Exploring The Networks

Module 1
Exploring the Network

What is Cisco IOS (Cisco Internetwork Operating System)?

Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System) is a collection of proprietary
operating systems (OSes) that run on Cisco Systems hardware,
including routers, switches and other network devices.

What is a router? A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes

information between two or more packet-switched

Developed in the 1980s by William Yeager, an engineer at Stanford

University, the core function of Cisco IOS is to enable data
communications between network nodes.

Cisco IOS includes the following key features:

 Interface configuration
 Network management and monitoring
 Quality of service (QoS)
 Routing
 Security
 Switching

Module 2
Network Protocols and Communications
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A network switch is networking hardware that connects devices on a

computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward data
to the destination device.
A protocol is a set of rules: the network protocols are formal standards
and policies, made up of restrictions, procedures, and formats, that
define the exchange of data packets to achieve communication between
two servers or more devices over a network.
A data packet is a small unit of information transmitted over a network,
such as the internet, from one device to another.

1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): The most

widely used protocol suite for connecting devices to the Internet.

IP obtains the address where data is sent (your computer has an IP

address). TCP ensures accurate data delivery once that IP address has
been found. Together, the two form the TCP/IP protocol suite. In other
words, IP sorts the mail, and TCP sends and receives the mail.

2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that does

not provide reliable communication, but is used for real-time applications
such as video streaming and online gaming.

In computer networking, the User Datagram Protocol is one of the core

communication protocols of the Internet protocol suite used to send
messages to other hosts on an Internet Protocol network. Within an IP
network, UDP does not require prior communication to set up
communication channels or data paths.

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3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The protocol used for transferring

data between web servers and web browsers. The Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of the World Wide Web, and is used to
load webpages using hypertext links.

4. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol used to transfer files between

devices on a network. The File Transfer Protocol is a standard
communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a
server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server
model architecture using separate control and data connections between
the client and the server.

5. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): A protocol used to transfer

email messages between servers. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is
an Internet standard communication protocol for electronic mail
transmission. Mail servers and other message transfer agents use
SMTP to send and receive mail messages.

Data Encapsulation marks where a packet, or unit of data, begins and

ends. The beginning part of a packet is called the header, and the end of
a packet is called the trailer. The data between the header and trailer is
sometimes referred to as the payload.

The packet header carries information in its first few bytes to mark
where the packet begins and to identify the type of information it carries.

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The packet trailer indicates to a receiving device that it has reached the
end of the packet. It often contains an error-check value that the
receiving device can use to confirm it has received the full packet.

Decapsulation is the process of removing the header and trailer

information from a packet, as it moves toward its destination. The
destination device receives the data in its original form.

Access Networks an access network is a type of network which

physically connects an end system to the immediate router (also known
as the “edge router”) on a path from the end system to any other distant
end system. Examples of access networks are ISP, home networks,
enterprise networks, ADSL, mobile network, FTTH

Importance of Access Networks:

A crucial element of contemporary telecommunications technology are
mainly access networks.
They make quick data transfer and dependable, affordable
communication possible.
Businesses can also benefit from access networks’ secure voice and
video conferencing services over short- and long-distances, high-speed
data transfers, and other features.
Access networks’ capacity to handle a lot of traffic at once lowers the
expenses associated with long-distance communications.

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Types of access networks:

 Ethernet – It is the most commonly installed wired LAN technology

and it provides services on the Physical and Data Link Layer of OSI
reference model. Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or
twisted pair wires.

 DSL – DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line and DSL brings a
connection into your home through telephone lines and a DSL line
can carry both data and voice signals and the data part of the line is
continuously connected. In DSL you are able to use the Internet and
make phone calls simultaneously.

 FTTH – Fiber to the home (FTTH) uses optical fiber from a central
Office (CO) directly to individual buildings and it provides high-speed
Internet access among all access networks. It ensures high initial
investment but lesser future investment and it is the most expensive
and most future-proof option amongst all these access networks.

 Wireless LANs – It links two or more devices using wireless

communication within a range. It uses high-frequency radio waves
and often include an access point for connecting to the Internet.

 3G and LTE – It uses cellular telephony to send or receive packets

through a nearby base station operated by the cellular network
provider. The term “3G internet” refers to the third generation of
mobile phone standards as set by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU). Long Term Evolution (LTE) offers
high-speed wireless communication for mobile devices and
increased network capacity.

 Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) – HFC is a combination of fiber optic

and coaxial cable that is widely used by cable television operators to
provide high-speed internet access. The fiber optic cable is used to
connect the headend to the neighbourhood, while the coaxial cable
is used to connect individual homes to the network.

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Satellite Internet – Satellite internet is a wireless connection that

uses satellite communication to deliver internet access to remote
and rural areas. It has a higher latency and lower bandwidth
compared to other access networks, but it can provide internet
access in areas where other options are not available.

 Power Line Communication (PLC) – PLC uses the existing

electrical wiring in a building to transmit data signals. It is a low-cost
alternative to traditional wired networks and can be used to provide
internet access in buildings where it is difficult to install new cables.

 WiMAX – WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

is a wireless access network technology that provides high-speed
internet access over a wide area. It is commonly used in rural and
suburban areas where it is difficult or expensive to deploy wired
networks.

 5G – 5G is the latest wireless communication technology that offers

high-speed internet access and increased network capacity. It is
designed to support a wide range of applications, including virtual
and augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, and smart cities. 5G
networks are being rolled out globally, and they are expected to
transform the way we connect to the internet.

 Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless access network technology that allows

devices to connect to a local area network (LAN) or the Internet
using radio waves. It is commonly used in homes, offices, public
places, and other areas where people need wireless internet access.

 Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication

technology that is used to connect devices within a limited range,
typically up to 30 feet. It is commonly used to connect mobile
phones, laptops, and other devices to speakers, headphones, and
other accessories.

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Data Flow In OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels

through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers
from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s
end.

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted

physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its
destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

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Let’s look at it with an Example:

Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.

Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc.
Writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer)

Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting

data and formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6:
Presentation Layer)

Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and

receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)

Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence

number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the
information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)

Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for
transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer)

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Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address
is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error
detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)

Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical

signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse
and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on
Zoro’s email client.

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert
it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

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The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address.

MAC Address: To communicate or transfer data from one computer to

another, we need an address. In computer networks, various types of
addresses are introduced; each works at a different layer. A MAC
address, which stands for Media Access Control Address, is a physical
address that works at the Data Link Layer. In this article, we will discuss
addressing a DLL, which is the MAC Address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer

adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount
of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.

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Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely,

the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is
referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of
the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message

from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,

maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.

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Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints

that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message

through some Messenger application running in their browser. The
“Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user
with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and
converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext

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and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used
for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be

transmitted on the network.

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a

remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application

allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a
remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database

sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into

7 different layers. Its advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier

to understand and troubleshoot.

 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed

functions and protocols.
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 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get

updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be

complicated and hard to understand for beginners.

 Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler

model called the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model
isn’t always directly applicable.

 Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not
quickly adopted by the industry, which preferred the simpler and
already-established TCP/IP model.

 Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules
and operations, which can make the process more time-consuming
and less efficient.

 Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework,

meaning it’s great for understanding concepts but not always
practical for implementation.

Module 3

Ethernet

What is Ethernet?

 Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined

under IEEE standards 802.3.

 The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to

understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost
network implementation.

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 Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks, wired

networking still uses Ethernet more frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates
the need for cables by enabling users to connect their
smartphones or laptops to a network wirelessly.

 Although wired connections are more secure and less susceptible

to interference than wireless networks. This is the main
justification for why so many companies and organizations
continue to use Ethernet.

History of Ethernet

1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called

twisted pair or CAT5. It can transfer data at a speed of around 100
Mbps (megabits per second). Fast Ethernet uses both fiber optic and
twisted pair cables to enable communication.

2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is

more common nowadays. It can transfer data at a speed of 1000 Mbps
or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second). Gigabit Ethernet also uses fiber optic
and twisted pair cables for communication. It often uses advanced
cables like CAT5e, which can transfer data at a speed of 10 Gbps.

3.10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network

that can transmit data at a speed of 10 gigabits per second. It uses
special cables like CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and fiber optic
cables. With the help of fiber optic cables, this network can cover
longer distances, up to around 10,000 meters.

4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or

hubs to improve network performance. Each workstation in this network
has its own dedicated connection, which improves the speed and
efficiency of data transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a wide range of
speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the version of
Ethernet being used.

Key Features of Ethernet

1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with

current Ethernet standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.

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2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a

wide range of devices and operating systems. It can also be easily
scaled to accommodate a growing number of users and devices.
3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-
correction techniques to ensure that data is transmitted accurately
and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is
widely available and easy to implement. It is also relatively low-
maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing support.
5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows
devices from different manufacturers to communicate with each
other seamlessly.
6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including
encryption and authentication, to protect data from unauthorized
access.
7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various
tools available to help network administrators monitor and control
network traffic.
8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other
networking technologies, making it easy to integrate with other
systems and devices.
9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be
used in almost any setting, from homes and small offices to large
data centers and enterprise-level networks.
10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to
understand and use. It does not require specialized knowledge or
expertise to set up and configure, making it accessible to a wide
range of users.
11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology, which
means that all Ethernet devices and systems are designed to work
together seamlessly. This makes it easier for network administrators
to manage and troubleshoot Ethernet networks.
12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily
accommodate the addition of new devices, users, and applications
without sacrificing performance or reliability.
13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of
protocols and technologies, including TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and
others. This makes it a versatile technology that can be used in a
variety of settings and applications.

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Advantages of Ethernet

Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides

significantly more speed. Because Ethernet is a one-to-one connection,
this is the case. As a result, speeds of up to 10 Gigabits per second
(Gbps) or even 100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are possible.

Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less electricity,

even less than a wifi connection. As a result, these ethernet cables are
thought to be the most energy-efficient.

Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the

information transferred is of high quality.
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting media, or
links.

The network nodes can be of two types:

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): Media, Generally, DTEs are the end
devices that convert the user information into signals or reconvert the
received signals. DTE devices are: personal computers, workstations,
file servers or print servers also referred to as end stations. These
devices are either the source or the destination of data frames. The
data terminal equipment may be a single piece of equipment or multiple
pieces of equipment that are interconnected and perform all the
required functions to allow the user to communicate. A user can
interact with DTE or DTE may be a user.
Data Communication Equipment (DCE):- DCEs are the intermediate
network devices that receive and forward frames across the network.
They may be either standalone devices such as repeaters, network
switches, or routers, or maybe communications interface units such as
interface cards and modems. The DCE performs functions such as
signal conversion, coding, and maybe a part of the DTE or intermediate
equipment.

Disadvantages of Ethernet

Distance limitations: Ethernet has distance limitations, with the

maximum cable length for a standard Ethernet network being 100
meters. This means that it may not be suitable for larger networks that
require longer distances.

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Bandwidth sharing: Ethernet networks share bandwidth among all

connected devices, which can result in reduced network speeds as the
number of devices increases.
Complexity: Ethernet networks can be complex to set up and maintain,
requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.

Compatibility issues: While Ethernet is generally interoperable with

other networking technologies, compatibility issues can arise when
integrating with older or legacy systems.

Cable installation: Ethernet networks require the installation of

physical cables, which can be time-consuming and expensive to install.

Physical limitations: Ethernet networks require physical connections

between devices, which can limit mobility and flexibility in network
design.

What is a MAC in Ethernet?

The MAC (Media Access Control) address is a devices hardware
address. Each device on a local area network must have a unique MAC
address assigned. The MAC address is often referred to as the Ethernet
Address on an Ethernet network.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The Address Resolution Protocol is a layer 2 protocol used to map MAC

addresses to IP addresses. All hosts on a network are located by their IP
address,ARP is the protocol used to associate the IP address to a MAC
address.

When a host wants to send a packet to another host, say IP address

10.5.5.1, on its local area network (LAN), it first sends out (broadcasts)
an ARP packet. The ARP packet contains a simple question: What is the
MAC address corresponding to IP address 10.5.5.1? The host that has
been configured to use the IP address responds with an ARP packet
containing its MAC address.

ARP Issues:

ARP cache issues

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These can cause connectivity problems, slow performance, or incorrect

routing. ARP cache entries have a limited lifespan, and the cache can
become full.

ARP spoofing
A hacker sends fake ARP packets that link an attacker's MAC address
with an IP of a computer already on the LAN. This can have
unfavorable effects on an enterprise, including stealing sensitive
information, man-in-the-middle attacks, denial-of-service attacks, and
session hijacking.

ARP poisoning
After a successful ARP spoofing, a hacker changes the company's ARP
table, so it contains falsified MAC maps.

Network congestion
ARP requests are broadcast messages, which can contribute to
network congestion in large networks.

What are LAN switches used for?

LAN switches, or local area network switches, are typically used to link
locations on a company's internal LAN. It also is referred to as an
Ethernet switch or a data switch.

Network Layer Protocols

Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data or

communication from one host to another host connected in a network.
Rather than describing how data is transferred, it implements the
technique for efficient transmission. In order to provide efficient
communication protocols are used at the network layer.

Functions of Network Layer

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 Logical Addressing: Each device on the network needs to be

identified uniquely. Therefore, network layer provides an addressing
scheme to identify the device. It places the IP address of every
sender and the receiver in the header. This header consists of the
network ID and host ID of the network.

 Host-to-host Delivery of Data: The network layer ensures that the

packet is being delivered successfully from the sender to the
receiver. This layer makes sure that the packet reaches the intended
recipient only.

 Fragmentation: In order to transmit the larger data from sender to

receiver, the network layer fragments it into smaller packets.
Fragmentation is required because every node has its own fixed
capacity for receiving data.

 Congestion Control: Congestion is defined as a situation where the

router is not able to route the packets property which results in
aggregation of packets in the network. Congestion occurs when a
large amount of packets are flooded in the network. Therefore
network layer controls the congestion of data packets in the network.

 Routing and Forwarding: Routing is the process that decides the

route for transmission of packets from sender to receiver. It mostly
chooses the shortest path between the sender and the receiver.
Routing protocols that are mostly used are path vector, distance
vector routing, link state routing, etc.

Network Layer Protocols

There are various protocols used in the network layer. Each protocol is
used for a different task

IP (Internet Protocol)

IP stands for Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol helps to uniquely

identify each device on the network. Internet protocol is responsible for
transferring the data from one node to another node in the network.
Internet protocol is a connectionless protocol therefore it does not
guarantee the delivery of data.

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol

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ARP is used to convert the logical address ie. IP address into physical
address ie. MAC address. While communicating with other nodes, it is
necessary to know the MAC address or physical address of the
destination node. If any of the node in a network wants to know the
physical address of another node in the same network, the host then
sends an ARP query packet. This ARP query packet consists of IP
address and MAC address of source host and only the IP address of
destination host. This ARP packet is then received to every node
present in the network.

RARP

RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. RARP works

opposite of ARP. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is used to
convert MAC address ie. physical address into IP address ie. logical
address. RARP provides with a feature for the systems and
applications to get their own IP address from a DNS( Domain Name
System) or router.

How Does RARP Work?

 Data is sent between two places in a network using the RARP,

which is on the Network Access Layer.

 Every user on the network has two distinct addresses: their MAC
(physical) address and their IP (logical) address.

 Software assigns the IP address, and the hardware then builds the
MAC address into the device.

 Any regular computer connected to the network can function as the

RARP server, answering to RARP queries. It must, however, store
all of the MAC addresses’ associated IP addresses. Only these
RARP servers are able to respond to RARP requests that are
received by the network. The information package must be
transmitted over the network’s lowest tiers.

 Using both its physical address and Ethernet broadcast address, the
client transmits a RARP request. In response, the server gives the
client its IP address.

ICMP

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ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. ICMP is a part of

IP protocol suite. ICMP is an error reporting and network diagnostic
protocol. Feedback in the network is reported to the designated host.

 Error Message: Error message states about the issues or problems

that are faced by the host or routers during processing of IP packet.

 Query Message: Query messages are used by the host in order to

get information from a router or another host.

IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol

IGMP is a multicasting communication protocol. It utilizes the resources

efficiently while broadcasting the messages and data packets. IGMP is
also a protocol used by TCP/IP. Other hosts connected in the network
and routers makes use of IGMP for multicasting communication that
have IP networks.

What is IPv4?

IP stands for Internet Protocol version v4 stands for Version

Four (IPv4), is the most widely used system for identifying devices on a
network. It uses a set of four numbers, separated by periods (like
192.168.0.1), to give each device a unique address. This address helps
data find its way from one device to another over the internet.

Parts of IPv4

IPv4 addresses consist of three parts:

 Network Part: The network part indicates the distinctive variety

that’s appointed to the network. The network part conjointly identifies
the category of the network that’s assigned.

 Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your
network. This part of the IPv4 address is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same,
however, the host half must vary.

 Subnet Number: This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local

networks that have massive numbers of hosts are divided into
subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.
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Characteristics of IPv4

 IPv4 could be a 32-bit IP Address.

 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.

 The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header
field is twenty.

 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast-style addresses.

Advantages of IPv4

 IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.

 IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000

practical routers.

 It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized

network while not NAT.

 This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as

economical knowledge transfer.

Limitations of IPv4

 IP relies on network layer addresses to identify end-points on the

network, and each network has a unique IP address.

 The world’s supply of unique IP addresses is dwindling, and they

might eventually run out theoretically.

 If there are multiple hosts, we need the IP addresses of the next

class.

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 Complex host and routing configuration, non-hierarchical

addressing, difficult to re-numbering addresses, large routing tables,
non-trivial implementations in providing security, QoS (Quality of
Service).

What is IPv6?

The most common version of the Internet Protocol currently in use,

IPv4, will soon be replaced by IPv6, a new version of the protocol. The
well-known IPv6 protocol is being used and deployed more often,
especially in mobile phone markets. IP address determines who and
where you are in the network of billions of digital devices that are
connected to the Internet.

IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that

allows communication to take place over the network. IPv6 was
designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in December
1998 with the purpose of superseding IPv4 due to the global
exponentially growing internet of users.

An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one

to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each number or set of
digits. This group of separated numbers creates the addresses that let
you and everyone around the globe to send and retrieve data over our
Internet connections. The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing
to store 2^32 addresses which is more than 4 billion addresses. To
date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of
Internet traffic.

This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfil the need for
more Internet addresses. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340
undecillion unique address space.
IPv6 support a theoretical maximum of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463,
463, 374, 607, 431, 768, 211, 456. To keep it straightforward, we will
never run out of IP addresses again.

IPv6 vs IPv4
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfil the need for
more Internet addresses. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340
undecillion unique address space.
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IPv6 support a theoretical maximum of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463,
463, 374, 607, 431, 768, 211, 456. To keep it straightforward, we will
never run out of IP addresses again.

IPv6 IPv4

IPv6 has a 128-bit address

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length
length

It supports Auto and renumbering It Supports Manual

address configuration and DHCP address configuration

The address space of IPv6 is

It can generate
quite large it can produce
4.29×109 address space
3.4×1038 address space

Address Representation of IPv6 Address representation of IPv4 is

is in hexadecimal in decimal

In IPv6 checksum field is not In IPv4 checksum field is

available available

IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes IPv4 has a header of 20-60

fixed bytes.

IPv4 supports VLSM(Variable

IPv6 does not support VLSM.
Length subnet mask).

Types of IPv6 Address

Now that we know about what is IPv6 address let’s take a look at its
different types.

 Unicast Addresses : Only one interface is specified by the unicast

address. A packet moves from one host to the destination host when
it is sent to a unicast address destination.

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 Multicast Addresses: It represents a group of IP devices and can

only be used as the destination of a datagram.

Advantages

 Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in

IPv4.This feature allows bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like
multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple destinations all at once.

 Stronger Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality, and

data integrity, is embedded into IPv6.

 Routing efficiency

 Reliability

 Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-
network.

 The device allocates addresses on its own.

 Internet protocol security is used to support security.

Disadvantages

 Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a

long period to completely shift to IPv6.

 Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate

directly with each other.

 Not Going Backward Compatibility: IPv6 cannot be executed on

IPv4-capable computers because it is not available on IPv4 systems.

 Conversion Time: One significant drawback of IPv6 is its inability to

uniquely identify each device on the network, which makes the
conversion to IPV4 extremely time-consuming.

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