. One of the most well-known
sub-class of the guided sampling methods is meta-heuristic optimization algorithms.
However, before diving into what these methods actually are and what they are cap-
able of doing, it is crucial that we improve our understanding of the structure of an
optimization problem and its components from a mathematical point of view.
1.2 Components of an Optimization Problem

As we have discovered earlier, the optimization problem’s main idea is to iden-
tify the best or optimum solution out of all possible options. Thus, the core idea of
an optimization problem is to create a search engine that enumerates all possible

solutions to locate what could be the optimum solution. As we have seen in the pre-
vious section, there are different approaches to solving an optimization problem,
which, for the most part, comes down to how the said approaches tend to search
through the possible solutions to, ultimately, locate what could be the optimal
solutions. Analytical approaches, for instance, resort to calculus-based methods
that use the obtained gradient-oriented information to solve the problem at hand.
Alternatively, there are also sampling-based approaches, which, at their core, use the
simple principle of trial-and-error search to locate the potential optimal solutions.
Regardless of what approach is selected to tackle the problem at hand, there is
a fundamental requirement here to represent the optimization problem in a math-
ematical format. There are certain standard components that commonly help shape
this mathematical representation of an optimization problem. To understand how
these optimization methods proceed with their task, it is essential to learn how an
optimization problem can be expressed through these components. With that in
mind, the first step is to see what a standard optimization model is like.
From a mathematical standpoint, an optimization problem can be formulated as
the following generic standard form:
Optimize f ( X ) (1.1)
X ∈R N
Subject to
gk ( X ) ≤ bk ∀k (1.2)
Lj ≤ xj ≤ U j ∀j (1.3)
in which f() represents the objective function, X is a point in the search space of an
optimization problem with N decision variables, N denotes the number of decision
variables, gk() is the kth constraint of the optimization problem, bk denotes the con-
stant value of the kth constraint, xj represents the value associated to the jth deci-
sion variable, and Uj and Lj represent the upper and lower feasible boundaries of
the jth decision variable, respectively. Note that in an optimization problem with N
decision variables, an N-dimension coordination system could be used to represent
the search space. In this case, any point within the search space, say X, can be
represented mathematically as a 1×N array as follows:
(
X = x1 , x2 , x3 ,…, x j ,…, x N ) (1.4)
With this basic representation of an optimization model in mind, we can con-

tinue dissecting the structure of the said problem to isolate and study each compo-
nent that is in play here.
An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic Optimization 5
1.2.1 Objective Function
As one’s interpretation of what is best may differ from others, it is crucial in an

optimization problem to explicitly define a mathematical procedure to evaluate
how desirable an option actually is. The idea here is to establish a robust mathem-
atical framework that quantifies the desirability of a potential solution. By doing
so, it becomes possible to evaluate and compare the tentative options against one
another so that, ultimately, the best solutions can be identified among all the pos-
sible options. In mathematical programming terminology, the objective function
constitutes the goal of an optimization problem (Bozorg-Haddad et al., 2017).
Within the context of an optimization problem, one could attempt to minimize or
perhaps maximize the objective function value. In the former case, the idea is to
identify a solution that yields the lowest objective function value possible, while
in the latter case, the ultimate goal is to find a solution that is associated with
the objective function’s highest value. For instance, the objective function may be
defined in a way to minimize the amount of risk imposed on a system (e.g., Issa,
2013; Zolghadr-Asli et al., 2018; Capo & Blandino, 2021) or perhaps maximize
the profit of an operation (e.g., Husted & de Jesus Salazar, 2006; George et al.,
2013; Kamrad et al., 2021). It should be noted that, from a theoretical standpoint,
any given maximization can be expressed as a minimization problem and vice
versa with a simple mathematical trick that is to multiply the said function by −1
(Bozorg-Haddad et al., 2017).
1.2.2 Decision Variables
In an optimization problem, there are so-called variables that, by changing

their values, you are effectively creating new solutions. Naturally, each solution
is associated with an objective function value. As such, the optimization can be
seen as identifying the most suitable values for these variables. Whether this is a
designing, operation, layout, or management problem, the critical feature associated
with these variables is that they can be controlled through this process. In fact, that
is why in mathematical programming terminology, these variables are referred to
as decision variables, given that the whole point behind optimization is to decide
which variable would be deemed the most suitable choice.
From a mathematical standpoint, as we have seen earlier, these variables could
be bundled together to form an array. This bundle represents a solution to the said
optimization problem, and the idea here is to find the right array that yields the best
objective function value.
A decision variable could take the form of an integer number. For instance, the
objective of an optimization problem could be to find the most economical way to
place a number of filters to refine an industrial site’s wastewater. In this case, the
number of filters, which is an integer number, is the decision variable. Note that the
problem may not even have a numeric variable. For instance, in the previous case,
we might also want to determine the type of filters as well. In such case, for each
filter, we have another decision variable that is by nature a nominal or categorical
variable; that is to say, we want to figure out which type of filter should be installed
to get the best result. The variable may also be binary in nature. This means that
only two possible values can be passed for that variable. For instance, if we want
to figure out whether an industrial site should be constructed in a place where we
tend to maximize the margin of profits. Here the variable could be either going
ahead with the project or shutting the project down. Mathematical programming
terminology refers to all three cases as discrete variables. Alternatively, a deci-
sion variable may also be a float number, which is a number drawn from the real
number set. An example of this would be when you want to determine the max-
imum amount of partially refined industrial site wastewater that can be released
back into the stream without violating the environmental regulatory thresholds set
to protect the natural ecosystem. In mathematical programming terminology, such
a case is an example of a continuous variable. Of course, in real-world optimiza-
tion problems, we may have a combination of discrete and continuous variables.
These are said to be mixed-type optimization problems.
1.2.3 State Variables
In most practical, real-world optimization problems, such as those revolving

around engineering or management-oriented problems, in addition to decision
variables, we also deal with another type of variable called state variables. These
are a set of dependent variables whose values would be changed as the decision
variables’ values are being changed. In a sense, these variables reflect how the
decision variables’ values affect the system and, in turn, its performance. As such,
these would help get additional information about the system’s state. It is important
to note that these variables are not being controlled directly through the optimiza-
tion process, but rather any change in these values is a product of how decision
variables are selected. In the example we have seen earlier, where we wanted to
determine the maximum amount of released wastewater to the stream, the stream’s
heavy metal concentration measures, for instance, are the state variables. Notice
that the decision variable in this problem is the amount of outflow from the site,
which can be controlled through the optimization problem. But as a consequence
of such releases, the heavy metal concentration measures of the streamflow would
be changed, making them state variables of this problem.
1.2.4 Constraints
Usually, optimization problems are set up in a way that decision variables cannot
assume any given value. In other words, an optimization problem can be limited by
a set of restrictions or constraints that bounds them between often two acceptable
thresholds. Often, this is because resources are limited, and as such, it is impos-
sible to pour unlimited supplies into a process or an operation. For instance, if you
intend to optimize the company’s workflow, there are budget and human resources
limitations that need to be accounted for. In addition to this, there are some legal
or physical restrictions that pose some limitations to the problem. For instance, in
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that fiery Oil continually distilling. By the help of both which Stygian
Fires, the volatile subject in the Pan, is in a short space of time
(unless it was very impure before) without any diminution of its
weight fixed into a fixed Medicine. It is to be admired, with how
great virtue, either Fire is endewed, for fixing volatile Metals; also it
is pleasant to behold, how (when any drop of that Oil of Sulphur
driven upwards distills down again upon the burning Sulphur) the
flame that ascends then, will be red as bloud, which otherwise from
Sulphur onely ascends yellowish. The repeated Distillation of that
into the under set Vessel was by Philosophers called Inceration: But
when the whole resided in the bottom without any ascending fume,
that was by them called Fixation.
These operations I have performed with my own Hands, and seen
with my own Eyes. More at this time I dare not publish; for more
than enough is already spoken to impious Men. Which indeed I
should not have done, if this excellent Philosophick Work had not
been made too common already, or (to express my meaning more
plainly) if it had not fallen into the hands of unworthy Persons, to me
most ungratefull. For indeed I permitted onely some few of my
Friends to see this Philosophick fixing Furnace; yet the knowledge of
it was by them so far divulged, as I repented I had ever
communicated it. Nevertheless, instead of that, not long after by
God was given to me a certain other, far better and more elegant
gift, for he shewed me such an Instrument, as would far more
commodiously than the former, receive the ascending sulphureous
fume, so as none of it should be lost. Therefore this divine gift shall
by me be more warily kept than the former.
The Explanation of the C U T.
A. Is the standing part of the Furnace.

B. The lower Hemisphere or half Globe, which
is to contain the Sulphur, or what you intend
to make into Oils or Spirits.
C. The upper Hemisphere with its Pipe to draw
the Oils or Spirits by.
D. The body that holds the Water.
E. The Cavity or top of the body to put in the
Water.
FFF. The handles by which it is hanged up,
which are made of the same Earth that the
Body is made of.
G. The Cock to let out the Water, that you may
put in more cold.
H. The Hemisphere to work the Minerals and
hath no Pipe.
I. The body to hold the Water to keep it Cool.
K. The Cavity of the Body to put in the Water.
LLL. The handles to hang it by.
M. The Cock to let out the Water that you may
put in more cold.
C H A P. II.
The way of preparing another Medicine of Sulphur onely.
F ill an earthen Pan full of Sulphur, and set it under the Blind-head.
Kindle the Sulphur and keep it continually burning for eight or
fourteen days. And when the burning Sulphur causeth its Oil to
ascend, and the same again descends upon it, and this ascent and
descent hath so long been made, as untill the Oil is fixed, and no
more ascent is perceived, then let the Fire go out, and that which
you find in the bottom, looking black as a Coal, take out, pour clear
Water upon it, and make them boil together. In this boiling the
Water extracts the fixed Oil of Sulphur, which passed into Salt, from
the black Fæces. This extracted Salt distill through a Filter, and
permit the Water to exhale in Balneo; so the Residue will remain in
the bottom sweet, in the form of a sowerish gratefull yellow Salt.
Which take out, and put into a clean Crucible, where keep it hot, but
not red hot; then the Salt will wax red. This dissolve again and Filter,
and it will leave some Fæces. You may reiterate this operation if you
will, and the Salt will be so much the more pure. This Salt is of a
middle tast between sower and sweet: Of which five or six grains
being taken inwardly will penetrate the body and strongly provoke
sweat. But a larger Dose will provoke gentle Seidges, especially if
the operation be made in some Iron Pan, yet it contracts from the
Iron a sweetish tast, but that is not at all to be feared, because the
Salt plainly deposits this tast, especially if you heat it hot and
dissolve it, coagulate and heat it hot again, unto the third time. For
then it loseth that tast, and becomes a sweet red Salt, which is a
safe remedy against all Diseases, where there is need of sweating
and purging.
Note, here is need of caution, that in making it hot, your Fire be
not too strong, and so the virtues of your Salt diminished, which is a
thing accurately to be minded. Ancient Philosophers likened this
operation to such a Fire vomiting Dragon, as devours his own Tail,
and converts it into a salutary Medicine. The Dragon is burning
Sulphur, his Tail is its fiery Oil, which slides down upon the burning
Sulphur, and in it converts it self into an efficacious Medicine.
Note, I would have you give credit to me, in these Works, which I
here have opened in few words, are many things of great worth
contained. Therefore, if you be wise, you will more diligently search
into the matter, and find out much more than is here disclosed by
me.
C H A P. III.
Anther secret Fire of Philosophers, by which all venemous and

fœtid Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral Subjects, may be changed
and prepared into a most efficacious Medicine.
R ectifie Spirit of Wine so perfectly well from all Phlegm, as it will

all burn away. For this way you will have a secret Fire, by help
of which you will be able to effect wonders in Medicine.
C H A P. IV.
Where first is exhibited an efficacious Medicine from this

Vegetable Fire it self.
P repare you of stony Earth polishable in Fire, or of Metal, a

Furnace in such wise, as under it a flaming Fire may burn, and
yet none of the fume fly away, but in it condense either into Water
or Oil, and thence descend into some fit Receiver. Under such a
Furnace, in some earthen Pan kindle an ounce or two of this subtile
Fire, and let it burn. The Spirit of Wine being burnt, the volatile Salt
as incombustible (yet the volatile Mercury of the Wine) comes forth,
is cooled in the Receiver, and so preserved.
Note, when the first Spirit of Wine is burned, more must be put in.
Of how great profit it will be in Medicine, you may easily judge,
because it is the immortal and incombustible Soul of Wine. How
much it is able to effect in Alchymy, is not very well known to me, I
not having laboured much in it as yet. Basilius touching this Mercury,
thus Writes: Whosoever can obtain it, will be a principal Master in
Chymistry. He, as I judge, well knew how from Gold its Tincture was
to be extracted by the help of this. But of these enough at this time.
C H A P. V.
How by the benefit of this secret Vegetable Fire, the Microcosmick

Mercury may be corrected, freed from its nauseous stink, and
converted into a sweet Medicine.
R ectifie Spirit of Urine as highly as you can, according to my

Prescripts, largely described in the Book of Furnaces. To this
Animal Mercury add five fold or six fold its weight of our Vegetable
Fire, with which fill a Pan, and kindle this Fire under our Philosophick
Alembick; then will our Fire burn up all the nauseous stink of the
Animal Mercury, so as it will ascend with a gratefull odour and tast.
If it be not to your mind the first time, commit the same to this
purgation a second time, and make it pass over; then you will find
your Animal Mercury sweet, by virtue of which you will be able to do
great things in Medicine, because it forcibly penetrates. Therefore a
diligent Physician should not be ignorant of the use of this. It is
known that Spirit of Urine doth much good in Medicine yet it is
commonly abhorred by reason of its unpleasant tast. But when it
hath sustained the trial of our Philosophick purgation, then it
ascends into its Heaven, that is, into the Alembick without stink. Also
by help of this purgation, all other fœtid, bitter and unsavoury
Vegetable, Mineral, and Animal Subjects, may be purged, rendred
sweet, pleasant, and gratefull, as the following examples will prove.
C H A P. VI.
R ecipe of common Sulphur, Tartar, and Niter, of each one pound,
pulverise, mix and decrepitate them in a Crucible, kindling
them on the top, otherwise they will fulminate. When decrepitated,
melt and pour out the mixture, reduce it to Powder, and extract
thence the Tincture with Spirit of Wine. Burn away the Spirit of Wine
under the Philosophick Alembick, and what ascends reserve for your
use in Medicine. What remains in the bottom will be sweet and void
of all evil savour, because the Spirit of Wine hath burnt up all the
stink. This Medicine is a most excellent Diaphoretick.
C H A P. VII.
How the Tincture or Soul of Antimony may be purified by the

benefit of this Vegetable Fire.
R ecipe of Antimony, Tartar, and Niter, of each alike; decrepitate,

melt, pulverise, and extract the Tincture, which cause to pass
through this Purgatory Fire, and you will have a safe Medicine
against all Diseases. But if you would render it yet more excellent, to
this Antimony (which hath already once sustained that Purgation)
again add its own weight of Tartar and Niter; decrepitate, melt,
extract, and cause it to burn as before, and you will have your
Medicine more excellent. And if you shall repeat this labour the third
time, you will have it far more excellent, for every time there are
some Fæces deposited, whence the Medicine becomes more
efficacious.
As is said of Sulphur and Antimony, so also all other stinking and
bitter Subjects; yea the stinking Dungs of Animals may be so purified
as to become sweet. But there is no necessity to speak hereabout in
this place. For whosoever studiously searcheth for some famous
Medicine, will easily find some excellent thing, so as he may attain
both Riches and Honour according to his wish.
C H A P. VIII.
How by help of the Vegetable Fire, Mineral Fires may be
extinguished, and the corrosive fiery disposition of them
converted into sweetness.
I t is very well known, that the greater common Fire doth always
(as often as one is set near the other) either extinguish the
lesser, or cause it to languish, the same also happens to Philosophick
Fires. As for example, Put into a Stone dish or Pan, Spirit of Salt,
Vitriol, Niter, or Sulphur, or some other acid Spirit, and three, four, or
six parts of the best Spirit of Wine which kindle, and the Spirit of
Wine will burn away, but the acid Spirit through the subtilty of the
flame becomes sweet. Which sweet Spirits, especially that of Sulphur
and Salt, manifest great Vertues in Medicine. Basil Valentine speaks
of the dulcified Spirit of Salt, that it extracts from Gold its Tincture;
and that he, who knows how to dulcifie it, will be honoured by
Philosophers. He in like manner teacheth, that Spirit of Wine is
seven times to be abstracted thence: Yet undoubtedly he intended
not the vulgar Abstraction, but this secret Abstraction rather, of
which we now speak. Because such Spirits are not dulcified at one
time, but Spirit of Wine is often to be abstracted thence by the help
of Fire, before they will be sufficiently dulcified.
C H A P. IX.
Another way, by help of other Fires, to cleanse and sweeten

Vegetable, Animal and Mineral Subjects.
E very man knows, that the Nature and Property of common Fire
is, to absume every stinking Sulphur, to drive away Mercury,
and leave nothing but dead Ashes, with a little fixed Salt; which is no
Correction, but a violent Destruction and Corruption of good things.
Therefore, in preparing famous medicines, we should use a better
Fire, viz. such, as neither consumes Sulphur, nor drives away
Mercury, but onely ripens, cleanseth and swetens them; as will be
proved by these following Examples.
First let us make trial with the (to us abominable) Dung of men,
and see, whether its Stink can be totally taken away, and of it an
Universal medicine be prepared.
It is very manifest, that the Dungs of Animals crude and not
prepared, are of some use in medicine, and we know they have
been long in use with Galenists and Apothecaries: For they presume
to cure the Jaundies with Goose-dung; Feavers with Horse-dung;
Inflammations of the Bowels with the distilled Water of Cow-dung,
which they call the Water of all Flowers; and the Quinsey, with the
white Dung of a Dog, which they call Album Græcum. Pertinent to
the purpose, History makes mention of a certain Countryman
labouring with a Quinsey. To this man a Physician gives a Bill, by
which he was to go to an Apothecaries Shop, and buy Album
Græcum. The Bill he gave to a Boy in the Shop, who having read it,
looked into the Box in which Album Græcum was wont to be kept;
and finding the Box empty, bid the Countryman stay a little, and he
would serve him presently. But the Boy not wise enough to conceal
the Secret, runs presently into the Church Yard, where he gathered
some of the white Dung of Dogs, which he brought home, and put
into his Mortar to pulverise. The Countryman seeing this, spake to
the Boy thus: I pray thee lay aside those things, and give me what I
have need of; for I can stay no longer. To which the Boy answered:
This is that the Physician prescribed you; therefore stay but a little
while, for it will be beat enough presently. Then the Countryman
angerly said: What do you say, you Whelp! Must I buy Dogs-turd of
you for Silver? I have enough of that at home: Therefore you and
your Doctour shall eat it your selves for me. And having spoken
thus, he went out of the Apothecaries Shop in a great rage. Many
such Histories are variously commemorated: by which you may
clearly see, that the Dungs of Animals, although crude and not at all
prepared, have been used by Apothecaries. All which had they not
been usefull in Medicine, would long since have been abrogated. But
humane Dung, which deservedly is to be preferred before all other,
is not used medicinally; and that onely because of its evil smell. Yet I
have known some old Women give that to be taken inwardly by such
as laboured with Feavers (but without their knowledge) and so have
expelled those Feavers. There are some Chirurgeons so skilfull as to
know, that the Salt of humane Dung onely generates Putrefaction,
but on the contrary all other Salts preserve from it. Wherefore they
use that for putrifying such excrescent Caruncles, as they fear to cut
off, by reason of the intermixed Veins. Yet, that humane Dung (if
inwardly taken) wants not its effects, no man doubts: but because of
its great Stink, its use is to be abstained from, and not to be
admitted in medicine. Nevertheless, if it can be freed from its
abominable Odour, it may be used in medicine, otherwise not.
Wherefore, Paracelsus so highly esteemed it, as he said: From him
Heaven and Earth is hid, to whom humane Dung is not known. An
History, which shews what happened in Cæsar’s Court, between him
and the Court Physicians, plainly sheweth this. For when those
Physicians asked him to leave behind him some medicinal
Experiment unto them, Paracelsus ordered humane Dung to be
brought and laid before them. They seeing that, went away in a rage
and reviled him. But Paracelsus answered. You indeed run away,
thereby proving your selves unworthy of the Secret I purposed to
have discovered to you. Whence it is very manifest, that Paracelsus
knew how to render stinking Excrements fit for use. For
undoubtedly, he never administred them to any man, before they
were prepared; because he had other Medicaments always in
readiness. Now, that it may be known to be possible to take away
the Stink of Dungs, I will prove the same by the following.
To a sound and healthfull Man for two days together give nothing
to eat, but a little well baked Wheat-bread; or to drink, but good
Wine. His Excrements for these two days cast away. On the third day
let him eat a peculiar Bread, with which is mixed before it is baked
about an Ounce and half, or one Ounce of my Blood of Sol; also let
him have an Ounce and half, or one Ounce of the same Blood of Sol
mixed with his Drink, that it may thereby be tinged with a red
Colour. And all the third day let him eat nothing but this Bread, in
which the Blood of Sol, or Gold rendered irreducible hath been
baked, and use that Wine onely, which the Tincture of Gold hath
coloured. Then on the fourth day, let his Excrements (which will be
tinged with blackness like a Coal) be put into a glazed Pan or Dish,
yet with this Caution, that no Urine be mixed therewith; because
that will be injurious. Indeed these Excrements will have a very evil
Odour, but that you may take away their stink, and convert them
into an Universal Medicine, proceed thus.
If these Excrements be in weight one pound, or somewhat above,
pour on them two Ounces of well dephlegmated Oil of Sulphur, or in
defect of that, as much strong and well rectified Oil of Vitriol; mix
the whole well stirring it with a wooden Spatula, that the Oil may act
upon the Excrements: Expose the whole to the Air for one Night;
and that mineral Fire will calcine the Dung Philosophically, and
deprive it of all its stink, without any diminution of its Weight; which
is very strange. And if any part of the evil Odour should be left
remaining, add to it again one Ounce and half of the Mineral Fire,
and suffer them to stand together for one Day and Night. Then must
you also have in readiness the Animal Fire, viz. Spirit of Urine exactly
rectified, of which pour leisurely and by degrees upon the Dung, so
much, as until both those contrary Spirits cease to act each upon
other, and are still: For then those two contending Fires have
mortified each other, whence a middle Salt is generated. Upon this
mixture put into a Glass do you also pour so much of the Vegetable
Fire, (that is, of the best Spirit of Wine) as may rise in height above
it two fingers breadth. Set this glass in Balneo, and digest the whole
for twenty four hours: For in that time the Spirit of Wine dissolveth
that Salt, which proceeded from both the contrary Fires, together
with the Microcosmick Salt, Sulphur and Mercury; and from that
Gold, now the second time inverted, extracts the Tincture, which it
hath, and is thereby tinged red as Blood. This Tincture pour off, and
re-pour on other Spirit of Wine, and let that also stand twenty four
hours in Balneo for extracting what remains: but this will have but
little Tincture, because the first extraction drew forth almost all. Add
both extractions together, and in Balneo, with very gentle heat, by
Alembick abstract the Spirit of Wine from the Tincture; then will
remain in the bottom of the Vessel a very red and pleasant Salt;
upon which must be poured so much Aromatick Spirit of Wine, as
will suffice to dissolve all the Salt. Which Solution pour out from the
Glass it was dissolved in, into a strong and very clean Glass-bottle,
and keep it by you as a most pretious Treasure.
The Dose of it is very small: for if you give, at one time, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, or 6 drops, it will provoke Urine, expel Sweat, and the Stone also
powerfully. But if the dose be augmented, it purgeth the Belly, and
that without any molestation. In a word, this Universal Medicine may
safely be used in all Diseases. Yet because I intend brevity, I forbear
to write more touching this Medicine.
The Excrements or Fæces, from which this Tincture is extracted,
are not to be cast away, but must be calcined with Fire till they are
red hot, and (after a strong Aqua Regia hath been poured upon
them) the remaining Gold, which was not before extracted, must be
dissolved. Yet you shall have very little of that; because the Man’s
Stomach did a second time invert that Gold, (which was once before
inverted) and made it reducible, so as it could be extracted with
Spirit of Wine by help of the Mineral and Animal Mercury. It is hard
for me to believe, that a more excellent Diuretick and Diaphoretick
Medicine can be found, than this Microcosmick Salt, which is tinged
with Sol. For you will know of how great vertue this Diuretick and
Diaphoretick Salt is, when you shall precipitate the acid Oil of
Sulphur (or in defect of that, rectified Oil of Vitriol) with good Spirit
of Urine, and reduce it into Salt. And will not such a Salt as this be
far more excellent, when Sulphur the (Philosophically calcined) Salt
and Mercury of the humane Body, together with the Tincture of Gold
have Access?
I have not writ any thing here of this Universal Medicine, to the
end it should be preferred before others, because I very well know,
we can of other Subjects prepare famous Medicines, and easily be
without humane Dung; but whatsoever I delivered here, I did it for
the good of all. For my part, I say, if any one hath no mind to
proceed in this Operation, let him forbear. It sufficeth me, that I
have signified to the World, how by the help of Art, all venomous
and stinking Subjects may be amended and cleansed.
Thus may the industrious Physician, by the benefit of the three
Principal Fires prepare many excellent Medicines, and before all
sluggish and careless Physicians be had in great honour by the Sick,
and obtain the favour of G O D and Men. For he may invert the
Venom of Vipers, Serpents and Scorpions, and convert the same into
an Antidote powerfull against the Pestilence, and other Venoms. He
also understands how to prepare a Medicament of Toads safe to be
given to dropsical Persons: of Spiders a Medicine healing the
Leprous; of Cantharides and May-Woms, a certain Salt good against
the Stone of the Reins and Bladder; of Earth-Worms, or Rain-Worms,
a venereal Experiment; of Opium, Tobacco and Henbane, a famous
Somniferous Medicine; of Wormwood a Stomachal and Antifebrile; of
Hellebore, Agarick, Spurge, Asarabacca, Squill, and the like, an
Universal Purging Salt; of Pearch-Stones, and Crabs-Eyes, a
Nephritick Medicine against the Stone of the Reins and Bladder; and
of Napellus, Stavesacre, and Wake Robbin, a famous Antipodagrick.
These, and other such most excellent and presently medicinal Salts
may after the same manner be prepared: These, for the health of
infirm Mankind I could not content my self to conceal. Indeed I
could have writ more at large touching this matter; but brevity,
which I now study, forbids a more ample Declaration.
C H A P. X.
Of the Nature and Property of that Fire, which lies hid in Tartar, or
the Stony Fæces of Wine.
T artar is a Salt, which in Fermentation separating it self from the

Wine, adheres partly to the sides of Wine Cask, and partly
resides with the Dregs in the Bottom. This Salt or Tartar, although it
is numbred among Salts, yet it is of another disposition than all
other Salts; because they may be dissolved in cold Water, but this
Tartar cannot be dissolved, except in boiling Water onely. No Man
hitherto was willing to open the Cause of this hard Tye. But I, seeing
Death daily approaching nearer and nearer, was not willing to carry
it with me to my long Home, therefore I chose rather to leave it
behind me for Mankinds sake. And thus it is with Tartar. Tartar
contains in it self a peculiar Sulphur by which the Salt is so bound or
fixed, as it cannot like other Salt be dissolved in cold Water. For if
the Sulphur be separated from it, it is easily dissolved in cold Water,
like other Salts. Yet so soon as such Sulphur is taken from it, the
secret Fire which lay hid in it, is also taken away: and thenceforth it
can no more serve instead of a secret Fire, by which Metals are
ripened into Tinctures; but is rendred onely fit to perform its Office
in medicine. Touching which, for brevity sake we shall here make no
mention.
The method of depriving Tartar of its tinging Sulphur, that it may
be dissolved in cold, is thus: By burning two Pound of Tartar, reduce
it into a white Salt, upon which, if you pour Water to dissolve it, it
will become a Lixivium. Which Lixivium pour upon one Pound of
Tartar, and boil them together in an Earthen glazed Pot: Then the
Lixivium dissolves the Tartar, and separates the binding or fixing
Sulphur from the Salt. Then pour on one part of common Tartar, boil
them together yet once, filter the boiled Liquour through Paper; then
in the bottom will remain the Sulphureous Fæces, and the Water of
Tartar pass through yellowish; upon which Water pour distilled
Vinegar to mortifie the Lixivium. This being done, the Vinegar will
also be coagulated with both Salts, and be changed into one Salt;
which Salt in Medicine and Alchymy is of great use and benefit;
touching which if I should here write more I should be too tedious:
but (G O D willing) the manifold use of it shall be shewed in my Third
Century. For here my purpose is not more at large to speak of the
matter. [vide Helm. Fol. 183. and Basilius p. 240.]
That feculent Slime, which adheres to the sides of the Filter you
should not cast away, but endeavour to fix. For then you will find
some admirable thing, and more than here I dare discover. Because
that is the genuine Coagulator of running Waters, which it hardens,
and is joined in a singular familiarity with metals, and especially with
Sol; as I with admiration have experienced. For in a few hours it
tinged Sol with whiteness, and turned it into brittle Glass; whereas
otherwise Sol is an Enemy to every volatile Sulphur. I do not believe
there is any other thing in Nature second to this wonderfull Sulphur;
which is endewed with a potency coagulating and hardning running
Subjects. For nothing, except Sulphur onely, can be found, which
coagulates and tingeth. Mercury and Salt tinge not: but Sulphur doth
that. Consider I pray, how great power common Sulphur hath over
Mercury, since four Ounces of it can coagulate a Pound of running
Mercury into hard and red Cinnabar. Also four Ounces of common
Sulphur can coagulate two or three Pounds of Oil into a Liver-like
Mass: and one Pound of Oil reduce ten Pounds of Lixivium into hard
Soap. Likewise one or two half Ounces of the volatile Vapour of
Sulphur in subterranean Veins, can coagulate serene Water into hard
Rocks and Stones, as also all sorts of minerals and metals. So, that
little Sulphur which is found in Tartar, can render much sower Wine
or Water hard as a Liver; as is known to those that labour in Wine
and Vinegar.
I once purposed and endeavoured to extract from Gold its
Tincture by the benefit of Salts, among which Salts Tartar also was;
whence my Gold came out white and altogether brittle as Glass. But
I, being willing to prove whether my Gold was constantly white or
no, cupellated that with Saturn; and then I found my Gold not to
remain white, but to have received its pristine yellow Colour. That
whiteness proceeded from nothing else, than the tinging Sulphur of
Tartar, and because the Colour was not fixed, therefore in cupellating
it vanished away:
Note: Hence, when I had broken small a little of this tinged white
and brittle Sol, and cast it upon a little vulgar Mercury made hot in a
Crucible, it presently had ingress, and coagulated the Mercury into
an heavy white Body, which when I exposed to a cineritious
Examen, all the Mercury vanished, and the Sol onely remained in its
Colour. The Reason hereof was because the aforesaid Sulphur of
Tartar was not fixed. Yet thence I observed, that it might be fixed
with Sol into a constant Redness. If any one hath convenient time
and place, he may more profoundly search into this Work, because
in it lies a great Arcanum. But how otherwise from Gold its Tincture
is to be extracted, shall afterward be taught. Enough of that at this
time.
But there remains this one thing to be spoken, viz. that whosoever
knows how to conjoin the Sulphur of Tartar with the Sulphur of
Metals, send to fix it with them, may certainly obtain the Tincture:
As Ripley clearly intimated, when he said, He saw a red Toad so long
and so often drinking of the Juice of Grapes, as until his Bowels
burst. If you do more seriously think of this (and G O D judge you
worthy of his Grace) you will experience wonderous things; if not,
then conclude thou wast not worthy of those Secrets. So much may
suffice for this time to be spoken touching the admirable Sulphur of
Tartar. More elsewhere of it, if G O D will.
C H A P. XI.
Proceeding now to Metallick fixed Salts, Mercurial volatile and

most subtil Spirits, let us see what they are able to effect in
Medicine. And first let us speak of Antimony, as the Radical
Juice of all Metals.
R ecipe of the Minera of Antimony finely pulverised one Pound, of

our secret Sal Armomiack six or eight half Ounces; which
diligently mixed put into a coated Glass Retort, which set into a
Distillatory Furnace, and apply a Receiver thereto, ministring Fire
leisurely according to Art, that the Glass be not broken. In distilling
first of all ascends a little sowrish Water, then (the Retort being hot)
a thick Oil fat and yellow, in which is contained the most excellent
Mercury of Antimony, which you may thence thus separate.
Upon the yellow Oil distilled, pour common Water, which Water
will draw to it self the Salts, and precipitate the Mercury, like a
yellow ponderous and shining Calx, which being edulcorated and
dried, will be an Universal Purger. Its dose is very small. I use no
more than a quarter of a Grain, which (saving your Reverence) gives
me 3, 4, or 5 Stools: but to a robust man I give half a Grain, a whole
Grain, and sometimes two Grains. Note: If a larger dose be given,
this Mercury excites vomiting also, though very gently. If you would
render it Diaphoretick, you must thence abstract rectified Oil of
Vitriol. Then this Mercury of Antimony, which before was liquable as
Wax, becomes altogether fixed and unmeltable; and then you may
give of it from 1, 2, 3, to 8, or 10 Grains, which indeed move not
Seidges, but provoke Sweat without weariness to the Patient, and
performs the Office of a blessed Medicine against all Diseases,
where Sweat is needfull. Reduce the Caput Mortuum taken out of
the Retort to Powder (the finer the Powder is the better your Work
will succeed) and having put it into a Phial pour Spirit of Wine upon
it, mix them by a continued stirring and shaking of the Glass (for
otherwise it turns it self into an hard stony Mass) and in Balneo
digest it for a natural Day. Thence the Spirit of Wine will acquire a
red Colour, which pour off, and repour on fresh Spirit, which also
permit to extract as much as it can. Then with gentle heat of Balneo,
abstract the Spirit of Wine from the Tincture, which will reside in the
bottom like a red Salt. Which Salt is so great a Treasure in Medicine,
as exceeds all estimation. For it passeth through the whole Body like
Fire, and consumes Diseases, as Fire burns up Wood. For according
as it finds any defect in the Body so it operates, expelling Sweat and
Urine, purging out all malignant and noxious Humours of the whole
Body, and highly purifying the Blood, so as I believe no more noble
Tincture and Salt than this can be extracted out of Antimony. Its
dose indeed is very small, but of great efficacy, insomuch as using
but half a Grain of it you will find a most evident Operation.
Therefore, if a Master of a Family provide for himself but one
Drachm of this Medicine, he may by the help of that for the space of
one whole year not onely preserve himself and family from many
Diseases, but also defend himself and them from all other Affects
every where prevailing. Therefore let G O D have the Praise of it.
C H A P. XII.
That this way also may be prepared from Auripigment and

Arsenick a Mercurial Oil, and a fixed Tincture.
R ecipe of Auripigment one Pound of our secret Sal Armoniack
four Ounces, which reduced to Powder mix, and distil in a
Retort by degrees a volatile yellow corrosive Oil. At last, in the neck
of the Retort will ascend a sublimate Red as Blood, transparent and
as beautifull as an Oriental Ruby; the external use of which is
famously medicinal against Ulcers and gangrenous Affects. And the
yellow Oil is a most present Remedy for mortifying all gangrenous
Ulcers, and laying a solid Foundation for their Cure, if the part
affected be onely anointed with a Feather dipt therein. If any one
pour Water upon the aforesaid Oil, that corrosive, which ascended
with the Auripigment, will be separated and precipitated into a
yellow Calx, which edulcorated and dried, becomes so strong and
vomitive, as it cannot safely be given inwardly: but outwardly
sprinkled upon Wounds, it lays a good foundation for healing. But if
from the aforesaid yellow Powder, Oil of Vitriol be abstracted, it then
becomes so fixed, as it will bear the force of a most violent Fire,
without any exhalation of fume; and then loseth all its venome, and
may be most safely used from 1, 2, 3, 4, to 6, or 8 Grains, against
the Pestilence, all Feavers, and such Diseases where Sweat is
needfull. It is to be admired, that this Subject so very volatile and
venomous, should by one onely abstraction of Oil of Vitriol, become
so fixed and constant in Fire. Also it is no less admirable, that this Oil
like any other Oil of Minerals, doth not ascend in the form of a
Liquor, but like and in the form of some fat Vegetable Oil, whereas in
it is not any fatness at all, because all proceeds from the
Auripigment.
Moreover, it will be profitable also to teach, that the aforesaid
fixed Auripigment (whensoever unto it, by the help of Mercury of
Luna, ingress is procured) projected upon a Red-hot Plate of Copper,
renders the same totally white and as tractable as Silver. Which
things being known, although of little use, do notwithstanding
savour of a pleasing Curiosity, by which you will find, that of red
Copper, white Silver may be made. Also, after the same manner of
white and red Arsenick, such a medicinal Oil and Tincture may be
prepared for Venus. Note: Whosoever is desirous to labour herein,
must studiously avoid the venomous fume: For Arsenick cannot well
be handled without peril.
I might here also say something of the running Mercuries of
Metals; but since they rather appertain to the Transmutation of
Metals, than unto Medicine, I thought it best to pass over the
mentioning of these in this small Treatise, and to publish them in the
following Centuries.
C H A P. XIII.
Of the subtil and most penetrating Medicinal Spirits of Metals.
I n my little Book of Fires, and also in my fifth Part of the Spagyrick

Pharmacopœa, I have indeed made some mention of volatile
Spirits, but for brevity sake concealed the method of preparing.
When I considered, that such Works were judged by many
impossible, I thought it would be worth while here to insert the
Preparation of them; and that onely from one Metal, that every Man
may see the Verity of all the other. For whosoever is desirous to
operate in Metals, he may be able by this one Process sufficiently to
learn so much Skill, as it will not be difficult for him to extract such
volatile Spirits from other Metals also.
The way of preparing the volatile Spirits of Metals.
Recipe of the Steel Wyars, which the Needlemakers cannot use,
one Pound, which so heat in the Fire, as all squallidness and filth
may be burned away. Afterward put them into a glass Body, and
pour on them of the hereafter described dissolving Water 4, or 5,
Pound. Place the Vessel in Balneo or in Sand, and administer Fire so
to it, as the Water in the Glass surrounding the Steel may wax hot
and not boil; then the Water preys upon the Iron to be dissolved.
For in this Operation the Steel is dissolved, and fermented like new
Beer or Wine. In this Fermentation a certain most subtil Spirit of
Mars ascends, without any corrosive, breathing a very strong Odour,
and endued with a Taste vehemently penetrating. For such a Spirit
so penetrates the Tongue, as the taste long remains, although a Man
wash his mouth, yet this taste is not unpleasant. By penetrating the
Body of him that takes it down, it provokes Sweat copiously, opens
obstructions of the Liver, Spleen and Lungs, and comforts the vital
Spirits and Stomach. Also it is admirably conducent to the Health of
those, who are accustomed to drink Wine mixt with Water; because
it gives the Wine a gratefull Taste, and that far better, than the best
of sowrish Springs are able to perform. If any one knows how to
fortifie, or concentrate this Spirit by Rectification, he will be able to
effect wonders by the benefit of it; which indeed yields not to be so
readily concentrated, as Spirit of Wine: as you shall hear anon, yet it
is possible.
The Water is prepared in this manner.
Recipe of common Salt one Pound, which dissolve in 4, or 5 Pound
of common Water, and pour upon it half a Pound of Oil of Vitriol, to
which superadd some Steel-wyar, and thence by distilling separate
the Water; then no sharp Spirits will ascend with the Water, but all
the corrosive will remain with the Mars, and nothing ascend but a
subtil Spirit void of Corrosion. This moveth admiration, that of such
an hard and fixed Metal, with the help of so gentle heat, should
ascend such a flying and penetrating Spirit. But it is more to be
admired, that this white, volatile and penetrating Spirit, in a few
hours space, is able to turn it self into a fixed red Tincture: yet you
will find this incredible Miracle verified, thus.
Fill a glass Body above half full with our Spirit of Mars, yet take no
more of it than 5 or 6 Pound, because that would be more than is
needfull for Probation. Place the Body, with its Head luted well in
Sand, and distil off almost the Water by Ascent, so as onely half a
Pound may be left remaining in the bottom. Take what ascends out
of the Receiver, and you will find it endewed with little more taste
than Rain-water; and that because the volatile Spirit in this
Abstraction or Decoction is separated from the Water, and again
converted into a fixed Body, viz. A most red Powder. Which red
Powder is indeed a true Tincture, yet it hath no ingress into Metals,
unless that be procured to it by the help of Gold. Hence is fulfilled
the Precept of Philosophers thus teaching: Make the fixed volatile,
and render the volatile fixed. What, I pray, is more fixed than Iron?
What more volatile than its Spirit? And lastly, what more constant in
Fire, than the Spirit again fixed into a red Tincture?
Note: Whensoever the Glass with the remaining Water, in which
the red Powder is, shall by motion be disturbed, the Water will seem
to be blew, which blew colour ariseth onely from the Tincture, which
by that agitation is dissipated into most small Atoms. For when the
Tincture red as Blood is again setled in the bottom, the Water stands
above it white as before. Touching this flaming Sulphur Cosmopolita
thus speaks: When Philosophers have freed their Sulphur from his
tenebrous Prison, and see him swimming in his own Sea, they adore
him, that is, are delighted with his Beauty. But whosoever would
operate any thing to purpose, it will be expedient for him to provide
in readiness a good quantity of this Water, because from ten pound
of this Water, there is no more than one Scruple of our Sulphur to be
expected. Which Avicen, in his advice to his Son observed, saying,
he had need to procure to himself sixty pounds of that Water before
he began his Work. Touching which also Bracescus hath excellently
discoursed, although he was [seemingly] refuted by Tauladanus,
who (by reason of the great subtilty of his Wit) could not conceive,
that any good could lie hid in despicable gross Iron. But that good
Man Tauladanus no more understood the meaning of Bracescus than
he knew the nature of Iron. If any one be seised with the desire of
operating in this Subject, let him reade Bracescus, by whom he will
be sufficiently informed. But many by his Writings have erred,
through their mistake of what he mentions in the latter end of his
Book, viz. that he spake not of vulgar Iron, which by strong Fire
might be again reduced into Iron; but that such Iron was to be
chosen, as by the force of strong Fire, could turn it self into a green
or blewish Glass. Where the simple Readers following the bare letter,
sought their Tincture in common Scales of Iron, but to no purpose.
Here I speak of a blew or green Scoria, which can no more be
reduced into Iron. For whensoever any one shall melt our fixed
Sulphur mixt with Borax, although with most vehement Fire, yet he
shall never reduce it into Iron, but into a greenish Glass. This Crocus
Martis cannot do, nor any other destroyed Iron; but in Reduction it
will always yield some small Grains of Iron, wherefore thence no
Tincture can be made. For whatsoever is endewed with a tinging
Vertue must not be Metal, according to the Universal Consent of all
Philosophers. If any one would find out some excellent thing, let him
learn the Art of concentrating that, by which Concentration it will be
multiplied in vertue.
These few things I was willing at this time to communicate
touching the volatile Spirit, and fixed Sulphur of Mars, for publick
good. The whole work is neither difficult nor chargeable, because we
may use one and the same Menstruum always again and again, nor
is there need of new Expences, which are now easily acquirable.
These are things accurately to be noted, according as that most
ingenious Poet Virgil hath perspicuously hinted in these Verses.
Consider first, what here is to be done:

A Golden Branch, with Leaves of Gold thereon,
Upon a Tree concealed groweth: This
To the Infernal Juno sacred is.
But the whole Grove, with dismal shades of Night,
Obscure and keep this Tree from humane Sight;
And till some one shall take down from the Tree
This Golden Branch, there can no Entrance be
Into Earths Caverns. Beauteous Proserpine
Ordained hath that this rare Gift divine
Shall brought be unto her. No sooner is
The first Branch cropt, but in the place of this
A second sprouts; and that most pure and fine,
As did the first, with golden Leaves will shine.
Therefore distinguish Right; when rightly known
This Branch is unto thee, then with thy own
Hands crop the same: for it will follow Thee,
If thou, by Fates, for this Work chosen be;
If otherwise, no humane Violence,
Nor strength of Iron force it can from thence.
By these it evidently appears, that when one golden Bough is

cropped off that Tree, another follows; and not onely one and
another, but as often as you will crop one, another follows: Provided
the Heavens favour our Enterprize; otherwise all endeavour will be
vain. Yea, it will be impossible with hard Iron, or from hard Iron (as
the Gold-bearing Tree) to acquire or crop one Branch. Consider
these things in your Mind. For here are words plain and clear enough
to every man, whose Ears and Eyes G O D shall open.
C H A P. XIV.
Of the Preparation of the volatile and subtil Spirits of other

Metals, and of their Use.
N ote: This labour of preparing subtil Spirits of fixed Metals, and

of reducing volatile Spirits, into fixed Bodies, so fully explains
the Table of Hermes, as even Children may understand it. Also it
proves the verity of that Aphorism unanimously used by all
Philosophers: The fixed make volatile, and the volatile fixed. He,
whom G O D favours, will easily understand this; but to all others it
will remain most firmly locked, although it be described to them with
great clearness. I doubt not, but that this Work (when these my
Writings in time to come shall fall into the hands of most diligent
Searchers) will be more throughly sought into, and a nearer way
found, than this here described by me, by the benefit of which, the
Sulphur of Philosophers may be released out of that dark Prison, in
which he is kept bound with most strong Iron Chains. It would
amaze a man to think, that from such a tenebrous and shadowed
black Tree, such fair golden Branches should be cropped. Although
they (who are not Philosophers, but would be accounted such, whilst
they walk magnificently adorned with splendid cloathing) by reason
of their blind Pride cannot see what I have here clearly written; yet
those Artificers, who wearing Linnen Frocks, labour in their
simplicity, will see; because to their Endeavours G O D gives his
Benediction.
As I have here taught the way of extracting penetrating volatile
Spirits from contemptible old Iron, and of reducing those Spirits into
fixed tinging Bodies; so also from other Metals the same may be
prepared. Indeed one Metal is more apt for such an Operation than
another, and one gives forth its spirits more readily than another: yet
such Spirits may be extracted from all Metals, but with the help of
divers Solutions. For that Water which dissolves Gold, leaves Silver
undissolved, and what will dissolve Silver, dissolves not Gold.
Common Salt, and Salt Niter, with the Water and Oil of Vitriol, (but
rather of Sulphur) dissolve Sol, Mars, Venus and Jupiter. Niter the
Water and Oil of Sulphur dissolve Lune and Venus. Most sharp Wine
Vinegar dissolveth Saturn. The Spirit of Gold coagulates Mercury into
Sol, the Spirit of Silver coagulates it into Lune. Both these Spirits are
Medicinal. The Spirits of Venus and Jupiter are of a loathsome Taste
and Odour, and therefore unfit for Medicine. Spirit of Saturn is a
mere penetrating Venome, or a Water, which by its Odour suffocates
the vital Spirit, wherefore every man should studiously avoid it, since
its use cannot be without Peril; otherwise that Spirit in metallick
Works excels all. Nor do I believe we can easily prepare a Tincture,
whereby to coagulate Mercury, unless by the help of Saturn cold and
killing all living things, yet it must be warily handled.
With these I close up my discourse of these Spirits; because,
although of them much more might be spoken, yet it will not be the
part of a considerate man to cast Pearls before Swine. Besides, I
judge I have already divulged more than is fit. But it is worthy of all
observation, that G O D is a faithfull Defender and Governour of all
most subtil Arts and Things.
C H A P. XV.
How by the Benefit of a Magnet from the Air may be extracted an

Universal Medicine.
I t is sufficiently known, that the Life of all things is reconded in the

Air, without which Spirit, or Soul of the World, nothing in this
Universality of things can live or grow. But the Ancient Philosophers
sought out various ways, by which that Spirit might be brought from
a far off nigh unto us, be received and exhibited palpable, and at
length they found the way, and by the benefit of it performed great
things both in Medicine and in Alchymy, and that more or less,
according as one knew better than another how to intercept and
concentrate it. For the whole Art consists in this Concentration.
Therefore, since by the Grace of G O D, unto me also is something
known touching a like Concentration of the Universal Macrocosmick
Spirit of Life, I was not willing (like some envious or covetous man)
to keep so great a Gift of G O D to my self onely, and suffer the same
to be buried with me; but chose rather (for the health of mankind,
for the profit of my Neighbour, and for the Honour and Glory of
G O D) to impart something thereabout; yet no more than is fit or
convenient.
If any one desireth to extract some good thing from the Air, he
must first well understand what will be a good Magnet, and how to
make choice of an oportune place and time. For in a moist Season,
you shall extract nothing but an unprofitable Water from the Air.
Wherefore no man should undertake this labour of extracting, unless
in the height or midst of Summer, when the Air is very serene, void
of Clouds, and hot with the Solar Rays. Because, at such a time, the
Magnet, which you shall hang up in the Sun, immediately (from the
hot Rays of the Sun) extracts a medicinal Water, which every one
may use according to his Capacity. Also, I would have you to know,
that various Magnets are found, by help of which Water may be
extracted from the hot Air, but all such Waters make not for our
Universal Medicine. Yet I am willing here to subjoin some of those
vulgar Magnets.
The First Magnet.

With 3, 4, or 6 Pound of Mercury, or more or less fill small Stone
Jugs, or strong Glasses, which Glasses firmly closed let down into a
deep cold Well, where the Mercury in it self will concentrate the
Cold. Now, if you would extract Water from the Air, hang up such a
cold Glass or Jug full of Mercury in the Air, where it will presently
draw Water to it self. Therefore under the Glass or Jug must be set a
Glass Tunnel with a long Pipe; by which the distilling Water may be
received, and conveighed through the Pipe, from the hot Sun into a
cold Cellar. If this be not done, the Sun will again draw to it self the
distilled Spirit. You may leave the Magnet hanging as long as it
remains cold and Water distils from it: But assoon as no more water
will distil, you must immerge it again in a Cold Well, that it may
recover its Coldness. In the mean while, instead of it hang up
another; and repeat the labour so often as until you have gathered
water enough.
Another Magnet.
Hang up in the hot Sun Jugs or Glasses full of such water; which
of their own accord will their contract so great Coldness, as you can
scarcely endure to touch them with your hand. To them, as is
abovesaid, water will adhere, and distil into the Tunnels set under
them.
A Cold water is thus prepared. In common water, or Spirit of
Vitriol, dissolve of Sal. Armoniack and Salt-peter equal parts, as
much as can be dissolved. With this water fill your Glasses, and with
them, as is above shewed, extract water from the Air; and that will
be equal in vertue to the former. If you be desirous to extract
something more excellent from the Air, you must also expose to it
more excellent Magnets. For as is the Magnet so it extracts.
C H A P. XVI.
Proceed in your Work thus.
P repare 3 or 4 Pound of Oil of Sulphur per Campane, which

rectifie, that it may become very fiery: Then provide a large
Trough like a Chest or Box, which you may cover with linnen Cloath
so, as through it no Dust, but the Air onely may penetrate. In this
Chest set your rectified Oil of Sulphur, poured into divers small Pans
or Dishes so as they be not above half full. Leave these there three
or four Days, or so long Day and Night expose them to the Air, as
until the Oil of Sulphur hath drawn to it self so much Water as it self
was, and filled the Dishes. This being done, empty out all the Dishes
into one Glass Body, and in Balneo with gentle heat abstract thence
all the humidity. The Oil remaining in the Bottome again expose to
the Air in those Dishes, as before, so long as until they be filled.
That water again abstract thence, and proceed in extracting so long,
as until you have got water enough. This water passeth through all
Tinctures; but I have not as yet compleated this Work.
Note: All the best of that, which this Magnet draws from the Air,
remains with the Magnet it self or Oil of Sulphur, as its true Matrix, in
which it is nourished and ripened; as the most Ancient Hermes, or
the Father of all Philosophers, in his Smaragdine Table, hath
described in these words. Here the Soul of the World speaks. My
Father is Sol; my Mother is Luna; the Wind or Air secretly bears me
in its Belly: the Earth conceived and brought me forth, and is my
Nurse, &c. The Spirit of the World can bring forth no Fruits, unless it
be first seminated in a fit Matrix; because nothing in the World can
be progenited without a Womb. This our Magnet is of all Magnets
most gratefull to the Soul of the World, and a most natural Friend to
the Spirit of the World.
Much might be spoken touching this, but it is not necessary to
thrust pulse ready chewed into a sluggish Crows mouth, let him fly
out and seek for himself. Here, in this Work are verified those
sayings of Philosophers: Nature rejoyceth in Nature, Nature
overcomes Nature, Nature retains Nature. Here it is proper also to
observe, what Hermes, at the end of his Table saith; viz. My power
is not intire, or perfect, before I am turned into Earth. But how this
is to be done, I leave to the consideration of every Man. For the
unworthiness of the present wicked World forbids me to discourse
more amply thereof. To all men, whom G O D shall favour, these will
be clear enough. Yet elsewhere touching this matter (if G O D will)
ere long shall be taught.
C H A P. XVII.
How from Gold its Tincture may be extracted by help of a Magnet.
R ecipe of most pure Gold an ounce and a half, and of the Stellate
Regulus of Antimony made with Steel, one ounce, both which
melt together in a covered Crucible; and whilst in flux cast at times a
little Salt-peter, until the Niter shall have extracted all the Regulus of
Antimony from the Gold, and turned it into Scoria’s. Permit the
whole to flow well for some time, that the Gold may well settle to
the bottom from the Scoria, which will flow like water. Then pour all
out into a Cone, where the Gold becomes a Regulus, which must be
separated from the Scorias. This Regulus of Sol comes forth much
paler than it was before. If this pallid Sol be again melted with the
aforesaid Martial Regulus, and the Regulus thence abstracted by the
help of salt Niter, the Gold will come forth a little paler than it did the
first time. If you repeat this Operation 8, 10, or 12 times, you will
find your Gold at length almost totally white, and that its Tincture is
extracted from it by the help of that Regulus. The Tincture of Sol is
absconded in the Scorias; this, by the benefit of a certain
Antipathetick Salt, will be precipitated from the Fæces liquified, like a
Regulus highly tinged.
Note: Yet in these Cases, the Precipitation must be warily handled,
lest you also precipitate the Regulus [of Antimony] together with it,
and so vitiate the Tincture. For this Extraction no vulgar Regulus is
conducent, but such onely, as is made of good Steel, and hath such
a property, as when a Flint is strook upon it, it yields fiery Sparks, no
otherwise, than as from hardned Steel. Which vertue, if it hath not,
it cannot rightly draw to it self the Tincture of Gold, but all
endeavour will be in vain. This Extraction, Cosmopolita, in his new
Chymical Light, hath very well described and discovered in these
words. Such Chalibs must be taken, as is endewed with power of
extracting that from the Rays of the Sun, which many have sought,
but few found. But further he saith: There is found yet another
Chalibs, which from Gold extracts its Seed (if it be united or copulate
with it 12 times) and thence is impregnated; but the Gold is infirmed
even to death. But the Chalybs or Magnet brings forth a Son, which
will be more excellent than his Father, viz. Gold, whence he
proceeded, whosoever knows this Magnet (of which Cosmopolita
makes mention, and an hint of the preparation whereof I have here
shewed) and understands how to use the same, in two or three
Days he will behold and find so great things, as with the joy thereof
his heart will be satisfied. For, if any one hath Philosophick Eyes, he
will see what is most pleasing, if not, he will be no more delighted
than a Swine, who among the Sweepings of Vineyards hath
swallowed an inestimable Pearl or Jewel, but knows not the
difference between a Pearl and that Dung.
C H A P. XVIII.
How from Gold its Tincture may be extracted by another Method,

or by the benefit of a certain other Chalybs.
F irst, prepare the Green Lyon of Ancient Philosophers (by help of

my mineral Salt) of sulphureous Subjects. To this Green Lyon
cast Sol, that is, pure Gold; which he, through his greedy desire of
devouring always, will swallow, and thereby acquire to himself
notable Strength, Power and Beauty. For his whole Body will be
thence renewed. His head, with the fore part of his Body will shine
with a Grayish Hair, very like a Crows Head; but his Tail with the
hinder part of his Body will acquire many various and beautifull
Colours, resembling the genuine form of the Rain-Bow, or the Tail of
a Peacock. And as soon as the Green Lion hath sufficiently
concocted and digested the yellow Lion or Sol in his Stomach, he by
Seidge expells the Residue, which will be void of Colour or Bloud.
Then the Lion, proud and adorned with various and beautifull
Colours, walks to the Waters, in which he immergeth himself, and
washeth away all his Colours, and becomes totally white like a Swan,
which white Swan the Cook roasteth at the Fire: where that white
Swan first waxeth yellow, then more and more Red, untill he is able
at length to bear the Fire, and, like a Salamander, live in it without
any peril or hurt. This Red Salamander is one of the most noble
Medicaments that can be prepared by Art. This Operation I
performed but once; and then unto me appeared all those Colours
one after another, untill I obtained a Red Salamander, which is a
most present Remedy against all Diseases. But what it is able to
effect in Chymistry, as yet I have not known, being onely content
with a Medicine for Health.
C H A P. XIX.
Yet another way of extracting the Tincture from Gold.
R ecipe of our dried Red Bloud of Sol, in the form of Powder

irreducible one ounce, or an ounce an half of our Sulphureous
fixed Sal-mirabile five, six or seven ounces. Both which mixt together
put into a strong Crucible; which covered, set into a Wind-Furnace,
giving Fire so, as they may flow together like Water for the space of
half an hour afterward pour them out into some Iron Vessel, or
Cone, when the Sal-mirabile hath drawn from the Tincture of Gold a
Bloudy Colour. The Mixture cooled, separate the Red Scorias from
the Regulus, which will be white as Lune. Pulverise the Red Scoria,
or tinged Sal-mirabile, upon which pour common Water; this Water
dissolves the Sal-mirabile, not indeed tinged with a Red, but
greenish Colour. Filter the Solution, and evaporate the unprofitable
Water in a Glass-dish. Then in the bottom will remain a Red Salt,
which fortified with the Seal of Hermes or Luting of Sapience, keep
for a sufficient time in a continual Fire of Coals: for then the Sulphur,
as yet immature, will fix it self with the Sol, and become constant in
Fire. From that Lute of Sapience, you may afterward (by the help of
a proper Magnet) abstract a fixed Tincture, and convert the same to
Medicinal use.
Note: That green Saline Water, in which the Redness is latent,
coagulates Mercury into Sol, not indeed for wealthy profit, but onely
by the benefit of that to know the possibility of such a Work. The
Red slime, whence the Salt is extracted by the benefit of common
Water, must be taken out of the Filter, mixed with new Sal-mirabile,
and in a strong Crucible be made to flow well for half an hour. Then
also more Tincture will be extracted, and a white Regulus of Sol
again settle to the bottom. If this labour be a third time repeated,
the Tincture will be good, and a white Regulus will again settle, yet
not so much, as was the first and second time.
C H A P. XX.
How by the benefit of a certain Metallick Salt, from Venus her Son
Cupid, or rather the true Mercury of Philosophers, may be
prepared in the space of One Day, so, as to sustain the Trial of
a Cupel: and indeed, it is neither Sol nor Lune, but a Tincture
most ample for certain white Subjects.
A s for the Method of Proceeding, I have willingly offered to the

Sons of Art occasion of understanding That: but the thing it self
is of so easie Operation, as even the Forgers of infamous Libels, and
all the Brethren of Ignorance, would understand and perform the
same, if any One in describing it should give them but a very little
Light. It would be an unadvised thing to cast so noble a Pearl before
Swine. Wherefore I must forbear to write fundamentally of it.
Nevertheless, that the World may know such a Tincture is in the
Nature of things, and may be prepared of Things of small value; I
confess I thought it worth while to discover something thereof.
Recipe of irreducible fixed Arsenick, and of Mercury of Luna, of
each eight ounces. Both which Species being diligently mixed, you
will have a famous Cementing Powder, by help of which you may
perfect this Arcanum, thus:
Recipe of Plates of Venus beat thin and cut small four ounces,
which, with the Cementing Powder above mentioned, (making Lay
upon Lay, as the manner is) into a Cementing Box glazed within, the
Cover of which you must lute very well, and place that in a
Cementatory Furnace; or (if you have not such a Furnace) upon a
Chimney Hearth, putting so many Coals round about, as the Box
may be covered well. Kindle the Fire above, and heat the Box
leisurely, and keep it there red-hot among the Coals ten or twelve
hours. Then let your Fire go out, and the Box cool: out of which, if
you take your Cement, you will find, that the Volatile Spirits of Luna,

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1 An Introduction to Meta-​Heuristic Optimization 1

2 Pattern Search Algorithm 32

2.2.1 Initiation Stage 35

4 Simulated Annealing Algorithm 68

5 Tabu Search Algorithm 81

6 Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm 94

6.2.3 Termination Stage 106

7 Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm 113

8 Differential Evolution Algorithm 130

9 Harmony Search Algorithm 144

10 Shuffled Frog-​Leaping Algorithm 158

10.2.2 Foraging Stage 164

11 Invasive Weed Optimization Algorithm 176

12 Biogeography-​Based Optimization Algorithm 192

13 Cuckoo Search Algorithm 210

14 Firefly Algorithm 223

14.2.1 Initiation Stage 227

15 Gravitational Search Algorithm 236

16 Plant Propagation Algorithm 251

17 Teaching-​Learning-​Based Optimization Algorithm 264

18 Bat Algorithm 278

18.2.1 Initiation Stage 281

19 Flower Pollination Algorithm 293

20 Water Cycle Algorithm 307

21 Symbiotic Organisms Search Algorithm 323

1.1 Search space of a standard constrained two-​dimensional

6.1 The general scheme of a double-​bridge experiment with a single

18.2 Pseudocode for the bat algorithm 288

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1.2 Components of an Optimization Problem

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A. Is the standing part of the Furnace.

The way of preparing another Medicine of Sulphur onely.

Anther secret Fire of Philosophers, by which all venemous and

R ectifie Spirit of Wine so perfectly well from all Phlegm, as it will

Where first is exhibited an efficacious Medicine from this

P repare you of stony Earth polishable in Fire, or of Metal, a

How by the benefit of this secret Vegetable Fire, the Microcosmick

R ectifie Spirit of Urine as highly as you can, according to my

How the Tincture or Soul of Antimony may be purified by the

1 An Introduction to Meta-Heuristic Optimization 1

10 Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm 158

12 Biogeography-Based Optimization Algorithm 192

17 Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization Algorithm 264

19 Flower Pollination Algorithm 293

20 Water Cycle Algorithm 307

21 Symbiotic Organisms Search Algorithm 323

1.1 Search space of a standard constrained two-dimensional

6.1 The general scheme of a double-bridge experiment with a single

Computational intelligence-based optimization methods, often referred to as meta-

In an optimization problem, there are so-called variables that, by changing

In most practical, real-world optimization problems, such as those revolving