MODULE 2

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE
Semigroups and Monoids
◦ Semigroups: If 𝑆 is a nonempty set and ∗ be a binary operation on 𝑆, then the algebraic
system {𝑆,∗} is called a semigroup, if the operation ∗ is associative.
◦ For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝐶)
◦ Monoid: If a semigroup {𝑀,∗} has an identity element with respect to the operation ∗
, then {𝑀,∗} is called a monoid.
◦ For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝐶) and if there exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑀 such that
for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎, then the algebraic system {𝑀,∗} is called a monoid
Problems:
1. If ∗ is the binary operation on the set 𝑅 of real numbers defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏, (a)
Find if {𝑅,∗} is a semigroup. Is it commutative? (b) Find the identity element, if exists. (c)
which elements have inverse and what are they?
Solution:
(a) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑐
Hence, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) is associative. Hence (𝑅,∗) is a semigroup.
Also 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 2𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏. Therefore (R,∗) is a commutative.
(b) If the identity element exists, let it be 𝑒. Then for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑒 + 2𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑒 1 + 2𝑎 = 0
𝑒 = 0, since (1 + 2𝑎) ≠ 0, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
(c) Let 𝑎−1 be the inverse of an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
𝑎
𝑎−1 = − 1+2𝑎
1 𝑎
If 𝑎 ≠ − 2, 𝑎−1 exists and 𝑎−1 = − 1+2𝑎
◦ If ∗ is the operation defined on 𝑆 = 𝑄 × 𝑄, the set of ordered pairs of rational numbers
and given by 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)
(a)Find if (𝑆,∗) is a semigroup. Is it commutative?
(b)Find the identity element of 𝑆.
(c) Which elements, if any, have inverses and what are they? Done
Solution:
(a) 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐𝑥, 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥𝑐, 𝑥𝑑 + 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑐𝑥, 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)
Hence ∗ is Associative on 𝑆
∴ (𝑆,∗) is a semigroup
Commutative: 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑎, 𝑏 = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑦) ≠ (𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)
∴ It is not commutative.
◦ If 𝑍6 is the set of all equivalence classes generated by the equivalence relation
“Congruence modulo 6”, prove that {𝑍6 ,×6 } is a monoid. Where the operation ×6 and 𝑍6 is
defined as 𝑖 ×6 𝑗 = [ 𝑖 × 𝑗 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 6)], for any 𝑖 , 𝑗 ∈ 𝑍6 . Which elements of the monoid are
invertible?
Solution: 𝑋6 [0] [1] [2] 3 [4] [5]
[0] 0 0 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3 4 5
[2] 0 2 4 0 2 4
[3] 0 3 0 3 0 3
[4] 0 4 2 0 4 2
[5] 0 5 4 3 2 1
The operation ×6 is associative
For example: 2 ×6 4 ×6 5 = 2 ×6 5 = 4
2 ×6 4 ×6 5 = 2 ×6 2 = 4
Identity element of {𝑍6 ,×6 } is 0
Hence {𝑍6 ,×6 } is a monoid
From the table, it is clear that only 1 and 5 are invertible. Since 1 ×6 1 = 1 and
5 ×6 5 = [5]
Groups
◦ If 𝐺 is a non-empty set and ∗ is a binary operation of 𝐺, then the algebraic system {𝐺,∗} is
called a group if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) (Associativity)
2. There exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 (Existence of
Identity)
3. For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists an element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
(Existence of inverse)
Definitions
◦ When 𝐺 is finite, the numbers of elements of 𝐺 is called the order of 𝐺 and denoted by
𝑂 𝐺 or 𝐺 .
◦ If the element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, where 𝐺 is a group with identity element 𝑒, then the least positive
integer 𝑚 for which 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 is called the order of the element 𝑎 and denoted as 𝑂(𝑎)
◦ If no such integer exists, then 𝑎 is of infinity order.
◦ A group (𝐺,∗), in which the binary operation ∗ is commutative, is called a commutative
group or abelian group
For example: The set of rational numbers excluding zero is an abelian group under the
usual multiplication
◦ Show that the set 𝑄+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under the
1
operation ∗ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 𝑎𝑏; 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ . Done
Solution:
𝑎𝑏
When 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ , ∈ 𝑄+
2
∴ 𝑄+ is closed under the operation ∗
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Now, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = ∗ 𝑐=
2 4
𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑎∗ 𝑏∗𝑐 =𝑎∗ =
2 4
Hence ∗ is associative
Let 𝑒 be the identity element of 𝑄+ under ∗
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 for 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 +
1
𝑎𝑒 =𝑎
2
𝑒 = 2 ∈ 𝑄+
Hence identity element exists
◦ Let 𝑏 be the inverse of the element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
◦ Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 = 2
1
◦ 2
𝑎𝑏 =2
4
◦ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄+
◦ Thus, every element of 𝑄+ is invertible
◦ Therefore, (𝑄 + ,∗) is a group
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑎
◦ Also 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = = =𝑏∗𝑎
2 2

◦ (𝑄+ ,∗) is an abelian group

 𝑎 𝑏
◦ If 𝑀2 is the set of 2 × 2 non-singular matrices over 𝑅, 𝑀2 = { |𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0}. Prove that
𝑐 𝑑
𝑀2 is a group under the operation of usual matrix multiplication. Is it abelian?
Solution:
𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2 𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑏1 𝑐2 𝑎1 𝑏2 + 𝑏1 𝑑2
𝐴= 1 and 𝐵 = 2 , then 𝐴𝐵 = 1 2
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑎2 𝑐1 + 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑐1 𝑏2 + 𝑑1 𝑑2
Also 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 . |𝐵|
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are non-singular, AB is also non-singular.
Also if 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀2 , then 𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝑀2
Therefore Matrix multiplication is closed.
1 0
Now, if 𝐼 = , then 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴
0 1
Hence 𝐼 is identity element of 𝑀2 with respect to matrix multiplication.
1 1
.𝑑 − .𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 |𝐴| |𝐴|
If 𝐴 = , 𝐴−1 = 1 1 ∈ 𝑀2
𝑐 𝑑 − .𝑐 .𝑎
𝐴 |𝐴|
Inverse of every 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀2 exists.
Hence, {𝑀2 ,×} is a group
Since 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 in general, {𝑀2 ,×} is not abelian
◦ If {𝐺,∗} is an abelian group, show that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑏𝑛 , for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, where 𝑛 is a positive
integer.
Solution:
𝐺,∗ is an abelian group, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
For, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 1
= 𝑏∗𝑎 1

And 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 (by associative)

=𝑎∗ 𝑎∗𝑏 ∗𝑏
= 𝑎∗𝑎 ∗ 𝑏∗𝑏
= 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏2
Thus, the required result is true for 𝑛 = 1, 2. Let us assume that the result is valid for 𝑛 = 𝑚.
𝑎+𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 ∗ 𝑏𝑚
Now 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑚+1
= 𝑎∗𝑏 𝑚
∗ 𝑎∗𝑏
= 𝑎𝑚 ∗ 𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
= (𝑎𝑚+1 ∗ 𝑏𝑚+1 )
Homomorphism of Semigroups and
monoids
◦ If {𝑆,∗} and 𝑇, ∆ are any two semigroups, then a mapping 𝑔: 𝑆 → 𝑇 such that, for any
two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑔 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑔(𝑎)∆𝑔(𝑏) is called a semigroup homomorphism.
◦ If {𝑀,∗, 𝑒𝑀 } and {𝑇, ∆, 𝑒𝑇 } are any two monoids, where 𝑒𝑀 and 𝑒𝑇 are identity elements of
𝑀 and 𝑇 with respect to the corresponding binary operations ∗ and ∆ respectively, then
a mapping 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝑇 such that, for any two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀
◦ 𝑔 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑔(𝑎)∆𝑔(𝑏)
◦ 𝑔 𝑒𝑀 = 𝑒𝑇
is called a monoid homomorphism.
◦ If 𝑆 = 𝑁 × 𝑁, the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with operation ∗ defined by
𝑎
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑 and if 𝑓: 𝑆,∗ → 𝑄, + is defined by 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑏 , show that 𝑓 is
a semigroup homomorphism. Done
Solution:
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒, 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓
Since {𝑆,∗} is Associative. It is a semigroup
To prove f is a semigroup homomorphism, we need to show that
𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑓(𝑐, 𝑑)
𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
Now, 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑓 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑏 + 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑

Therefore 𝑓: 𝑆,∗ → (𝑄, +) is a semigroup homomorphism

◦ If 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋, where 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4} is defined by 𝑓 = 1, 2 , 2, 3 , 3, 4 , 4, 1 , Prove that
{𝐹, . } where 𝐹 = {𝑓 0 , 𝑓 1 , 𝑓 2 , 𝑓 3 } is a monoid under the operation . Of function
composition, if 𝑓 0 = { 1, 1 , 2, 2 , 3, 3 , (4, 4)} and 𝑓 1 . 𝑓 1 = 𝑓. 𝑓 = 𝑓 2 ; 𝑓 2 . 𝑓 = 𝑓 3 ; 𝑓 3 . 𝑓 = 𝑓 4 =
𝑓 0 . Show also that the mapping 𝑔: 𝐹, . → (𝑍4 , +4 ) given by 𝑔 𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑖 , for 𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, 3 is a
monoid homomorphism.
◦ Solution: The Cayley Table for {𝐹, . } is given as . 𝑓0 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
Commutative: The operation, . Is commutative. 𝑓0 𝑓0 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
For example: 𝑓 2 . 𝑓 3 = 𝑓 1 = 𝑓 3 . 𝑓 2 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓0
Associative: The operation . Is associative 𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓0 𝑓1
From the table it is clear that 𝑓 0 is identity. 𝑓3 𝑓3 𝑓0 𝑓1 𝑓2

There fore (𝐹, . ) is a commutative monoid.

W.K.T the operation +4 on 𝑍4 is defined as 𝑖 +4 𝑗 = [ 𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑚𝑜𝑑 4] for any 𝑖 , [𝑗] ∈ 𝑍4

The Cayley table for 𝑍4 , +4
 +4 [0] [1] [2] 3
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [0]
[2] [2] [3] [0] [1]
[3] [3] [0] [1] [2]
◦ From the table it is clear that +4 is associative and commutative
◦ [0] is identity element of 𝑍4 under +4
◦ Hence {𝑍4 , +4 } is a commutative monoid.
◦ From both the table, it is easily verified that 𝑔 𝑓 𝑖 . 𝑓 𝑗 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑖 + 𝑔(𝑓 𝑗 )
◦ For example: 𝑔 𝑓 2 . 𝑓 3 = 𝑔 𝑓 1 = [1]
◦ 𝑔 𝑓 2 + 𝑔 𝑓 3 = 2 +4 3 = [1]
◦ Thus, 𝑔: 𝐹, . → (𝑍4 , +4 ) is a monoid homomorphism, Since 𝑔 𝑓 𝑖 = [𝑖] for 𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, 3 g is
one-to-one. Also for every element in 𝑍4 , there is a preimage in 𝐹. Hence 𝑔 is onto
◦ Therefore 𝑔 is an isomorphism.
 1 2 3 4 5
◦ If the permutations of the elements of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are given by 𝛼 = ,
2 3 1 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛽= ,𝛾 = ,δ = . Find 𝛼𝛽, 𝛽𝛼, 𝛼 2 , 𝛾𝛽, 𝛿 −1 and
1 2 3 5 4 5 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 5 4
𝛼𝛽𝛾. Also, solve the equation 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽.
Solution:
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛼𝛽 = , 𝛽𝛼 = , 𝛼2 = , 𝛾𝛽 = ,
1 3 1 4 5 2 3 1 5 4 3 1 2 4 5 4 5 3 1 2
𝛿 −1 is obtained by interchanging the two rows of 𝛿 and then rearranging the elements of
the first row so as to assume the natural order.
3 2 1 5 4 1 2 3 4 5
𝛿 −1 = =
1 2 3 4 5 3 2 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5
𝛼𝛽𝛾 =
5 3 5 1 2
𝑥 = 𝛼 −1 𝛽
1 2 3 4 5
𝑥=
3 1 2 5 4
Subgroups
◦ Definition: If {𝐺,∗} is a group and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 is a non-empty subset, that satisfies the following
conditions:
◦ For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
◦ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, where 𝑒 is the identity of {𝐺,∗}
◦ For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, then {𝐻,∗} is called a subgroup of {𝐺,∗}

Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset 𝐻 of a group
{𝐺,∗} to be subgroup is 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Group Homomorphism
◦ If {𝐺,∗} and 𝐺 ′ ,△ are two groups, then a mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is called a group
homomorphism, if for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
𝑓 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎) △ 𝑓(𝑏)
◦ A group homomorphism 𝑓 is called group isomorphism, if 𝑓 is one-to-one and on-to.

◦ Theorem: If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a group homomorphism form {𝐺,∗} to {𝐺 ′ ,△}, then

◦ 𝑓 𝑒 = 𝑒′, where 𝑒 and 𝑒′ are the identity elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺′ respectively
◦ For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓 𝑎−1 = 𝑓 𝑎 −1

◦ If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then 𝑓 𝐻 = {𝑓(ℎ)/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a group of 𝐺′

Kernel of a Homomorphism
◦ Definition: If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a group homomorphism form 𝐺,∗ to 𝐺 ′ ,△ , then the set of
elements of 𝑮, which are mapped into 𝒆′, the identity element of 𝐺′, is called the kernel
of homomorphism 𝑓 and denoted by ker(𝑓).
◦ Theorem: The kernel of homomorphism 𝑓 from a group {𝐺,∗} to another group (𝐺 ′ ,△) is a
subgroup of (𝐺,∗}
Cosets
◦ Definitions: If {𝐻,∗} is a subgroup of a group {𝐺,∗}, then the set 𝑎𝐻, where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, defined
by
𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎 ∗ ℎ|ℎ ∈ 𝐻}
◦ Is called the left coset of 𝑯 in 𝐺 generated by the element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑎 is called the
representative of the left coset 𝑎𝐻.

◦ Similarly, the set 𝐻𝑎 is defined by 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ ∗ 𝑎|ℎ ∈ 𝐻} Is called the right coset of 𝑯 in 𝐺

generated by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑎 is again called the representative of 𝐻𝑎
Lagrange’s Theorem
◦ Statement: The order of a subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group.
◦ Let G is a finite group and 𝑂(𝐺) represents the order of 𝐺. Let 𝐻 be the subgroup of 𝐺
and 𝑂 𝐻 represents the order of 𝐻. Then 𝑂 𝐻 is a divisor of 𝑂(𝐺).
◦ Deductions of Lagrange’s Theorem:
1. The order of any element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.
2. If 𝐺 is finite group of order 𝑛, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 for any element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
3. Every group of prime order is cyclic
Problem
◦ If 𝐺 is an abelian group with identity 𝑒, prove that all elements 𝑥 of 𝐺 satisfying the equation
𝑥 2 = 𝑒 form a subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺.
Proof
𝐻 = {𝑥|𝑥 2 = 𝑒}
𝑒 2 = 𝑒 => Identity element 𝑒 of 𝐺 ∈ 𝐻
𝑥2 = 𝑒
𝑥 −1 . 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 −1 . 𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑥 −1
Hence, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 then 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, since G is abelian, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦 −1 𝑥 −1 = 𝑥𝑦 −1

 𝑥𝑦 2
= 𝑒. i.e. we have 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻
Thus, all the 3 conditions in the definition of a subgroup are satisfied.
Therefore 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺
◦ If 𝐺 is the set of all ordered pairs 𝑎, 𝑏 , where 𝑎(≠ 0) and 𝑏 are real and the binary operation
∗ on 𝐺 is defined by 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑). Show that (𝐺,∗) is a non-abelian group. Show
also that the subset 𝐻 of all those elements of 𝐺 which are of the form (1, 𝑏) is a subgroup of
𝐺.
Solution:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 , (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐺 , then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑) ∈ 𝐺
∴ 𝐺 is closure under ∗
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓 = (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓)
∴ 𝐺 is associative
Let (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) be the identity element of 𝐺 then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 = (1,0)
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be the inverse element of (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 = (1,0)
1 𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑎,𝑦 = −𝑎
Thus (𝐺,∗) is a group.
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑)
𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐, 𝑑𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ 𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑
Thus (𝐺,∗) is a non-abelian group
(ii) Show also that the subset 𝐻 of all those elements of 𝐺 which are of the form (1, 𝑏) is a
subgroup of 𝐺.
Proof:
The elements of 𝐻 = {(1, 𝑏)}
𝐻 is not an empty set
−1 1 𝑐
1, 𝑏 ∗ 1, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑏 ∗ ∗ −1
1

 1, 𝑏 ∗ 1, 𝑐 −1
= 1, 𝑏 ∗ 1, −𝑐 = (1, 𝑏 − 𝑐)
(1, 𝑏 − 𝑐) ∈ 𝐻
Hence the necessary and sufficient condition for a subgroup is satisfied
Thus, H is a subgroup of 𝐺
◦ If 𝐺 is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) of real numbers and ∗ is binary operation defined by
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑), prove that (𝐺,∗) is a group. If 𝐺′ is the additive group of all real
numbers, prove that the mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ defined by 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 is a
homomorphism.
Solution
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 & (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑) ∈ 𝐺
Hence 𝐺 satisfies closure property
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 , (𝑐, 𝑑) & (𝑒, 𝑓) ∈ 𝐺 then
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 + 𝑒, 𝑑 + 𝑓 = (𝑎 + 𝑐 + 𝑒, 𝑏 + 𝑑 + 𝑓)
𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑 ∗ 𝑒, 𝑓 = (𝑎 + 𝑐 + 𝑒, 𝑏 + 𝑑 + 𝑓)
Therefore 𝐺 is associative
Let (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) be the identity element of 𝐺 then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑒1 = 0, 𝑒2 = 0
Therefore identity element of 𝐺 is (0, 0)
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be the inverse element for any (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐺, then
𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑎, 𝑏 = 0,0
 𝑥, 𝑦 = −𝑎, −𝑏
Therefore (𝐺,∗) is a group.
(ii) If 𝐺′ is the additive group of all real numbers, prove that the mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ defined
by 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 is a homomorphism.
To prove: 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑓(𝑐, 𝑑)
Proof:
𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑 =𝑎+𝑐
𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑓 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑐
Hence 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a homomorphism
◦ If 𝐺 is the additive group of integers and 𝐻 is the subgroup of 𝐺 obtained by multiplying each
element of 𝐺 by 3, find the distinct right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
Solution:
𝐺 = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }
𝐻 = {… , −9, −6, −3,0,3,6,9, … }
Now 0 ∈ 𝐺
𝐻 + 0 = … , −9, −6, −3,0,3,6,9, … = 𝐻
1∈𝐺
𝐻 + 1 = {… , −8, −5, −2,1,4,7,10, … }
2∈𝐺
𝐻 + 2 = {… , −7, −4, −1,2, 5, 8, 11, … }
3∈𝐺
𝐻 + 3 = … , −6, −3,0,3,6,9,12, … = 𝐻
We see that 𝐻 + 4 = 𝐻 + 1, 𝐻 + 5 = 𝐻 + 2, 𝐻 + 6 = 𝐻, etc.
We can also see that 𝐻 + −1 = 𝐻 + 2, 𝐻 + −2 = 𝐻 + 1, 𝐻 + −3 = 𝐻 and so on
Hence the three distinct right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are 𝐻, 𝐻 + 1, 𝐻 + 2 as they are disjoint.
Also 𝐻 ∪ 𝐻 + 1 ∪ 𝐻 + 2 = 𝐺
◦ Assume that G is a finite group with subgroups H of order 12 and K of order 30. If the order of G is less
than 200, what are the possible values for the order of G.
Coding Theory
◦ The process of communication involves transmitting some information carrying signal
(message) that is conveyed by a sender to a receiver.
◦ Even though the sender may like to have his message received by the receive without
any distortion, it is not possible due to a variety of disturbances (noise) to which the
communication channel is subjected.
◦ Coding theory deals with minimizing the distortions of the conveyed message due to
noise and to retrieve the original message to the optimal extent possible from the
corrupted message.
Encoders and Decoders
◦ An encoder is a device which transforms the incoming messages in such a way that
the presence of noise in the transformed messages is detectable.
◦ A decoder is a device which transforms the encoded message in to their original form
that can be understood by the receiver.
Group Code
Definition:
◦ If 𝐵 = {0,1}, then 𝐵𝑛 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … , 𝑛} is a group under the binary
operation of additional modulo 2, denoted by ⊕. This group (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a called a group
code.
◦ Prove that (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a group.
Proof
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , {𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 } ∈ 𝐵𝑛 , then
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ⊕ 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 = (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ 𝐵𝑛
𝑥𝑖 +2 𝑦𝑗 = 0 𝑜𝑟 1 , since 0 +2 0 = 0, 0 +2 1 = 1, 1 +2 0 = 1 and 1 +2 1 = 0
0, 0, … , 0 is the identity element of 𝐵𝑛 .Also the inverse of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is itself.
Hence (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a group and it is also abelian.
◦ In general, Any code which is group under the binary operation of addition modulo 2,
denoted by ⊕ is a group code.
Hamming Code
◦ The codes obtained by introducing additional digits called parity digits to the digits in
the original message are called Hamming codes
◦ If the original message is a binary string of length 𝒎, the Hamming encoded message is
string of length, 𝒏 (𝒏 > 𝒎). Of the 𝑛 digits, 𝒎 digits are used to represent the information
part of the message and the remaining (𝒏 − 𝒎) digits are used for the detection and
correction of errors in the message received.
◦ In Hamming’s single-error detecting code of length 𝑛, the first 𝑛 − 1 digits contain the
information part of the message and the last digit is made either 0 or 1.
◦ If the digit introduced in the last position gives an even number/odd numbers of 1’s in
the encoded word of length 𝑛, the extra digit is called an even/odd parity check.
Hamming distance
◦ The number of 1′ 𝑠 in the binary string 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵2 is called the weight of 𝑥 and is denoted by |𝑥|
◦ If 𝑥 and 𝑦 represent the binary strings 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 , the number of positions in
the strings for which 𝑥𝑖 ≠ 𝑦𝑖 is called the Hamming distance between 𝑥 and 𝑦 denoted by
𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑛

𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = ෍(𝑥𝑖 +2 𝑦𝑖 )
𝑖=1

For example, if 𝑥 = 11010 and 𝑦 = 10101, then 𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = 01111 = 4

◦ The minimum distance of a code is the minimum of the Hamming distances between all
pairs of encoded words in that code.
For example, if 𝑥 = 10110, 𝑦 = 11110 and 𝑧 = 10011 , then 𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 01000 = 1,
𝐻 𝑦, 𝑧 = 01101 = 3, 𝐻 𝑧, 𝑥 = 00101 = 2, so the minimum distance between these code is 1.
Theorem
1. A code can detect at the most 𝑘 errors if and only if the minimum distance between
any two code words is at least (𝑘 + 1).
Example
◦ Let 000 and 111 be the encoded words. The distance between them is 3. In other
words two code words differ in 3 digits.
◦ If one error occurs during transmission, the word 000 would have become 100, 010 or
001, where as the word 111 would have been received as 011 or 101 or 110. The two
sets of received words are disjoint.
◦ Hence, if any of the above six words is received due to one error, it is easily found out
which encoded word has get altered and in which digit position the error has occurred
and hence, the error is corrected.
◦ On the other hand, if two error occur during transmission, the word 000 would have
been received as 110, 011 and 101, the whereas the word 111 would have been
received as 001 or 100 or 010.
◦ If an error in a single digit is corrected in any of the received words 110, 011 and 101,
the corrected would be 111, which is not the transmitted word. Similarly, if a single error
correction is made in any of the receive words 001, 100 and 010, the corrected word
would be 000, which is not the transmitted word. Hence error correction is not possible.
Theorem
2. A code can correct a set of at the most 𝑘 errors if and only if the minimum distance
between any two code words is at least (2𝑘 + 1).
Example
◦ Let us consider the encoded words 000 and 111. These words differ in 3 digits. So, zero
or one error can be corrected.
◦ If zero or one error occurs during transmission, 000 would have become any one of 000,
100, 010, 001
◦ Zero or one error occurs during transmission, 111 would have become any one of 111,
011, 101, and 110
◦ These two sets of received words are disjoint. So, whatever be the words received, the
single or no error can be easily detected and corrected.
Basic Notations of Error Correction using Matrices

◦ When 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + and 𝑚 < 𝑛, the encoding function, 𝑒: 𝐵𝑚 → 𝐵𝑛 , where 𝐵 ≡ (0, 1) is given

by 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐺 over 𝐵.
◦ The matrix 𝐺 is called the generator matrix for the code and is of the form 𝐼𝑚 𝐴 , where
𝐼𝑚 is the 𝑚 × 𝑚 unit matrix and 𝐴 is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 − 𝑚 matrix to be chosen suitably.
◦ If 𝑤 ∈ 𝐵𝑚 is a message, then 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺 and the code, 𝐶 = 𝑒 (𝐵𝑚 ) ⊆ 𝐵𝑛 , where 𝑤 is a
1 × 𝑚 vector.
For example
1 0 1 1 0
If the message 𝑤 ∈ 𝐵2 , we may assume 𝐺 =
0 1 0 1 1
The words that belong to 𝐵2 are 00, 10, 01 and 11. Then the code words corresponding to the above
message words are respectively
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 00 = 0 0 = 00 000
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 10 = 1 0 = 10 110
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 01 = 0 1 = 01 011
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 11 = 1 1 = 111 01
0 1 0 1 1
Clearly, 𝐶 = 𝑒(𝐵2 ) ⊆ 𝐵5
We observe that we can get back the message word from the corresponding code word by dropping the
last 3(= 𝑛 − 𝑚) digits.
For all 𝑤 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐵2 , 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 ∈ 𝐵5 , where 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐵 -----(1)
𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 1 0 1 1 0 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑥2 ] ------ (2)
0 1 0 1 1
From (1) and (2), we have 𝑥1 = 𝑥3 , 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑥4 and 𝑥2 = 𝑥5 -------(3)
Since 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐵, by modulo 2 arithmetic −𝑥𝑖 𝑚𝑜𝑑 2 = (−𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑖 )(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
Hence, the equation (3) becomes
𝑥1 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 = 0 ------- (4)
𝑥2 + 𝑥5 = 0
𝑥1
1 0 1 0 0 𝑥2 0
1 1 0 1 0 . 𝑥3 = 0
0 1 0 0 1 𝑥4 0
𝑥5
0
𝐻. 𝑒 𝑤 𝑇 = 0 -----(5)
0
The 𝑛 − 𝑚 equations in (3) are called the parity check equations
The matrix 𝐻 in (5) is called the parity check matrix
We note that 𝐻 is an (𝑛 − 𝑚) × 𝑛 matrix, whereas 𝐺 is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix.
Also, 𝐻 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐼𝑛−𝑚
Note
◦ 𝐻 does not contain a column of only 0’s and no two columns of 𝐻 are the same.
◦ This is achieved by a careful choice of A. This unique parity check matrix 𝐻 provides a
decoding scheme that corrects a single error in transmission as explained below.:
◦ If 𝑟 is a received word considered as 𝑎(1 × 𝑛) matrix and if 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇 = 0 , then the we
conclude that there is no error in the transmission and that 𝑟 is the code word
transmitted. The decoded message then consists of the first 𝑚 components of 𝑟
1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
In the consider example, if 𝑟 = [1 1 1 0 1], then 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇 = 1 1 0 1 0 . 1 = 0 .
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1
Hence 𝑟 is itself the code word transmitted and the decoded message is 1 1 (by taking
first 2 components of 𝑟)
◦ If 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇 = the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐻, then we conclude that a single error has occurred during
the transmission and it has occurred in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ component of 𝑟.
◦ Changing the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ component of 𝑟, we get he code word 𝑐 transmitted. As before the
first 𝑚 components of 𝑐 give the original message.
◦ In the consider example, if 𝑟 = 11 0111 ,then
1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
𝑇
◦ 𝐻. 𝑟 = 1 1 0 1 0 . 0 = 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1
◦ Since 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇 is the first column of 𝐻, a single error has occurred in the first component of
𝑟. Changing the first component of 𝑟 , we get the code word transmitted as 01 0111.
Taking the first 2 components of the code word, we get 01 as the original message
▪ If neither case (i) nor case (ii) occurs then we conclude that more than one transmission error have
occurred. Through detection of errors is possible in this case, correction is not possible
▪ In the consider example, if 𝑟 = [11 010], then
1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
𝑇
𝐻. 𝑟 = 1 1 0 1 0 . 0 = 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0
Since 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇 ≠ any column of 𝐻, more than one transmission error has occurred.
1 1 0
◦ Since 1 = 1 + 0 = 1st column of H + 5th column of H
1 0 1
2 errors have occurred in the transmission, one in the first component and other in the fifth component of 𝑟.
Changing these components in 𝑟, the code word transmitted may be assume as 01 011 and hence the
original message may be taken as 01
1 0 1
◦ Since 1 = 1 + 0 = 2nd column of H + 3rd column of H
1 1 0
2 errors have occurred in the transmission, one in the second component and other in the third
component of 𝑟. Changing these components in 𝑟, the code word transmitted may be assume as 10 110
and hence the original message may be taken as 10.
Thus, there is an ambiguity as to which message has been encoded and transmitted. In other words, the
correction of errors is not possible, even though errors have been detected.
Note: The minimum distance between any pair of code words is 3. Hence according to the two previous
theorems, at most 2 errors can be detected and at most 1 error can be corrected.
Error Correction in Group Codes
◦ When the code words form a group, it is easier to find the minimum distance between
code words, using the following theorem.
Theorem:
1. In a group code, the minimum distance between distinct code words is the minimum
weight of the non-zero code words in it.
2. If H is a parity check matrix with 𝑛 − 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns, then the set 𝐶 of code
words 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) such that 𝐶 = {𝑥|𝐻. 𝑥 𝑇 = 0 , 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 2} is a group code under
the operation ⊕.
3. The parity check matrix 𝐻 generates a code word of weight 𝑞 if and only if there exists
a set of 𝑞 columns of 𝐻 such that their 𝑘 −tuple sum (mod 2) is a zero column, where
𝑘 =𝑛−𝑚
◦ Let us consider the example
1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
𝑇
𝐻. 𝑥 = 1 1 0 1 0 . 1 = 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1
Now it is obvious that the sum of 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 5th column of H(mod 2) is the zero
column
The weight of the corresponding code word 1 1 1 0 1 is 4, that verified the above
theorem
Step by step procedure for decoding group
codes
◦ Step 1: We list in a row all the code words in 𝐶, starting with the identity. Thus, we have
𝑐1 = 0 𝑐2 𝑐3 … 𝑐2𝑚
Example consider 𝑚 = 2, 00000 10110 01011 11101

Step 2: We select some word 𝑦𝑗 ∈ 𝐵𝑛 but not in 𝐶 having minimum weight and construct
a new row or coset 𝑦𝑗 ⊕ 𝑐𝑖 for all 𝑖 such that 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 2𝑚
Thus, we have
𝑦𝑗 ⊕ 𝑐1 𝑦𝑗 ⊕ 𝑐2 … 𝑦𝑗 ⊕ 𝑐2𝑚
Example, consider 𝑦2 = 10000, then the second row would be
10000 00110 11011 01101
◦ Step 3: We now form the third row by selecting some 𝑦𝑘 ∈ 𝐵𝑛 which is not in the
preceding two rows and which has the minimum weight and proceeding as in step 2.
Thus, we have 𝑦3 𝑦3 ⊕ 𝑐1 𝑦3 ⊕ 𝑐2 … 𝑦3 ⊕ 𝑐2𝑚
Example: If 𝑦3 = 01000, then the third row would be
1000 11110 00011 10101
◦ Step 4: This process is continued until all the elements in 𝐵𝑛 are entered in the table. The
complete decoding table will be of the form
𝑐1 (= 0) 𝑐2 𝑐3 … 𝑐2𝑚
𝑦2 𝑦2 ⊕ 𝑐2 𝑦2 ⊕ 𝑐3 … 𝑦2 ⊕ 𝑐2𝑚
… … … … …
𝑦2𝑛−𝑚 𝑦2𝑛−𝑚 ⊕ 𝑐2 𝑦2𝑛−𝑚 ⊕ 𝑐3 … 𝑦2𝑛−𝑚 ⊕ 𝑐2𝑚
◦ Step 5: once the decoding table is constructed, the decoding of any received word 𝑟
is done as follows.
◦ First we identify the column of the decoding table in which 𝑟 occurs. If the weight of
the coset leader corresponding to 𝑟 is 1, then the decoded word is the element at the
top of the column in which 𝑟 occurs.
◦ Step 6: If the weight of the coset leader corresponding to the received word 𝑟 is 2, the
decoding cannot be done, the coded word transmitted cannot be determined
uniquely, as two coded words might have been received as the same word 𝑟 due to 2
errors during transmission.
Coding Theory
◦ The process of communication involves transmitting some information carrying signal
(message) that is conveyed by a sender to a receiver.
◦ Even though the sender may like to have his message received by the receive without
any distortion, it is not possible due to a variety of disturbances (noise) to which the
communication channel is subjected.
◦ Coding theory deals with minimizing the distortions of the conveyed message due to
noise and to retrieve the original message to the optimal extent possible from the
corrupted message.
Encoders and Decoders
◦ An encoder is a device which transforms the incoming messages in such a way that
the presence of noise in the transformed messages is detectable.
◦ A decoder is a device which transforms the encoded message in to their original form
that can be understood by the receiver.
Group Code
Definition:
◦ If 𝐵 = {0,1}, then 𝐵𝑛 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … , 𝑛} is a group under the binary
operation of additional modulo 2, denoted by ⊕. This group (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a called a group
code.
◦ Prove that (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a group.
Proof
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , {𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 } ∈ 𝐵𝑛 , then
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ⊕ 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 = (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ 𝐵𝑛
𝑥𝑖 +2 𝑦𝑗 = 0 𝑜𝑟 1 , since 0 +2 0 = 0, 0 +2 1 = 1, 1 +2 0 = 1 and 1 +2 1 = 0
0, 0, … , 0 is the identity element of 𝐵𝑛 .Also the inverse of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is itself.
Hence (𝐵𝑛 ,⊕) is a group and it is also abelian.
◦ In general, Any code which is group under the binary operation of addition modulo 2,
denoted by ⊕ is a group code.
Hamming Code
◦ The codes obtained by introducing additional digits called parity digits to the digits in
the original message are called Hamming codes
◦ If the original message is a binary string of length 𝒎, the Hamming encoded message is
string of length, 𝒏 (𝒏 > 𝒎). Of the 𝑛 digits, 𝒎 digits are used to represent the information
part of the message and the remaining (𝒏 − 𝒎) digits are used for the detection and
correction of errors in the message received.
◦ In Hamming’s single-error detecting code of length 𝑛, the first 𝑛 − 1 digits contain the
information part of the message and the last digit is made either 0 or 1.
◦ If the digit introduced in the last position gives an even number/odd numbers of 1’s in
the encoded word of length 𝑛, the extra digit is called an even/odd parity check.
Hamming distance
◦ The number of 1′ 𝑠 in the binary string 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵2 is called the weight of 𝑥 and is denoted by |𝑥|
◦ If 𝑥 and 𝑦 represent the binary strings 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 , the number of positions in
the strings for which 𝑥𝑖 ≠ 𝑦𝑖 is called the Hamming distance between 𝑥 and 𝑦 denoted by
𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑛

𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = ෍(𝑥𝑖 +2 𝑦𝑖 )
𝑖=1

For example, if 𝑥 = 11010 and 𝑦 = 10101, then 𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = 01111 = 4

◦ The minimum distance of a code is the minimum of the Hamming distances between all
pairs of encoded words in that code.
For example, if 𝑥 = 10110, 𝑦 = 11110 and 𝑧 = 10011 , then 𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 01000 = 1,
𝐻 𝑦, 𝑧 = 01101 = 3, 𝐻 𝑧, 𝑥 = 00101 = 2, so the minimum distance between these code is 1.
Theorem
1. A code can detect at the most 𝑘 errors if and only if the minimum distance between
any two code words is at least (𝑘 + 1).
2. 2. A code can correct a set of at the most 𝑘 errors if and only if the minimum distance
between any two code words is at least (2𝑘 + 1).
Problem
1. A binary symmetric channel has probability 𝑝 = 0.05 of incorrect transmission. If the
code word 𝑐 = 011 011 101 is transmitted, what is the probability that (a) we receive
𝑟 = 011 111 101 (b) we receive 𝑟 = 111 011 100? (c) a single error occurs? (d) double error
occurs (e) triple error occurs?
Solution
(a) The received word 𝑟 = 011 111 101 differs from the transmitted word 𝑐 = 011 011 101
only in the fourth position
The probability of occurrence of this error= 𝑃 1 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 0.05 × 0.958 =
0.0332
(b) The received word 𝑟 = 111 011 100 differs from the transmitted word 𝑐 = 011 011 101
only in the first and ninth position
The probability of occurrence of this error = 𝑃 2 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 0.052 ×
0.957 = 0.0629
(c) 𝑃 1 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛𝐶1 𝑝1 𝑞 𝑛−1
= 9𝐶1 × 0.05 × 0.958 = 0.0629
(d) 𝑃 2 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛𝐶2 𝑝2 𝑞 𝑛−2
= 9𝐶2 × 0.055 × 0.957 = 0.0629
(e) 𝑃 3 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛𝐶3 𝑝3 𝑞 𝑛−3
= 9𝐶3 × 0.053 × 0.956 = 0.0077
2. Find the code words generated
0 1 1 by the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵 → 𝐵 with respect to the
2 5

0 1 1
parity check matrix 𝐻 = 1 0 0 .
0 1 0
0 0 1
Solution:
0 0 1 0 0
Rewriting the given matrix 𝐻 = 𝐻 : 𝐴 |𝐼𝑛−𝑚 = 𝐻 : 𝐴 𝐼5−2 = 1 1 0 1 0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

1 1 0 0 1
0 0
0 1 1
Here 𝑛 = 5, 𝑚 = 2, 𝐴𝑇 = 1 1 , 𝐴 =
1 1 0 1 1
1 00 1 1
Generator Matrix, 𝐺 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐴 = 𝐼2 |𝐴 = |
0 10 1 1
Now, 𝐵2 ≡ {0 0, 0 1, 1 0, 1 1} and 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤 𝐺
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 00 = 0 0 = [0 0 0 0 0]
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 01 = 0 1 = [0 1 0 1 1]
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 10 = 1 0 = [1 0 0 1 1]
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 11 = 1 1 = [1 1 0 0 0]
0 1 0 1 1
Hence the code words generated by 𝐻 are 0 0 0 0 0, 0 1 0 1 1, 1 0 0 1 1 and 1 1 0 0 0
 1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
3. Find the code words generated by the parity check matrix 𝐻 = 1 0 0 when the
0 1 0
encoding function is 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6. 0 0 1
Solution
Here, 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 6
1 1 01 0 0
𝐻 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐼3 = 1 0 1|0 1 0
1 1 10 0 1
1 1 1
𝐴= 1 0 1
0 1 1
𝐺 = 𝐼𝑚 |𝐴
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝐺= 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
Now 𝐵3 = {0 0 0 , 0 0 1, 0 1 0, 1 0 0, 0 1 1, 1 0 1, 1 1 0, 1 1 1}
𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺
 1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 000 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 001 = 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 010 = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 100 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 011 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 101 = 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 110 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 111 = 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
Thus, the code words generated are 000000, 001011, 010101, 100111, 011110, 101100, 110010, 111001
4.Decode each of the following received words corresponding to the encoding
function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 given by 𝑒 000 = 000 000 , 𝑒 001 = 001 011 , 𝑒 010 =
010 101, 𝑒 100 = 100 111, 𝑒 011 = 011 110, 𝑒 101 = 101 100, 𝑒 110 = 110 010 and
𝑒 111 = 111 001 , assuming that no error or signal error has occurred:
0 1 1 1 1 0, 1 1 0 1 1 1, 1 1 0 0 0 0, 1 1 1 0 0 0, 0 1 1 1 1 1.
Solution
We note that the minimum distance between the code words (the minimum weight of the non-zero
code words) is 3 and hence, at most 1 error can be corrected that might have occurred in the received word.
𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 6
(i) The word 0 1 1 1 1 0 is identical with 𝑒(0 1 1). Hence no error has occurred in this word and the original
message is 0 1 1.
(ii) The word 1 1 0 1 1 1 is differs from 𝑒 1 0 0 = 1 0 0 1 1 1 in the second position only. Correcting the single error,
the transmitted word is 1 0 0 1 1 1 and the original message is
100
(iii) The word 1 1 0 0 0 0 is differs from 𝑒 1 1 0 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 in the fifth position only. Correcting the single error, the
transmitted word is 1 1 0 0 1 0 and the original message is 1 1 0
(iv) The word 1 1 1 0 0 0 differs from 𝑒 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 0 0 1 in the sixth position only. Correcting the single error, the
transmitted word is 1 1 1 0 0 1 and the original message is 1 1 1
(v) The word 0 1 1 1 1 1 differs from 𝑒 0 1 1 = 0 1 1 1 1 0 in the sixth position only. Correcting the single error, the
transmitted word is 0 1 1 1 1 0 and the original message is 0 1 1.
 1 0 0 1 1 0
5. Given the generator matrix 𝐺 ≡ 0 1 0 0 1 1 corresponding to the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 ,
0 0 1 1 0 1
find the corresponding parity check matrix and use it to decode the following received words and hence
to find the original message. Are all the words decoded uniquely? (i) 110101 (ii)001111 (iii)110001 (iv)111111
Solution:
W.K.T 𝐺 = 𝐼3 𝐴 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻 = [𝐴𝑇 |𝐼3 ]
1 1 0 1 0 1
Here 𝐴 = 0 1 1 , 𝐴 = 1 1 0
𝑇

1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
𝐻 = 1 1 0|0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
We compute the syndrome of each of the received word by using 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇
1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
𝑇 0
(i) 𝐻. 𝑟 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 . = 0
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1
0
Since 𝐻. 𝑒 𝑤 𝑇 = 0 , the received word has zero error, hence in this case is the transmitted encoded word
0
itself. Hence the original message is 1 1 0
 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1
(ii) 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇
= 1 1 0 0 1 0 . = 1
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1
0
Since 𝐻. 𝑒 𝑤 = 1 , is the same as the fifth column of 𝐻1 , the element in the fifth position of
𝑇

0
𝑟 is changed. The decoded word is 0 0 1 1 0 1 and the original message is 0 0 1
1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0
(iii) 𝐻. 𝑟 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 .
𝑇
= 0
0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1
1
Since 𝐻. 𝑒 𝑤 𝑇
= 0 , is the same as the fourth column of 𝐻1 , the element in the fourth
0
position of 𝑟 is changed. The decoded word is 1 1 0 1 0 1 and the original message is 1 1 0
 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1
(iv) 𝐻. 𝑟 𝑇
= 1 1 0 0 1 0 . = 1
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1
1
Since 𝐻. 𝑒 𝑤 = 1 , the syndrome is not identical with any column of 𝐻, the received
𝑇

1
word cannot be decoded uniquely.
 1 0 0 1 1 1
6. Construct the decoding table for the group code given by the generator matrix 𝐺 ≡ 0 1 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 1 0 1 1
Decode the following received words using the decoding table obtained. Which of the words could not
be decoded uniquely? 101111, 011010, 101110, 111111
Solution:
Since 𝐺 is a 3 × 6 matrix, it corresponds to the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6
Now, 𝐵3 = {0 0 0, 0 0 1, 0 1 0, 1 0 0, 1 0 1, 0 1 1, 1 1 0, 1 1 1}
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 000 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 001 = 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 100 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 010 = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 011 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 101 = 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
 1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 110 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 111 = 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
We form the encoding table by making these encoded words as the elements of the first
row and the coset leaders as the elements of the first column. The coset leaders with only
one 1 have been taken in a certain order and then those with two 1’s have been taken.
The decoding table is given as
code Word
000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000111 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
Coset leader 011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
Decoding the received words
(i) 101 111 appears in the 4th row and 4th column. The coset leader of the 4th row is 001
000, which contains only one 1, since the minimum weight of the code word is 3, at most
one error can be corrected in the received word
The corrected word, the code word transmitted is the top element of the 4th column. It is
100 111 and hence the original message is 100
(ii) 011 010 appears in the 5th row and 5th column. Hence the corresponding word
transmitted is 011 110 and hence the original message is 011
(iii) 101 110 appears in the 6th row and 6th column, Hence the corresponding code word
transmitted is 101 100 and hence the original message is 101
(iv) 111 111 appears in the 8th row, the coset leader of which contains two 1’s, the
received word contains 2 errors. Hence they cannot be corrected and the code word
transmitted cannot be uniquely determined.