UNIT-3

FUZZY LOGIC SYSTEM

➢ INTRODUCTION TO CRISP SETS AND FUZZY SETS
➢ BASIC FUZZY SET OPERATION AND APPROXIMATE REASONING
➢ INTRODUCTION TO FUZZY LOGIC MODELLING AND CONTROL
➢ FUZZIFICATION
➢ INFERENCING
➢ DEFUZZIFICATION
➢ FUZZY KNOWLEDGE AND RULE BASES
➢ FUZZY MODELLING AND CONTROL SCHEMES FOR NONLINEAR SYSTEMS
➢ SELF ORGANIZING FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL
➢ FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL FOR NONLINEAR TIME DELAY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO CRISP SETS AND FUZZY SETS

Fuzzy set and Crisp set are two different set theories.

The crisp set utilizes the bi-valued logic. In contrast, the fuzzy set utilizes the infinite-valued logic.

Crisp sets have elements with binary membership, whereas fuzzy sets have components with degrees of
membership.

Fuzzy Logic resembles the human decision-making methodology and deals with vague and imprecise
information.
Set:

A set is a term, which is a collection of unordered or ordered elements. Following are the various examples
of a set:

1. A set of all-natural numbers

2. A set of students in a class.
3. A set of all cities in a state.
4. A set of upper-case letters of the alphabet.

Crisp Set (Classical Set):

It is a type of set which collects the distinct objects in a group. The sets with the crisp boundaries are classical
sets. In any set, each single entity is called an element or member of that set.

A and B sets have strict boundaries.

Mathematical Representation of Sets:

Any set can be easily denoted in the following two different ways:
1. Roaster Form: This is also called as a tabular form. In this form, the set is represented in the following
way:

Set name = {element1, element2, element3, ......, element N}

The elements in the set are enclosed within the brackets and separated by the commas.

Following are the two examples which describes the set in Roaster or Tabular form:

Example 1:

Set of Natural Numbers: N= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ......, n).

Example 2:

Set of Prime Numbers less than 50: X= {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47}.

2. Set Builder Form: Set Builder form defines a set with the common properties of an element in a set. In
this form, the set is represented in the following way:

A = {x: p(x)}

The following example describes the set in the builder form:

Example 1 − The set {a, e, i, o, u} is written as

A = {x: x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Example 2 − The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as

B = {x:1 ≤ x < 10 and (x%2) ≠ 0}

Example 3 - The set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18} is written as:
H = {x:2 ≤ x < 20 and (x%2) = 0}

**If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by x∈S and if an element y is not a member of set
S, it is denoted by y ∉ S.

Example − If S = {1,1.2,1.7,2},1 ∈ S but 1.5 ∉ S

Types of Set:

There are following various categories of set:

1. Finite Set:
A set that contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example − S = {x| x ∈ N and 70 > x > 50}

2. Empty Set:
 An empty set contains no elements. It is denoted by Φ. As the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, an empty set is a finite set. The cardinality of an empty set or null set is zero.
Example – S = {x| x ∈ N and 7 < x < 8} = Φ

3. Infinite Set:
A set that contains an infinite number of elements is called an infinite set.
Example − S = {x| x ∈ N and x > 10}

4. Proper set:
The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not equal to”. A Set X is a proper subset
of set Y (Written as X ⊂ Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y and |X| < |Y| . (subset has
fewer elements than the set)
Example − Let, X = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y = {1,2}. Here set Y ⊂ X, since all elements in Y are
contained in X too and X has at least one element which is more than set Y.

5. Universal Set:
It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or application. All the sets in that context or
application are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are represented as U.
Example − We may define U as the set of all animals on Earth. In this case, a set of all mammals is
a subset of U, a set of all fishes is a subset of U, a set of all insects is a subset of U, and so on.

6. Subset:
A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X ⊆ Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y. (Subset
has few or all elements equal to the set)
Example 1 − Let, X = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y = {1,2}. Here set Y is a subset of set X as all the elements
of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.
Example 2 − Let, X = {1,2,3} and Y = {1,2,3}. Here set Y is a subset (not a proper subset) of set X
as all the elements of set Y are in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.

7. Singleton Set:
A Singleton set or Unit set contains only one element. A singleton set is denoted by {s}.
Example − S = {x| x ∈ N, 7 < x < 9} = {8}
8. Equal Set:
If two sets contain the same elements, they are said to be equal.
Example − If A = {1,2,6} and B = {6,1,2}, they are equal as every element of set A is an element of
set B and every element of set B is an element of set A

9. Equivalent Set:
If the cardinalities of two sets are the same, they are called equivalent sets.
Example − If A = {1,2,6} and B = {16,17,22}, they are equivalent as the cardinality of A is equal to
the cardinality of B. i.e., |A| = |B| = 3

10. Disjoint Set:

 Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have even one element in common
**The cardinality of a Set:
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements of the set. The number is also referred
to as the cardinal number. If a set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality is ∞.
Example − | {1,4,3,5} | = 4,
| {1,2,3,4, 5, …} | = ∞
Operations on Classical Sets:
Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference, Complement of Set, and Cartesian
Product.
Union:
The union of sets A and B (denoted by A ∪ B) is the set of elements that are in A, in B, or in both A and B.
Hence, A ∪ B = {x| x ∈ A OR x ∈ B}.
Example − If A = {10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then A ∪ B = {10,11,12,13,14,15} – The common
element occurs only once.

Intersection:
The intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A ∩ B) is the set of elements that are in both A and B. Hence,
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A AND x ∈ B}.

Difference/ Relative Complement:

The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A–B) is the set of elements that are only in A but not in B.
Hence, A − B = {x|x ∈ A AND x ∉ B}.
Example − If A = {10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then (A − B) = {10,11,12} and (B − A) = {14,15}.
Here, we can see (A − B) ≠ (B − A)

Complement of a Set:
The complement of a set A (denoted by A′) is the set of elements that are not in set A. Hence, A′ = {x|x ∉
A}.
More specifically, A′ = (U−A) where U is a universal set which contains all objects.
Example − If A = {x|x belongs to set of add integers} then A′ = {y|y does not belong to set of odd integers}
Cartesian Product / Cross Product:
The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1, A2,…An denoted as A1 × A2...× An can be defined as all
possible ordered pairs (x1,x2,…xn) where x1 ∈ A1,x2 ∈ A2,…xn ∈ An
Example − If we take two sets A = {a,b} and B = {1,2},
The Cartesian product of A and B is written as − A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
And, the Cartesian product of B and A is written as − B × A = {(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}
Properties of Classical Set:

1. Commutative Property:

This property provides the following two states which are obtained by two finite sets A and B:
A∪B=B∪A
A∩ B= B ∩ A

2. Associative Property:

This property also provides the following two states but these are obtained by three different finite sets A, B,
and C:
A∪(B∪C) =(A∪B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

3. Idempotency Property:

This property also provides the following two states but for a single finite set A:
A∪A=A
A∩ A=A

4. Absorption Property

This property also provides the following two states for any two finite sets A and B:
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

5. Distributive Property:

This property also provides the following two states for any three finite sets A, B, and C:
A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A∩ (B ∪ C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
6. Identity Property:

This property provides the following four states for any finite set A and Universal set X:
A ∪ φ =A
A∩X=A
A∩φ=φ
A∪X=X

7. Transitive property

This property provides the following state for the finite sets A, B, and C:
If A ⊆ B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

8. Involution property

This property provides the following state for any finite set A:
̿ =A
A

9. De Morgan's Law

This law gives the following rules for providing the contradiction and tautologies:

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 =𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅
Features of Crisp Set:

There are various features of the Crisp Set. Some main features of Crisp Set are as follows:
1. An element's Boolean condition of obedience in a crisp set denotes either membership or not.
2. A set in which each element has degree one of membership and each element in the complement of
this set has degree zero of membership.
3. A typical set is where an element is either a member or not of the set.
4. A set that is specified using a characteristic function that gives each element of the universe a value
of either 0 or 1, distinguishing between elements that are members of the crisp set under consideration
and those that are not.

Fuzzy Set:

The set theory of classical is the subset of the Fuzzy set theory. This theory was released as an extension of
classical set theory.

Fuzzy Logic was introduced in 1965 by Lofti A. Zadeh in his research paper “Fuzzy Sets”. He is considered
as the father of Fuzzy Logic.

The word fuzzy refers to things that are not clear or are vague. Any event, process, or function that is
changing continuously cannot always be defined as either true or false, which means that we need to define
such activities in a Fuzzy manner. Fuzzy sets do not have strict boundaries
What is Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy Logic resembles the human decision-making methodology. It deals with vague and imprecise
information. This is a gross oversimplification of real-world problems and is based on degrees of truth rather
than usual true/false or 1/0 like Boolean logic.

Take a look at the following diagram. It shows that in fuzzy systems, the values are indicated by a number
in the range from 0 to 1. Here 1.0 represents absolute truth and 0.0 represents absolute falseness. The
number which indicates the value in fuzzy systems is called the truth value.

A fuzzy set is a collection of components with varying degrees of membership in the set.. Fuzzy sets are
denoted or represented by the tilde (~) character. In the fuzzy set, the partial membership also exists.

A fuzzy set 𝐴̃ in the universe of information U can be defined as a set of ordered pairs and it can be
represented mathematically as the universe of discourse (U) is also denoted by Ω or X.

𝐴̃={(y,μ𝐴̃(y))|y∈U}

Here μ𝐴̃(y)= degree of membership of y in {𝐴̃}, assumes values in the range from 0 to 1, i.e., μ𝐴̃(y) ∈ [0,1]
Membership Function:
The membership function is a function that represents the graph of fuzzy sets and allows users to quantify
the linguistic term. It is a graph that is used for mapping each element of x to the value between 0 and 1.
This function is also known as the indicator or characteristics function.
This function of Membership was introduced in the first papers of fuzzy set by Zadeh. For the Fuzzy set B,
the membership function for X is defined as μB : X → [0,1]. In this function X, each element of set B is
mapped to the value between 0 and 1. This is called a degree of membership or membership value.
FEATURES OF MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION:
The feature of the membership function is defined by three properties:
(i) Core
(ii) Support
(iii) Boundary
 (i) Core: If the region of the universe is characterized by full membership 1 in the set A then this
gives the core of the membership function of fuzzy at A. The elements that have the membership
function as 1 are the elements of the core,
i.e., ( A(x))= 1.
(ii) Support: If the region of the universe is characterized by nonzero membership in the set A, this
defines the support of a membership function for fuzzy set A. The support has the elements whose
membership is greater than zero, A(x) > 0.
(iii) Boundary: If the region of the universe has a nonzero membership but not full membership, this
defines the boundary of a membership function; this defines the boundary of a membership
function for fuzzy set A. The boundaries have the elements whose memberships are between 0
and 1, i.e., 0<A(x)<1 These are the standard regions defined in the membership functions.
Crossover point:
The crossover point of a membership function is the element in a universe whose membership value is equal
to 0.5 i.e., A(x)=0.5
Height:
The height of the fuzzy set A is the maximum value of the membership function,
i e.., max ( A(x)) .The membership functions can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

Representation of fuzzy set:

Case 1
When the universe of information U is discrete and finite –
Case 2
When the universe of information U is continuous and infinite −

In the above representation, the summation symbol represents the collection of each element.
Characteristics of Fuzzy Logic:
Following are the characteristics of fuzzy logic:
1. This concept is flexible and we can easily understand and implement it.
2. It is used for helping the minimization of the logics created by the human.
3. It is the best method for finding the solution of those problems which are suitable for approximate
or uncertain reasoning.
4. It always offers two values, which denote the two possible solutions for a problem and statement.
5. It allows users to build or create functions that are non-linear of arbitrary complexity.
6. In fuzzy logic, everything is a matter of degree.
7. In Fuzzy logic, any system which is logical can be easily fuzzified.
8. It is based on natural language processing.
9. It is also used by quantitative analysts to improve their algorithm's execution.
10. It also allows users to integrate with the programming.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuzzy Set:

Advantages
1. It is adaptable and can accommodate changes.
2. The logic is robust and straightforward, and it may be adjusted to meet user needs.
3. This logic system has a simple structure and is easy to build.
4. It can process multiple sorts of inputs at once and make accurate decisions utilizing precise functions.
5. The methodology of this concept works similarly to human reasoning.
6. Any user can easily understand the structure of Fuzzy Logic.
7. It does not need a large memory, because the algorithms can be easily described with fewer data.
8. It is widely used in all fields of life and easily provides effective solutions to problems which have
high complexity.
9. This concept is based on the set theory of mathematics, so that's why it is simple.
10. It allows users for controlling the control machines and consumer products.
11. The development time of fuzzy logic is short as compared to conventional methods.
 12. Due to its flexibility, any user can easily add and delete rules in the FLS system.

Disadvantages
1. These are not frequently used because of faulty data gathering.
2. Its controller relies entirely on expertise and human knowledge. These controllers are incapable of
distinguishing between machine learning and neural networks.
3. The system's efficiency is low since it relies heavily on faulty inputs.
4. The fuzzy logic control system must be upgraded on a regular basis.
5. The run time of fuzzy logic systems is slow and takes a long time to produce outputs.
6. Users can understand it easily if they are simple.
7. The possibilities produced by the fuzzy logic system are not always accurate.
8. Many researchers give various ways for solving a given statement using this technique which leads
to ambiguity.
9. Fuzzy logic is not suitable for those problems that require high accuracy.
10. The systems of Fuzzy logic need a lot of testing for verification and validation.
Properties of Fuzzy Sets:
Commutative Property:
Having two fuzzy sets 𝐴̃and 𝐵̃, this property states
𝐴̃ ∪ 𝐵̃ = 𝐵̃ ∪ 𝐴̃
𝐴̃ ∩ 𝐵̃ = 𝐵̃ ∩ 𝐴̃

Associative Property
Having three fuzzy sets 𝐴̃ , 𝐵̃ and 𝐶̃ , this property states –

à ∪ (B
̃∪C̃) = (A
̃∪B
̃) ∪ C̃
̃ ∩ (B
A ̃ ∩ C̃) = (A
̃∩B̃) ∩ C̃
Distributive Property
Having three fuzzy sets 𝐴̃ , 𝐵̃ and 𝐶̃ ,this property states –
𝐴̃ ∪ (𝐵̃ ∩ 𝐶̃ ) =(𝐴̃ ∪ 𝐵̃ ) ∩ (𝐴̃ ∪ 𝐶̃ )
𝐴̃ ∩ (𝐵̃ ∪ 𝐶̃ ) =(𝐴̃ ∩ 𝐵̃ ) ∪ (𝐴̃ ∩ 𝐶̃ )
Idempotency Property
For any fuzzy set 𝐴̃ , this property states –
𝐴̃ ∪ 𝐴̃ = 𝐴̃
𝐴̃ ∩ 𝐴̃ = 𝐴̃
Identity Property
For fuzzy set 𝐴̃ and universal set U, this property states –

̃∪ ∅=A
A ̃
̃ ∩ U= A
A ̃
̃∩ ∅=∅
A
̃∪ U=U
A
Equality
Two fuzzy sets A and B are said to be equal i.e, A = B if and only if μA(x) = μB(x) Which means their
membership values must be equal.
Transitive Property
Having three fuzzy sets 𝐴̃ , 𝐵̃ and 𝐶̃ , this property states –
 If 𝐴̃ ⊆ 𝐵̃ ⊆ 𝐶̃ , then 𝐴̃ ⊆ 𝐶̃

Involution Property
For any fuzzy set 𝐴̃ , this property states –
𝐴̃̿ =𝐴̃
De Morgan’s Law
This law plays a crucial role in proving tautologies and contradiction. This law states
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴̃ ∩ 𝐵̃ = 𝐴̃̅ ∪ 𝐵̅̃
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴̃ ∪ 𝐵̃ = 𝐴̃̅ ∩ 𝐵̅̃

Key Differences between Fuzzy Set and Crisp Set:

There are various key differences between Fuzzy Set and Crisp Set. Some main differences between Fuzzy
Set and Crisp Set are as follows:
1. The indeterminate limits of a fuzzy set define it, and there is doubt about the set's boundaries. In
contrast, a crisp set is characterized by crisp boundaries and has the specific location of the set
boundaries.
2. The fuzzy set adheres to the logic of infinite values. In contrast, a crisp set is built on bi-valued logic.
3. A fuzzy set has partial membership, which implies it ranges from true to false, yes to no, and 0 to 1.
On the other hand, the crisp set is a full membership which means completely true/false, 0/1.
4. A fuzzy set defines the degree to which anything is true. On the other hand, the Crisp set is also
known as a classical set.
5. The fuzzy set specifies a number between 0 and 1, which includes both 0 and 1. On the other hand,
the crisp set specifies the value as either 0 or 1.
6. The fuzzy set is utilized in the fuzzy controller. On the other hand, the Crisp set is employed for
digital design.
7. Crisp and fuzzy set theory have different apps, but both are geared toward the construction of efficient
expert systems.
8. A fuzzy set indicates incomplete membership. On the other hand, the crisp set displays complete
membership.

Comparison between Fuzzy Set and Crisp Set:

The main differences between the Fuzzy Set the and Crisp Set are as follows:

Features Fuzzy Set Crisp Set

Basic It is prescribed by vague or It is defined by precise and specific

ambiguous properties. characteristics.

Definition It is a set of components with It is a set of objects that have the same
different membership degrees in countability and finiteness qualities.
the set.

Applications It is commonly utilized in fuzzy It is commonly utilized in digital

controllers. design.
 Membership It shows incomplete membership. It shows the complete membership.

Logic It follows the infinite-valued logic. It follows the bi-valued logic.

Value It specifies a number between 0 and It specifies the value as either 0 or 1.

1, which includes both 0 and 1.

Degree It defines the degree to which It is defined by 0 or 1

anything is true.

Boundaries This theory is a class of those sets This theory is a class of those sets
having un-sharp boundaries. having sharp boundaries.

BASIC FUZZY SET OPERATION AND APPROXIMATE REASONING

Operations on Fuzzy Set:

Given ‘X’ to be a universe of discourse and an element 𝑦 of the universe, 𝐴̃ and 𝐵̃ are two fuzzy sets with
membership function μ𝐴̃(x) and μ𝐵̃(x) then,

The operations of the Fuzzy set are as follows:

1. Union Operation/ Fuzzy ‘OR’:

The union operation of a fuzzy set is defined by:

μA∪B(x) = max (μA(x), μB(x))

Here ∨ represents the ‘max’ operation.

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set that contains the following elements:

A = {(X1, 0.6), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.4)}

And, B is a set that contains the following elements:

B = {(X1, 0.1), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0), (X4, 0.9)}

then,
AUB = {(X1, 0.6), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.9)}
Because according to this operation

For X1
μA∪B(X1) = max (μA(X1), μB(X1))
μA∪B(X1) = max (0.6, 0.1)
μA∪B(X1) = 0.6

For X2
μA∪B(X2) = max (μA(X2), μB(X2))
μA∪B(X2) = max (0.2, 0.8)
μA∪B(X2) = 0.8

For X3
μA∪B(X3) = max (μA(X3), μB(X3))
μA∪B(X3) = max (1, 0)
μA∪B(X3) = 1

For X4
μA∪B(X4) = max (μA(X4), μB(X4))
μA∪B(X4) = max (0.4, 0.9)
μA∪B(X4) = 0.9
2. Intersection Operation/ Fuzzy ‘AND’:

The intersection operation of the fuzzy sets is defined by:

μA∩B(x) = min (μA(x), μB(x))

Here ∧ represents the ‘min’ operation.

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set that contains the following elements:

A = {(X1, 0.3), (X2, 0.7), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

And, B is a set that contains the following elements:

B = {(X1, 0.8), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.9)}
then,
A∩B = {(X1, 0.3), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.1)}

Because according to this operation

For X1
μA∩B(X1) = min (μA(X1), μB(X1))
μA∩B(X1) = min (0.3, 0.8)
μA∩B(X1) = 0.3

For X2
μA∩B(X2) = min (μA(X2), μB(X2))
μA∩B(X2) = min (0.7, 0.2)
μA∩B(X2) = 0.2

For X3
μA∩B(X3) = min (μA(X3), μB(X3))
μA∩B(X3) = min (0.5, 0.4)
μA∩B(X3) = 0.4

For X4
μA∩B(X4) = min (μA(X4), μB(X4))
μA∩B(X4) = min (0.1, 0.9)
μA∩B(X4) = 0.1
3. Complement Operation/ Fuzzy ‘NOT’:

The complement operation of a fuzzy set is defined by:

μĀ (x)= 1-μA(x),

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set that contains the following elements:

A = {(X1, 0.3), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

then,
Ā= {(X1, 0.7), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.9)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1
μĀ(X1) = 1-μA(X1)
μĀ(X1) = 1 - 0.3
μĀ(X1) = 0.7

For X2
μĀ(X2) = 1-μA(X2)
μĀ(X2) = 1 - 0.8
μĀ(X2) = 0.2
For X3
μĀ(X3) = 1-μA(X3)
μĀ(X3) = 1 - 0.5
μĀ(X3) = 0.5

For X4
μĀ(X4) = 1-μA(X4)
μĀ(X4) = 1 - 0.1
μĀ(X4) = 0.9
Vector Product of Two Fuzzy Sets
The product of two fuzzy sets A & B is a new fuzzy set A.B with membership function:

Product of Fuzzy Sets with a Crisp Number (Scalar product)

Multiplying a fuzzy set A by a crisp number ‘n’ results in a new fuzzy set n.A, whose membership function
is

Power of a Fuzzy Set

The alpha power of a fuzzy set A is a new fuzzy set Aα whose membership function is:

that is, individual membership power of α

Sum of Fuzzy Sets A+B
The sum of two fuzzy sets A and B is a new fuzzy set A+B defined as
𝜇𝐴+𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝜇𝐴 (𝑥) + 𝜇𝐵 (𝑥) − 𝜇𝐴 (𝑥)𝜇𝐵 (𝑥)

Difference of Fuzzy Sets

The differences of two fuzzy sets A and B is a new fuzzy set A-B which is defined as
𝜇𝐴−𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝜇𝐴∩𝐵𝑐 (𝑥)
Disjunctive Sum of A & B
It is the new fuzzy set A⊕B defined as follow:
𝜇𝐴⊕𝐵 (𝑥)=𝜇(𝐴𝑐∩𝐵)∪(𝐴∩𝐵𝑐 ) (𝑥)

Cartesian Product of Two Fuzzy Sets AXB

𝜇𝐴x𝐵 (𝑥)=min (𝜇𝐴 (𝑥), 𝜇𝐵 (𝑦))

Applications of Fuzzy Logic:

Following are the different application areas where the Fuzzy Logic concept is widely used:
1. It is used in Businesses for the decision-making support system.
2. It is used in Automotive systems for controlling traffic and speed, and for improving the efficiency
of automatic transmissions. Automotive systems also use the shift scheduling method for automatic
transmissions.
3. This concept is also used in the Defence in various areas. Defence mainly uses Fuzzy logic systems
for underwater target recognition and the automatic target recognition of thermal infrared images.
4. It is also widely used in Pattern Recognition and Classification in the form of Fuzzy logic-based
recognition and handwriting recognition. It is also used in the search of fuzzy images.
5. Fuzzy logic systems are also used in Securities.
6. It is also used in microwave oven for setting the lunes power and cooking strategy.
7. This technique is also used in the area of modern control systems such as expert systems.
8. Finance is also another application where this concept is used for predicting the stock market, and
for managing the funds.
9. It is also used for controlling the brakes.
10. It is also used in the industries of chemicals for controlling the ph, and chemical distillation process.
11. It is also used in the industries of manufacturing for the optimization of milk and cheese production.
12. It is also used in heaters, air conditioners, and humidifiers.
13. In washing machines, vacuum cleaners, fuzzy logic is widely used for automation.
14. Fuzzy logic is used in computer-aided diagnostic systems.
15. Fuzzy logic is used in gear selection in automobiles based on some factors like road conditions,
engine load, and the style of driving.
16. Fuzzy logic is used in aerospace to manage the altitude of satellites and spacecraft.
17. In process industries, fuzzy logic is mostly used for the control of pH and conductivity.
18. The neural network uses fuzzy logic to make decisions faster.
Fuzzy Logic - Approximate Reasoning
A method of processing information (data) through fuzzy rules is called approximate reasoning. If we have
only one fuzzy rule like “if the size is big, then speed is slow”, and we are given a (fuzzy) value for the size,
then approximate reasoning gives us a method of computing a conclusion about speed. The terms “big”,
“slow” and the data for “size” are all represented as fuzzy sets.
Following are the different modes of approximate reasoning −
Categorical Reasoning:
Categorical reasoning in fuzzy logic involves the use of categorical variables and concepts to make
approximate, non-binary decisions. Here are five key points about categorical reasoning in fuzzy logic:
1. Categorical Variables: In fuzzy logic, categorical reasoning deals with variables that are divided
into categories or classes, rather than continuous numerical values. These categories are often
represented as linguistic terms (e.g., "low," "medium," "high") that capture qualitative information.
2. Fuzzy Sets: Categorical reasoning employs fuzzy sets to handle these linguistic categories. Each
category is associated with a fuzzy set that defines its membership function, representing the degree
to which an element belongs to that category. This allows for the modeling of imprecise and vague
concepts.
3. Fuzzy Inference: Fuzzy logic uses categorical reasoning in its inference process, where fuzzy rules
are applied to input data. These rules involve linguistic variables and terms, allowing for approximate
reasoning based on qualitative knowledge.
4. Granularity: The granularity of categories is an important aspect of categorical reasoning. It
determines how finely or coarsely categories are defined within a linguistic variable. Adjusting
granularity can significantly impact the precision and sensitivity of fuzzy logic systems.
5. Applications: Categorical reasoning in fuzzy logic finds applications in fields like control systems,
decision-making, and expert systems, where it is often used to handle complex, uncertain, and
qualitative data. It provides a flexible framework for capturing and processing categorical information
in a way that mimics human reasoning.
Qualitative Reasoning:
In this mode of approximate reasoning, the antecedents and consequents have fuzzy linguistic
variables; the input-output relationship of a system is expressed as a collection of fuzzy IF-THEN
rules. This reasoning is mainly used in control system analysis. Qualitative reasoning in fuzzy logic
involves the use of qualitative information and relationships to make approximate decisions. Here are
five key points about qualitative reasoning in fuzzy logic:
1. Linguistic Terms: Qualitative reasoning often relies on linguistic terms (e.g., "hot," "cold," "fast,"
"slow") to describe system variables and their relationships. These terms capture qualitative,
imprecise information in a way that is more intuitive for humans.
2. Fuzzy Sets: Fuzzy sets are used to represent and manipulate qualitative information in qualitative
reasoning. Each linguistic term is associated with a fuzzy set that defines its membership function,
allowing for the modeling of imprecise and vague concepts.
3. Inference: Qualitative reasoning in fuzzy logic involves making inferences based on qualitative rules
and relationships. These rules are expressed in terms of linguistic variables and terms, enabling
approximate reasoning using qualitative knowledge.
4. Causal Relationships: Qualitative reasoning often focuses on capturing and reasoning about causal
relationships between variables. For example, if the temperature rises, the humidity tends to decrease.
Fuzzy logic allows for the representation and manipulation of these qualitative cause-and-effect
relationships.
5. Applications: Qualitative reasoning in fuzzy logic is applied in fields such as expert systems, control
systems, and decision-making, where understanding and reasoning about c
6. omplex, uncertain, and qualitative data is essential. It provides a flexible framework for handling
qualitative information and making approximate decisions in a manner that mimics human reasoning.

Syllogistic Reasoning:
 In this mode of approximation reasoning, antecedents with fuzzy quantifiers are related to inference
rules. This is expressed as −
x = S1A′s are B′s
y = S2C′s are D′s
------------------------
z = S3E′s are F′s
Here A,B,C,D,E,F are fuzzy predicates.
• S1 and S2 are given fuzzy quantifiers.
• S3 is the fuzzy quantifier which has to be decided.
Syllogistic reasoning in fuzzy logic refers to the application of fuzzy logic principles to classical
syllogisms or deductive reasoning. Here are five key points about syllogistic reasoning in fuzzy
logic:
1. Fuzzy Propositions: Instead of dealing with crisp (true/false) propositions, syllogistic
reasoning in fuzzy logic allows for propositions with degrees of truth or membership. This means
that the premises and conclusions in syllogisms can have fuzzy truth values, reflecting uncertainty
and imprecision.
2. Fuzzy Quantifiers: Fuzzy logic introduces fuzzy quantifiers (e.g., "most," "few," "almost
all") that describe the extent of membership in a fuzzy set. In syllogistic reasoning, these fuzzy
quantifiers can be used to quantify the relationships between sets in a more flexible manner than
traditional quantifiers.
3. Fuzzy Inference: Fuzzy inference engines are employed to perform syllogistic reasoning.
These engines use fuzzy rules to determine the degree of truth or membership of the conclusion
based on the fuzzy truth values of the premises and the rules governing the syllogism.
4. Uncertainty Handling: Syllogistic reasoning in fuzzy logic excels at handling uncertainty
and imprecision in logical deductions. It provides a framework to reason about statements that are
not strictly true or false but have degrees of truth associated with them.
5. Applications: Syllogistic reasoning in fuzzy logic finds applications in various fields,
including artificial intelligence, decision support systems, and natural language processing. It
allows for more nuanced and context-aware deductive reasoning when dealing with imprecise
information and linguistic expressions.
Dispositional Reasoning:
In this mode of approximation reasoning, the antecedents are dispositions that may contain the fuzzy
quantifier “usually”. The quantifier Usually links together the dispositional and syllogistic reasoning;
hence it pays an important role.
For example, the projection rule of inference in dispositional reasoning can be given as follows −
Usually ( (L,M) is R ) ⇒ usually (L is [R ↓ L])
Here [R ↓ L] is the projection of fuzzy relation R on L

Dispositional reasoning in fuzzy logic involves reasoning about the inherent tendencies or
dispositions of objects or systems to exhibit certain behaviors or characteristics. Here are five key
points about dispositional reasoning in fuzzy logic:
1. Fuzzy Sets for Dispositions: Dispositional reasoning in fuzzy logic employs fuzzy sets to represent
and model the inherent dispositions of objects or systems. These fuzzy sets describe the degree to
which an object possesses a particular disposition, allowing for a more flexible and nuanced
representation.
2. Uncertainty Handling: It deals with uncertainty and imprecision by acknowledging that dispositions
are not binary (yes/no) but exist on a continuum. Fuzzy logic allows for the characterization of these
dispositions with degrees of truth or membership, reflecting the inherent vagueness in the concept.
 3. Rule-Based Reasoning: Dispositional reasoning often involves rule-based systems that use fuzzy
rules to infer the likelihood or strength of a disposition based on various factors and conditions. These
rules capture the relationships between dispositions and other variables.
4. Context Awareness: Dispositional reasoning in fuzzy logic is sensitive to the context in which
dispositions are applied. It considers how environmental factors, conditions, and interactions can
influence the expression of a disposition.
5. Applications: This type of reasoning finds applications in areas such as fault diagnosis, decision
support systems, and risk assessment. It allows for a more realistic and adaptive approach to modeling
and reasoning about the tendencies of systems or objects to exhibit specific behaviors or traits in
uncertain and complex environments.

Type of Focus Use of Fuzzy Inference Applications

Reasoning Sets
Categorical Qualitative Yes, for Fuzzy rules Control systems,
Reasoning variables linguistic terms based decision-making,
Qualitative Qualitative Yes, for Qualitative Expert systems, control
expert systems
Reasoning information qualitative data rule-based applications
Syllogistic Classical Yes, for fuzzy Fuzzy AI applications,
Reasoning deductive propositions inference handling uncertainty
Dispositional Inherent
logic Yes, for Fuzzy-based
engines Fault diagnosis, risk
Reasoning tendencies disposition reasoning assessment, decision
modeling support

INTRODUCTION TO FUZZY LOGIC MODELLING AND CONTROL

The application of FLC extends from industrial process control to biomedical instrumentation
and securities. Compared to conventional control techniques, FLC has been best utilized in complex
ill-defined problems, which can be controlled by an efficient human operator without knowledge of
their underlying dynamics.
A control system is an arrangement of physical components designed to alter another physical system
so that this system exhibits certain desired characteristics. There exist two types of control systems:
open-loop and closed-loop control systems. In open-loop control systems, the input control action is
independent of the physical system output. On the other hand, in a closed-loop control system, the
input control action depends on the physical system output. Closed-Hoop control systems are also
known as feedback control systems. The first step toward controlling any physical variable is to
measure it. A sensor measures the controlled signal, A plant is a physical system under control. In a
closed-loop control system, forcing signals of the system inputs are determined by the output
responses of the system. The basic control problem is given as follows:
The output of the physical system under control is adjusted by the help of an error signal. The
difference between the actual response (calculated) of the płant and the desired response gives the
error signal. For obtaining satisfactory responses and characteristics for the closed-loop control
system, an additional system, called as compensator or controller, can be added to the loop. The basic
block diagram of the closed-loop control system is shown in Figure 1. The fuzzy control rules are
basically IE-THEN rules.
Control System Design:
Designing a controller for a complex physical system involves the following steps:
1. Decomposing the large-scale system into a collection of various subsystems.
2. Varying the plant dynamics slowly and linearizing the nonlinear plane dynamics about a
set of operating points.
3. Organizing a set of state variables, control variables, or output features for the system under
consideration.
4. 4. Designing simple P, PD, PID controllers for the subsystems. Optimal controllers can
also be designed.
Apart from the first four steps, there may be uncertainties occurring due to external
environmental conditions. The design of the controller should be made as dose as possible to the
optimal controller design based on the expert knowledge of the control engineer. This may be done
by various numerical observations of the input-output relationship in the form of linguistic, intuitive,
and other kinds of related information related to the dynamics of the plant and the external
environment. Finally, a supervisory control system, either manual operator or automatic, forms an
extra feedback control loop to tune and adjust the parameters of the controller, for compensating the
variational effects caused by nonlinear and remodelled dynamics. In comparison with a conventional
control system design, an FLC system design should have the following assumptions made, in case it
is selected. The plant under consideration should be observable and controllable. A wide range of
knowledge comprising a set of expert linguistic rules, basic engineering common sense, a set of data
for input/output, or a controller analytic model, which can be fuzzified and from which the fuzzy rule
the base can be formed, should exist. Also, for the problem under consideration, a solution should
exist and it should be such that the control the engineer is working for a “good” solution and not
especially looking for an optimum solution. The controller, in this case, should be designed to the best
of our ability and within an acceptable range of precision. It should be noted that the problems of
stability and optimality are ongoing problems in the fuzzy controller design.
In designing a fuzzy logic controller, the process of forming fuzzy rules plays a vital role. There are
four structures of the fuzzy production rule system (Weiss and Donnel, 1979) which are as follows:
1. A set of rules representing the expert decision-maker's policies and heuristic strategies.
2. A set of input data assessed immediately before the actual decision.
3. A method for evaluating any proposed action in terms of its conformity to the expressed
rules when there is available data.
4. A method for generating promising actions and determining when to stop searching for
better ones.
All the necessary parameters used in the fuzzy logic controller are defined by membership functions.
The rules are evaluated using techniques such as approximate reasoning or interpolative reasoning.
These four structures of fuzzy rules help in obtaining the control surface that relates the control action
to the measured state or output variable. The control surface can then be sampled down to a finite
number of points and based on this information, a look~up table may be Constructed. The look~up
table comprises the information about the control surface which can be downloaded into a read·only
memory chip. This chip would constitute a fixed controller for the plant.
Architecture and Operations of FLC System:
The basic architecture of a fuzzy logic controller is shown in Figure 2. The principal
components of an FLC system are a fuzzifier, a fuzzy rule base, a fuzzy knowledge base, an inference
engine, and a defuzz.ifier. It also includes parameters for normalization. When the output from the
defuzzifier is not a control action for a plant, then the system is a fuzzy logic decision system. The
fuzzifier present converts crisp quantities into fuzzy quantities. The fuzzy rule base stores knowledge
about the operation of the process of domain expertise. The fuzzy knowledge base stores the
knowledge about all the input-output fuzzy relationships. It includes the membership functions
defining the input variables to the fuzzy rule base and the out variables to the plant under control. The
inference engine is the kernel of an FLC system, and it possesses the capability to simulate human
decisions by performing approximate reasoning to achieve the desired control strategy. The
defuzzifier converts the fuzzy quantities into crisp quantities from an inferred fuzzy control action by
the inference engine.

The various steps involved in designing a fuzzy logic controller are as follows:
• Step 1: Locate the input, output, and state variables of the plane under consideration. I
• Step 2: Split the complete universe of discourse spanned by each variable into a number
of fuzzy subsets, assigning each with a linguistic label. The subsets include all the elements
in the universe.
• Step 3: Obtain the membership function for each fuzzy subset.
• Step 4: Assign the fuzzy relationships between the inputs or states of fuzzy subsets on one
side and the output of fuzzy subsets on the other side, thereby forming the rule base.
• Step 5: Choose appropriate scaling factors for the input and output variables for
normalizing the variables between [0, 1] and [-1, I] intervals.
• Step 6: Carry out the fuzzification process.
• Step 7: Identify the output contributed from each rule using fuzzy approximate reasoning.
• Step 8: Combine the fuzzy outputs obtained from each rule.
• Step 9: Finally, apply defuzzification to form a crisp output.
The above steps are performed and executed for a simple FLC system. The following design elements
are adopted for designing a general FLC system:
1. Fuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a fuzzifier.
 2. Fuzzy knowledge base: Normalization of the parameters involved; partitioning of input
and output spaces; selection of membership functions of a primary fuzzy set.
3. Fuzzy rule base: Selection of input and output variables; the source from which fuzzy
control rules are to be derived; types of fuzzy control rules; completeness of fuzzy control
rules.
4. Decision· making logic: The proper definition of fuzzy implication; interpretation of
connective “and”; interpretation of connective “or”; inference engine.
5. Defuzzification materials and the interpretation of a defuzzifier.
Applications:
FLC systems find a wide range of applications in various industrial and commercial products
and systems. In several applications- related to nonlinear, time-varying, ill-defined systems and also
complex systems – FLC systems have proved to be very efficient in comparison with other
conventional control systems. The applications of FLC systems include:
1. Traffic Control
2. Steam Engine
3. Aircraft Flight Control
4. Missile Control
5. Adaptive Control
6. Liquid-Level Control
7. Helicopter Model
8. Automobile Speed Controller
9. Braking System Controller
10. Process Control (includes cement kiln control)
11. Robotic Control
12. Elevator (Automatic Lift) control;
13. Automatic Running Control
14. Cooling Plant Control
15. Water Treatment
16. Boiler Control;
17. Nuclear Reactor Control;
18. Power Systems Control;
19. Air Conditioner Control (Temperature Controller)
20. Biological Processes
21. Knowledge-Based System
22. Fault Detection Control Unit
23. Fuzzy Hardware implementation and Fuzzy Computers
Architecture of a Fuzzy Logic System:
In the architecture of the Fuzzy Logic system, each component plays an important role. The
architecture consists of the different four components which are given below.
1. Rule Base
2. Fuzzification
3. Inference Engine
4. Defuzzification
Following diagram shows the architecture or process of a Fuzzy Logic system:
 1. Rule Base
Rule base as the name suggests contains the rules. The basics of this rule base are IF-THEN. Rule
Base is a component used for storing the set of rules and the If-Then conditions given by the experts
are used for controlling the decision-making systems
The conditions are taken into consideration and the rule of IF is applied. If the condition meets the
requirements of the given logical statement, then the rule is applied.
Fuzzy Logic Rule Base:
It is a known fact that a human being is always comfortable making conversations in natural language.
The representation of human knowledge can be done with the help of following natural language
expression −
IF antecedent THEN consequent
The expression as stated above is referred to as the Fuzzy IF-THEN rule base.
Canonical Form
Following is the canonical form of Fuzzy Logic Rule Base −
Rule 1 − If condition C1, then restriction R1
Rule 2 − If condition C1, then restriction R2
.
.
.
Rule n − If condition C1, then restriction Rn
Interpretations of Fuzzy IF-THEN Rules:
Fuzzy IF-THEN Rules can be interpreted in the following four forms −
Assignment Statements:
These kinds of statements use “=” (equal to sign) for the purpose of assignment. They are of the
following form −
a = hello
climate = summer
Conditional Statements:
 These kinds of statements use the “IF-THEN” rule base form for the purpose of condition. They are
of the following form −
IF temperature is high THEN Climate is hot
IF food is fresh THEN eat.
Unconditional Statements:
They are of the following form −
GOTO 10
turn the Fan off
Linguistic Variable:
We have studied that fuzzy logic uses linguistic variables which are the words or sentences in a natural
language. For example, if we say temperature, it is a linguistic variable; the values of which are very
hot or cold, slightly hot or cold, very warm, slightly warm, etc. The words very, slightly are the
linguistic hedges.
Characterization of Linguistic Variable:
The following four terms characterize the linguistic variable −
• Name of the variable, generally represented by x.
• Term set of the variable, generally represented by t(x).
• Syntactic rules for generating the values of the variable x.
• Semantic rules for linking every value of x and its significance.

Propositions in Fuzzy Logic:

As we know that propositions are sentences expressed in any language which are generally expressed
in the following canonical form −
s as P
Here, s is the Subject and P is Predicate.
For example, “Delhi is the capital of India”, this is a proposition where “Delhi” is the subject and “is
the capital of India” is the predicate which shows the property of subject.
 We know that logic is the basis of reasoning and fuzzy logic extends the capability of reasoning by
using fuzzy predicates, fuzzy-predicate modifiers, fuzzy quantifiers and fuzzy qualifiers in fuzzy
propositions which creates the difference from classical logic.
Propositions in fuzzy logic include the following −
Fuzzy Predicate:
Almost every predicate in natural language is fuzzy in nature hence, fuzzy logic has the predicates
like tall, short, warm, hot, fast, etc.
Fuzzy-predicate Modifiers:
We discussed linguistic hedges above; we also have many fuzzy-predicate modifiers which act as
hedges. They are very essential for producing the values of a linguistic variable. For example, the
words very, slightly are modifiers and the propositions can be like “water is slightly hot.”
Fuzzy Quantifiers:
It can be defined as a fuzzy number which gives a vague classification of the cardinality of one or
more fuzzy or non-fuzzy sets. It can be used to influence probability within fuzzy logic. For example,
the words many, most, frequently are used as fuzzy quantifiers and the propositions can be like “most
people are allergic to it.”
Fuzzy Qualifiers:
Let us now understand Fuzzy Qualifiers. A Fuzzy Qualifier is also a proposition of Fuzzy Logic.
Fuzzy qualification has the following forms −
Fuzzy Qualification Based on Truth:
It claims the degree of truth of a fuzzy proposition.
Expression − It is expressed as x is t. Here, t is a fuzzy truth value.
Example − (Car is black) is NOT VERY True.
Fuzzy Qualification Based on Probability:
It claims the probability, either numerical or an interval, of fuzzy proposition.
Expression − It is expressed as x is λ. Here, λ is a fuzzy probability.
Example − (Car is black) is Likely.
Fuzzy Qualification Based on Possibility:
It claims the possibility of fuzzy proposition.
Expression − It is expressed as x is π. Here, π is a fuzzy possibility.
Example − (Car is black) is Almost Impossible.
2. Fuzzification
Fuzzification is a module or component for transforming the system inputs, i.e., it converts the crisp
number into fuzzy steps. The crisp numbers are those inputs which are measured by the sensors and
then fuzzification passed them into the control systems for further processing. This component
divides the input signals into following five states in any Fuzzy Logic system:
o Large Positive (LP)
o Medium Positive (MP)
o Small (S)
o Medium Negative (MN)
o Large negative (LN)
3. Inference Engine
The interference engine is the main brain of the Fuzzy Logic system (FLS), because all the
information is processed in the Inference Engine.. The interference engine decides what to do or what
output to produce for a given fuzzy set/crisp input.
Here, Rule Base is used by the system to determine the output. The output of the interference engine
is also in terms of fuzzy sets/crisp.
4. Defuzzification
Defuzzification is a module or component, that takes the fuzzy set inputs generated by the Inference
Engine, and then transforms them into a crisp value The defuzzifier produces the output of the Fuzzy
Logic System. Here also, the rule base is used as a reference to produce the outputs. The crisp value
is a type of value that is acceptable by the user. Various techniques are present to do this, but the user
has to select the best one for reducing the errors.
FUZZIFICATION
Fuzzification may be defined as the process of transforming a crisp set into a fuzzy set or a fuzzy set
into a fuzzier set. Basically, this operation translates accurate crisp input values into linguistic variables. After
that, it applies the membership functions to measure and determine the degree of membership.
Fuzzification is the process of mapping crisp input x ∈ U into fuzzy set A ∈ U. This is achieved with three
different types of fuzzifiers, including singleton fuzzifiers, Gaussian fuzzifiers, and trapezoidal or triangular
fuzzifiers.
Fuzzification is a step to determine the degree to which input data belongs to each of the appropriate fuzzy
sets via the membership functions.
This can be achieved by identifying the various known crisp and deterministic quantities as completely
nondeterministic and quite uncertain in nature. This uncertainty may have emerged because of vagueness
and imprecision which then lead the variables to be represented by a membership function as they can be
fuzzy in nature.
The following are the two important methods of fuzzification −
Support Fuzzification(s-fuzzification) Method
In this method, the fuzzified set can be expressed with the help of the following relation –

Here the fuzzy set Q(xi) is called as kernel of fuzzification. This method is implemented by keeping μi
constant and xi being transformed to a fuzzy set Q(xi)

Grade Fuzzification (g-fuzzification) Method

It is quite similar to the above method but the main difference is that it kept xi constant and μi is expressed
as a fuzzy set.
By identifying some of the uncertainties in the crisp value, the fuzzy values were defined. The conversion
of fuzzy values is represented by membership functions. The fuzzification involve assigning membership
values for the given crisp quantities.

Methods of Membership Value Assignments

• Intuition

• Inference

• Rank ordering

• Angular fuzzy sets

• Neural networks
• Genetic algorithm

• Inductive reasoning
. Intuition:

• Intuition method is based upon the common intelligence and understanding of human to develop the
membership functions.
The thorough knowledge on the problem has to be known.
The knowledge regarding the linguistic variables should also be known.
Assignment: Using your own intuition and definition of the universe of discourse, plot fuzzy membership
functions for “weight of people”.
Solution: The universe of discourse is weight of people. Let the weights be in kg.
Let the linguistics variables be the following:
Very light (VL) : W ≤ 35;
Light (L) : 15 ≤ W≤ 40;
Normal (N) : 35 ≤ W ≤ 60;
Heavy (H) : 55 ≤ W ≤ 80;
Very heavy (VH) : 75 < W

• Inference:
• This method involves the knowledge to perform deductive reasoning.
• The membership function is formed from the facts known and the knowledge.
• Rank ordering:
• The polling concept is used to assign membership value by rank ordering process.
• Preferences are above for pair-wise comparisons and from this the ordering of the membership is
done.
• Angular fuzzy sets:
• The angular fuzzy sets are different from the standard fuzzy sets in their coordinate description.
• These sets are defined on the universe of angles, hence are repeating shapes every 2π cycles.
• Angular fuzzy sets are applied in quantitative description of linguistic variables known truth-values.
 • When membership of value 1 is true and that of 0 is false, then in between ‘0’ and ‘1’ is partially true
or partially false.

• Neural Network:
• Genetic algorithm:
• For the given functional mapping of a system, some membership functions and their shapes are
assumed for various fuzzy variables to be defined.
• Based on Darvin’s theory of Evaluation “Survival of the fittest”
• (i)These membership functions are coded as bit strings.
• (ii)These bit strings are then concatenated.
• (iii)Similar to activation function in neural networks, GA has a fitness function.This fitness function
is used to evaluate the fitness of each set of membership functions.
• (iv) The process is carried out until convergence is achieved.

• Inductive reasoning:

• Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines observations with experimental
information to reach a conclusion.
INFERENCING
A Fuzzy Inference System is the key unit of a fuzzy logic system having decision-making as its primary
work.
Inference means to reach a particular conclusion based on some evidence associated with a logic.
It uses the “IF…THEN” rules along with connectors “OR” or “AND” for drawing essential decision rules.
Characteristics of Fuzzy Inference System:
Following are some characteristics of FIS −
• The output from FIS is always a fuzzy set irrespective of its input which can be fuzzy or crisp.
• It is necessary to have fuzzy output when it is used as a controller.
• A defuzzification unit would be there with FIS to convert fuzzy variables into crisp variables.
Functional Blocks of FIS:
The following five functional blocks will help you understand the construction of FIS −
• Rule Base − It contains fuzzy IF-THEN rules.
• Database − It defines the membership functions of fuzzy sets used in fuzzy rules.
• Decision-making Unit − It performs operation on rules.
• Fuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the crisp quantities into fuzzy quantities.
• Defuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the fuzzy quantities into crisp quantities.
Following is a block diagram of fuzzy interference system.

Working of FIS:
The working of the FIS consists of the following steps −
• A fuzzification unit supports the application of numerous fuzzification methods, and converts
the crisp input into fuzzy input.
• A knowledge base - collection of rule base and database is formed upon the conversion of
crisp input into fuzzy input.
• The defuzzification unit fuzzy input is finally converted into crisp output.
Methods of FIS:
Following are the two important methods of FIS, having different consequent of fuzzy rules −
• Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System
• Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method)
Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System:
The Mamdani fuzzy inference system was proposed by Ebhasim Mamdani. Firstly it was designed to control
a steam engine and boiler combination by a set of linguistic control rules obtained from the experienced
human operators. In Mamdani inference system, the output of each rule to be a fuzzy logic set.
Steps for Computing the Output:
Following steps need to be followed to compute the output from this FIS −
• Step 1 − Set of fuzzy rules need to be determined in this step.
 • Step 2 − In this step, by using input membership function, the input would be made fuzzy.
• Step 3 − Now establish the rule strength by combining the fuzzified inputs according to fuzzy
rules.
• Step 4 − In this step, determine the consequent of rule by combining the rule strength and the
output membership function.
• Step 5 − For getting output distribution combine all the consequents.
• Step 6 − Finally, a defuzzified output distribution is obtained.
Following is a block diagram of Mamdani Fuzzy Interface System.
Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method):
This fuzzy inference system was proposed by Takagi, Sugeno, and Kang in 1985 to develop a systematic
approach for generating fuzzy rules from a given input-output dataset. A typical fuzzy rule in a first-order
Sugeno fuzzy model has the form:

IF x is A and y is B THEN z = f(x, y)

where
• A and B are fuzzy sets in the antecedent
• z = f(x, y) is a crisp function in the consequent.
Fuzzy Inference Process
The fuzzy inference process under Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method) works in the following way −
• Step 1: Fuzzifying the inputs − Here, the inputs of the system are made fuzzy.
• Step 2: Applying the fuzzy operator − In this step, the fuzzy operators must be applied to
get the output.
Rule Format of the Sugeno Form
The rule format of Sugeno form is given by −
if 7 = x and 9 = y then output is z = ax+by+c
 Mamdani FIS Sugeno FIS

No output membership function is

Output membership function is present
present(either linear or constant)

The output of surface is discontinuous The output of surface is continuous

 Mamdani FIS Sugeno FIS

Non distribution of output, only Mathematical

Distribution of output combination of the output and the rules
strength

No defuzzification here. Using weighted

Through defuzzification of rules consequent of
average of the rules of consequent crisp result
crisp result is obtained
is obtained

Expressive power and interpretable rule consequent Here is loss of interpretability

Mamdani FIS possess less flexibility in the system Sugeno FIS possess more flexibility in the
design system design

It has more accuracy in security evaluation block It has less accuracy in security evaluation
cipher algorithm block cipher algorithm

It is using in MISO (Multiple Input and Single

It is using only in MISO (Multiple Input and
Output) and MIMO (Multiple Input and Multiple
Single Output) systems
Output) systems

Mamdani inference system is well suited to human Sugeno inference system is well suited to
input mathematically analysis

Application: To keep track of the change in

Application: Medical Diagnosis System
aircraft performance with altitude

Less mathematical rules exist for the Mamdani

rule. More mathematical rules exist for the Sugeno
rule than the Mamdani rule.

The Sugeno controller has more adjustable

The Mamdani controller has less adjustable
parameters than the Mamdani controller.
parameters

DEFUZZIFICATION
Fuzzification converts the crisp input into a fuzzy value. Defuzzification converts the fuzzy
output of the fuzzy inference engine into a crisp value so that it can be fed to the controller.
 Mathematically, the process of Defuzzification is also called "rounding it off".
The fuzzy results generated cannot be used in an application, where a decision has to be
taken only on crisp values. A controller can only understand the crisp output. So, it is necessary to
convert the fuzzy output into a crisp value.
There is no systematic procedure for choosing a good defuzzification strategy. The selection
of the defuzzification procedure depends on the properties of the application.
Defuzzification methods include:
Lambda Cut Method
Maxima Methods
o Height method
o First of maxima (FoM)
o Last of maxima (LoM)
o Mean of maxima (MoM)
Weighted average method
Centroid methods
o Center of gravity method (CoG)
o Center of sum method (CoS)
o Center of area method (CoA)
Lambda Cut Method:
This Lambda-cut set Aλ is also called the alpha-cut set.
Lambda-cut method is applicable to derive the crisp value of a fuzzy set or fuzzy relation.
In this method, a fuzzy set 𝐴̃ is transformed into a crisp set 𝐴 ̃λ for a given value of λ (0 ≤ λ ≤ 1) as,
̃λ = {x | μA (x) ≥ λ}
𝐴
Example – 1: Lambda-cut for Fuzzy Set
A = {(x1, 1.0), (x2, 0.5), (x3, 0.3), (x4, 0.4)}
For λ = 1: A1= {(x1 ,1), (x2 ,0), (x3 ,0), (x4 ,0)} ={x1}
For λ = 0.5: A0.5= {(x1 ,1), (x2 ,1), (x3 ,0), (x4 ,0)} = {x1, x2}
For λ = 0.4: A0.4= {(x1 ,1), (x2 ,1), (x3 ,0), (x4 ,1)} = {x1, x2, x4}
Example – 2: Lambda-cut for Fuzzy Relation
Let us define Rλ = {(x, y) | μR(x, y) ≥ λ } as a λ cut relation of the fuzzy relation R.
 Properties of λ cut sets:
If A and B are two fuzzy sets, defined with the same universe of discourse, then
(A ∪ B) λ = Aλ ∪ Bλ
(A ∩ B) λ = Aλ ∩ Bλ
(A‘)λ ≠ ( Aλ)’, except for the value of λ = 0.5
Maxima methods for defuzzification: FoM, LoM and MoM:
Maxima methods are quite simple but not as trivial as lambda cut methods. Maxima methods rely
on the position of maximum membership of an element at a particular position in a fuzzy set.
Height method:
This method is based on the Max-membership principle and is defined as follows.
μC(x*) ≥ μC(x), ∀x ∈ X

Note: This method is applicable when height is unique.

Example:

First of Maxima (FoM) method:

Determine the smallest value of the domain with maximized membership degree
FoM = First of Maxima: x∗ = min{ x | μC(x) = h(C) }
Last of Maxima (LoM) method:
Determine the largest value of the domain with maximized membership degree
LoM = Last of Maxima: x∗ = max{ x | μC(x) = h(C) }

Example: First of Maxima and Last of Maxima

Find the defuzzification value for a given fuzzy set

First of Maxima: x∗ = 1
Last of Maxima: x∗ = 6
Middle of Maxima (MoM) method:
In order to find the middle of maxima, we have to find the “middle” of elements with maximum
membership value
Where, M ={ xi | μC(xi) = height of fuzzy set},
|𝑀| = 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑀

Note: This method is applicable to symmetric functions only

Example: Middle of maxima
Find the deffuizified value for a given fuzzy set using the middle of the maxima method:

x∗ = (a + b) / 2
x∗ = (2 + 5) / 2
x∗ = 3.5
example:

FOM : x*=4
LOM : x*=8
4+6+8
MOM : x*= =6
3

Weighted average method for defuzzification:

Weighted average method is one of the simplest and widely used defuzzification technique.
This method is also alternatively called” Sugeno defuzzification” method.
Formed by weighting each function in the output by its respective maximum membership value
This method is applicable to fuzzy sets with symmetrical output membership functions and yields
results that are quite similar to the COA method.
This method requires less computational power. The maximum membership value is used to weight
each membership function.

Procedure results very close to the COA method

Less computationally intensive
Note: The method can be used only for symmetrical output membership functions.
Example:
Find defuzzified value for given aggregated fuzzy output set using weighted average method:

The fuzzified value using weighted average defuzzification method is computed as,

As discussed, the center of each symmetric fuzzy output function is multiplied by the height of the
function.
x* = ((0.7 × 3) + (1.0 × 7)) / (0.7 + 1.0)
x∗ = 5.941
Centroid methods:
Center of Gravity (CoG) method for defuzzification:
Center of Gravity (CoG) is the most prevalent and physically appealing of all the defuzzification
methods [Sugeno, 1985, Lee 1990]
The basic principle in the CoG method is to find the point x∗ where a vertical line would slice the aggregate
into two equal masses.

If μC is defined with continuous MF:

If μC is defined with discrete MF:

∫ μC(x) dx denotes the area of the region bounded by the curve C.

Disadvantage: Computationally intensive
CoG: A geometrical method of calculation
 This method returns a precise value depending on the fuzzy set‘s center of gravity. The overall area
of the membership function distribution used to describe the combined control action is divided into
a number of sub-areas (such as triangle, trapezoidal etc.).
The area and center of gravity, or centroid, of each sub regions, are calculated. Then the sum of all
these sub-areas is used to determine the defuzzified value for a discrete fuzzy set

Let Ai and xi denote the area and center of gravity of i-th sub-region.

Ai=∫ μC(x) dx and n is the number of geometrical components

To compute the crisp value corresponding to the above output fuzzy sets, we shall create aggregate output
by placing them on the same axis

To compute the area covered by these aggregated fuzzy sets, we need to compute the equation of each line
forming the region
Equation of line ab:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
For line ab, (x1, y1) = (0, 0) and (x2, y2) = (1, 0.5)
(y – 0) / (x – 0) = (0.5 – 0) / (1 – 0)
y / x = 0.5 / 1
y = 0.5x
Line ranges from [0, 1] on X-axis
Equation of line bc:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
For line ab, (x1, y1) = (1, 0.5) and (x2, y2) = (3.5, 0.5)
The horizontal line has a slope zero, and for any value of x, the y coordinate will remain unchanged. So, for
line bc
y = 0.5
Line ranges from [1, 3.5] on X-axis
Equation of line cd:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
For line ab, (x1, y1) = (3.5, 0.5) and (x2, y2) = (4, 0.8)
(y – 0.5) / (x – 3.5) = (0.8 – 0.5) / (4 – 3.5)
(y – 0.5) / (x – 3.5) = 0.3 / 0.5
y=(3x / 5) – (8 / 5)
The line ranges from [3.5, 4] on X-axis
Equation of line de:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
For line ab, (x1, y1) = (4, 0.8) and (x2, y2) = (6, 0.8)
The horizontal line has a slope zero, and for any value of x, the y coordinate will remain unchanged. So, for
line bc
y = 0.8
Line ranges from [4, 6] on X-axis
Equation of line ef:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
For line ab, (x1, y1) = (6, 0.8) and (x2, y2) = (8, 0)
(y – 0.8) / (x – 6) = (0 – 0.8) / (8 – 6)
(y – 0.8) / (x – 6) = (-0.8 / 2)
y = -0.4x + 3.2
Line ranges from [6, 8] on X-axis
Summary of line equations:

Putting all these values in the equation for the CoG method,
= 4.151
Center of Sums (CoS) method for defuzzification:
Center of Sums (CoS) method is the most commonly used defuzzification method. In this method, the area
of overlapping region is considered multiple times, whereas the Center of Gravity (CoG) method counts it
once. The fundamental of computing crisp value is otherwise identical to the CoG method.
The crisp value according to the Center of Sum (CoS) is defined as,

Here, Ai denotes the area of the region bounded by the fuzzy set Ci and xi is the geometric center of that
area.

Note: In the CoG method, the overlapping area is counted once, whereas, in CoS, the overlapping is
counted twice or so
The area of trapezoidal is computed as shown in this diagram:

Example – 1:
Given the following three fuzzy output sets, find the crisp value corresponding to that.
We can find the corresponding crisp value using the formula of the CoS method:
Center of Largest Area (CoA) method for defuzzification:
Center of Largest Area (CoA) method is simple, computationally effective and widely used defuzzification.
If the fuzzy set has two sub-regions, then the center of gravity of the sub-region with the largest area can
be used to calculate the defuzzified value.
x∗= (∫ μCm(x) . x′ dx) / ( ∫ μCm(x) dx )
Here, Cm is the region with the largest area, x′ is the center of gravity of Cm

Example: Center of Largest Area (CoA) method

Find the crisp value corresponding to given fuzzy output functions

Solution:
To compute the crisp value for given fuzzy output sets, we shall place them on one axis and should find the
area of nonoverlapping regions. The region with the highest value is used to compute the crisp value.
The aggregated fuzzy output functions are shown below. First, we will compute the area of region A1.

To find the area of region A1, we need to find the line equations for the ab and bc lines
line ab:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
for line ab, (x1, y1) = (0, 0), and (x2, y2) = (1.5, 0.5)
⇒ (y – 0) / (x – 0) = (0.5 – 0) / (1.5 – 0)
⇒ y = 0.33x
The line ranges from 0 to 1.5 on the X axis.
line bc:
for line bc, (x1, y1) = (1.5, 0.5), and (x2, y2) = (x, 0).
We don’t know what is the x coordinate of point c. We shall compute the equation of line cd also. The x
coordinate of both the line would be the same at the intersection point
for line bc:
(y – 0.5) / (x – 1.5) = (0 – 0.5) / (3 – 1.5)
⇒ y = 0.33x + 1
for line cd:
line cd:
y = 0.67x – 0.67
By comparing equations of line bc and line cd,
0.33x + 1 = 0.67x – 0.67
x = 1.67 ≈ 1.7
so line bc ranges from 1.5 to 1.7 on the X axis.
The area enclosed by line ab and bc:

A1 = 0.466
To find the area of region A2, we need to find the line equations for the cd and de lines
line cd:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
for line cd, (x1, y1) = (1, 0), and (x2, y2) = (2.5, 1)
⇒ (y – 0) / (x – 1) = (1 – 0) / (2.5 – 1)
⇒ y = 0.67x -0.67 [1.7, 2.5]
The line ranges from 1.7 to 2.5 on the X axis.
line de:
for line de, (x1, y1) = (2.5, 1), and (x2, y2) = (4, 0).
(y – 1) / (x – 2.5) = (0 – 1) / (4 – 2.5)
⇒ y = -0.67x + 2.67
line ef:
y = 0.2x – 0.6
By comparing equations of line de and line ef, we can find the x coordinate of point e
-0.67x + 2.67 = 0.2x – 0.6
x = 3.8
so line de ranges from 2.5 to 3.8 on the X axis.
The area enclosed by line cd and de:

A2 = 1.32
To find the area of region A3, we need to find the line equations for ef and fg lines
line ef:
(y – y1) / (x – x1) = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
for line cd, (x1, y1) = (0, 3), and (x2, y2) = (4, 0.2)
⇒ (y – 0) / (x – 3) = (0.2 – 0) / (4 – 3)
⇒ y = 0.2x – 0.6
The line ranges from 3.8 to 4 on the X axis.
line fg:
for line de, (x1, y1) = (4, 0.2), and (x2, y2) = (5, 0).
(y – 0.2) / (x – 4) = (0 – 0.2) / (5 – 4)
⇒ y = -0.2x + 1
so line fg ranges from 4 to 5 on the X axis.
The area enclosed by line ef and fg:

A3 = 0.136
Thus, the area enclosed by lines are summarized in the following table:

As we can see, region 2 has the largest area. So center of A2 will be used to find the crisp value.

All the defuzzification methods are summarized below:

 Key Fuzzification Defuzzification

Fuzzification is the process of Defuzzification is the process of reducing

Definition transforming a crisp set to a fuzzy a fuzzy set into a crisp set or converting a
set or a fuzzy set to a fuzzier set. fuzzy member into a crisp member.

Fuzzification converts a precise Defuzzification converts an imprecise

Purpose data into imprecise data. data into precise data.

Example Voltmeter. Stepper motor, D/A converter.

Inference, Rank ordering, Angular Maximum membership principle,

Methods fuzzy sets, Neural network. Centroid method, Weighted average
used method, Center of sums.

Fuzzification is easy. Defuzzification is quite complex to

Complexity implement.

Fuzzification uses if-then rules to Defuzzification uses center of gravity

Approach fuzzify the crisp value. methods to get centroid of sets