Received: 15 January 2019 Revised: 20 September 2019 Accepted: 24 September 2019

DOI: 10.1002/cb.1790

SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE

“Do human values matter for promoting brands on social

media? How social media users' values influence valuable
brand‐related activities such as sharing, content creation, and
reviews”

Angeliki Nikolinakou1 | Joe Phua2

1
School of Mass Communication and
Journalism, University of Southern Mississippi, Abstract
College Hall, , 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, Companies consider social media‐based consumer engagement behaviors such as
MS 39406
2
sharing, content creation, and reviews for brands as more valuable than “liking” or
Department of Advertising & Public Relations,
Grady College of Journalism and Mass consuming brand content. Studies show that branded content shared or created by
Communication, University of Georgia, 120
consumers on social media may drive more brand awareness and loyalty than “likes”
Hooper Street, Athens, GA 30602‐3018
(Adweek, 2013). Global companies are increasingly focusing their efforts on motivat-
Correspondence
ing consumer‐driven content creation (e.g., Coca‐Cola #shareacoke and Apple
Angeliki Nikolinakou, School of Mass
Communication and Journalism, University of #ShotoniPhone; Sprout Index, 2018). However, marketing practitioners are only
Southern Mississippi, College Hall, 106, 118
recently beginning to understand social media audiences who engage in such activi-
College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406.
Email: [email protected] ties (Adweek, 2018). This study posits that human values can be used to identify
and segment audiences for social media‐based valuable brand activities. Three online
surveys were conducted with Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram users (ages 18–34) on
Amazon Mechanical Turk (N = 491). The relationship between social media users'
values and their reported social media activities was examined. Findings indicate that
the human values examined (conservation, self‐enhancement, openness to change
and self‐transcendence) are significant drivers of valuable brand‐related social media
activities. Companies should address conservation‐driven users in order to elicit brand
sharing and creation activities. Companies should target conservation‐driven users for
sharing promotions, self‐enhancement‐driven users for sharing informational content
and writing of product reviews, and openness to change‐driven users for user‐
generated content. Bussinesses should further highlight their corporate social respon-
sibility efforts as a negative relationship is found between users' self‐transcendence
values and brand activities. Recommendations are provided on how brandscan
address users' values in their social media marketing to motivate sharing of branded
content and content creation.

1 | IN T R O DU C T ION by sharing, creating branded content, and reviewing brands. For exam-
ple, social media users have driven the success of campaigns such as
Social media has become ubiquitous worldwide and is changing the #justdoit for Nike and #BTS for Coca‐Cola (Brandwatch, 2019). Com-
way consumers interact and communicate with brands. Consumers panies believe that consumer “shares” can generate awareness and
may directly impact the success of social media marketing campaigns exponential impressions more than “likes,” as shared brand content

J Consumer Behav. 2020;19:13–23. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cb © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 13
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14 NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA

may reach more users (Adweek, 2013). Brands are also focusing their conservation) as audience characteristics that may drive brand‐related
efforts on motivating consumer content creation (photos, videos, or activities on social media. Thus, the purpose of this study is to help
posts) as they believe user‐generated content (UGC) can make online marketers better segment and target their social media audi-
their social media marketing campaigns more authentic and relatable ences. For example, brands are increasingly promoting on social media,
(Business Insider, 2016). Research also shows that recommendations social cause initiatives (e.g., Airbnb's #weaccept and Nike's #equality),
made by consumers online are more trusted than advertisements informational or educational content, promotions, consumer reviews,
(Sprout Social, 2018). Users who create branded UGC may become UGC (e.g., #GoPro and Apple #ShotoniPhone), and brand stories
more engaged with these brands and thus more loyal customers (e.g., Google's #YearInSearch and “Tide Loads of Hope” campaigns;
(Malthouse, Calder, Kim, & Vandenbosch, 2015). Further, as con- Sprout Social, 2018). It would therefore be efficacious for companies
sumers are now researching brand and product information more on to find out, based on human values and their effects on social media
social media than on specialized review sites like Yelp and Tripadvisor activities, how to identify and appeal to users who are more likely to
(Review Trackers, 2018), companies view positive social media reviews share different types of branded content and engage in specific con-
as an important sales driver (Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2016). tent creation activities or write brand reviews.
Academic research has examined various antecedents of electronic
word‐of‐mouth in relation to social media, such as brand communities
(Alalwan, Rana, Dwivedi, & Algharabat, 2017; Kapoor et al., 2018), 2 | T H EO R ET I C A L B AC K G R OU N D A ND
motivations for brand‐related activities (Muntiga, Moorman, & Smit, HYPOTHESES
2011), social media advertising (Alalwan, 2018; Shareef, Mukerji,
Alryalat, Wright, & Dwivedi, 2018; Shareef, Mukerji, Dwivedi, Rana, 2.1 | Human values
& Islam, 2019; Shiau, Dwivedi, & Lai, 2018), influencers (Arora, Bansal,
Kandpal, Aswani, & Dwivedi, 2019), and effects of firm‐generated con- Human values are guiding principles reflecting desirable goals in life
tent on sales (Dwivedi, Kapoor, & Chen, 2015; Kumar, Bezawada, and may impact how individuals judge situations and events (Schwartz,
Rishika, Janakiraman, & Kannan, 2016). However, little is known about 2012; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). They comprise desirable mental repre-
how to target users are willing to engage in valuable brand‐related sentations of motivational goals that drive individuals (Schwartz, 2012;
behaviors such as sharing, content creation, and reviews. Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). They may also direct actions and behavior
On social media platforms, brands use psychographic and behav- (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003), as acting according to one's values may be
ioral information from users' profiles to target consumers and analyze rewarding whereas acting against them may create conflict and dis-
the effects of advertising campaigns (Crimson Hexagon, 2018). How- comfort (Schwartz, 2012). Research suggests that human values are
ever, companies are only recently beginning to understand social distinct psychological constructs from personality traits and their
media audiences that are more likely to engage in valuable social effects on behavior should be examined separately from traits
media behaviors such as brand‐related sharing and creation activities (Parks‐Leduc, Feldman, & Bardi, 2015).
(Adweek, 2018). In this research, we examine human values (such as According to Schwartz (2012), values may be organized in two
self‐transcendence, self‐enhancement, openness to change, and dimensions forming a circular motivational continuum (Figure 1). The

FIGURE 1 Schwartz (2012) human values

[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA 15

first dimension represents, on one end, personal growth and self‐ groups to access and share useful product information or benefit from
expansion motivational goals that encompass needs for exploration rewards (e.g., exclusive promotions and incentives; Dholakiaa, Bagozzia,
and progress and, on the other end, self‐protection motivation goals & Pearo, 2004). Informational needs have been found to drive more
that involve needs for control and stability. The second dimension social media brand interactions than social connection or entertainment
refers to self‐focused goals (how one pursues personal interests) and needs (Shi, Chen, & Chow, 2016; Tsai & Men, 2013). Therefore, con-
group‐focused goals (how one relates socially; Schwartz, 2012). The sumers may use brand sites on social media for utilitarian and functional
10 values form four higher order values constructs. Self‐transcendence reasons driven by needs for safety and control, that is, to gain a sense of
values refer to broad‐mindedness, social justice, equality, environmen- trust from brands and make safe purchase decisions.
tal protection (universalism), and protection of the welfare of one's Consumers recommend and interact (offline and online) with brands
immediate group (benevolence). Conservation values (tradition, con- they consider trustworthy and reliable (Becerra & Badrinarayanan,
formity, and security) describe the importance of preserving certainty, 2013; Kamboj, Sarmah, Gupta, & Dwivedi, 2018). They may also recom-
stability, and security of society and the self. Self‐enhancement values mend brands they trust in order to protect other consumers or help
are about achieving individual success (achievement), acquiring mate- them with their purchase decisions (Hsu & Lin, 2008). Thus, we posit
rial wealth, and exerting influence on others (power). Openness to that users who are driven by conservation values are most likely to share
change values, meanwhile, motivate individuals towards exploration, informational content, ads, promotions/incentives, and reviews or cre-
novelty, and change: independent thought and creativity (self‐direc- ate UGC on social media, in order to reinforce their sense of control
tion), excitement and novelty (stimulation), and pleasure and enjoy- and safety in relation to brands and protect other consumers.
ment in life (hedonism; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001; Schwartz &
H1. . Conservation values will more significantly influ-
Boehnke, 2004; Schwartz, 2012).
ence brand sharing and content creation activities on
Human values may influence consumers' shopping habits and pur-
social media, compared with the other three values
chase behaviors (Sarabia‐Sanchez, De Juan Vigaray, & Hota, 2012), their
(self‐enhancement, openness to change, and self‐
propensity to engage in environmentally conscious consumption prac-
transcendence).
tices (Gatersleben, Murtagh, & Abrahamse, 2012), and their perceptions
and preferences for brands (Torelli, Özsomer, Carvalho, Keh, & Maehle,
2012). A few studies have examined the relationship between social
2.2.2 | Self‐transcendence and social media
media and human values. Chen, Hsieh, Mahmud, and Nichols (2014)
brand‐related activities
considered how human values influence use of words in social media
content. Mukta, Alil, and Mahmud (2016) also explored how human Research findings suggest that millennials are a prosocial generation and
values affect page “likes” and status updates. However, little is known are actively concerned about social issues such as climate change, equal-
about how values may predict sharing and creation activities in relation ity, human rights, environmental protection, and political justice (Global
to brands on social media, which the current research examines. Tolerance, 2016). Subsequently, millennials are believed to prefer and
This study specifically focused on millennial consumers. Millennials support brands and companies with socially responsible and ethical
(ages 18–34) are considered an important target audience for social practices (Deloitte, 2016). In recent years, companies have increased
media marketing as they use social media sites more than other demo- their social responsibility efforts in order to make their brands more
graphic groups (Pew Research Center, 2018b). They are also more authentic, ethical, and relatable to consumers (D'Angelo, 2018). Further,
likely to interact with brands on social media (Sprout Social, 2017) businesses are employing social cause storytelling in social media to
and share more brand‐related content compared with other demo- infuse their brand personalities with self‐transcendence values (Litsa,
graphic groups (Business Insider, 2017). 2018). However, endorsement of charities on social media (e.g., likes
or shares) may not necessarily lead to meaningful offline actions such

2.2 | Values and social media brand‐related activities as donations. Wallace, Buil, and De Chernatony (2017) show that
endorsing a social cause through likes and shares may provide a fleeting
2.2.1 | Conservation and social media brand‐related feeling of being a good person but does not necessarily instigate users'
activities deeper connection with self‐transcendence values. Further, consumers
may be skeptical towards philanthropic initiatives from businesses and
To our knowledge, none of the existing studies on brand activities have do not always believe that companies are genuinely committed to these
identified distinct motivational goals that relate to conservation values initiatives (Vredenburg, Spry, Kemper, & Kapitan, 2018). According to
(Heinonen, 2011; Muntiga et al., 2011; Shao, 2009). We argue that con- the 2018 Edelman Global Trust research (Edelman 2018), trust towards
servation values may be the most important drivers of brand engage- brands is steadily declining in the United States. The findings of this
ment in social media. One of the reasons members of offline brand research also highlight that globally, most individuals believe businesses
communities meet with other members is to discuss and exchange prod- are driven more by greed than a desire to make a positive change in the
uct information and experiences (Schau, Muñiz, & Arnould, 2009). world. In this context, we posit that millennial users will not be driven (or
Research findings indicate that internet users primarily participate in vir- will be negatively driven) by self‐transcendence values to interact with
tual brand communities for utilitarian reasons: Users take part in such brands on social media.
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16 NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA

H2. . Self‐transcendence values will not significantly storytelling and educational content to entertain and stimulate their
influence (or will negatively influence) brand sharing social media followers (Sprout Social, 2018). High‐quality information
and content creation activities on social media. has been found to be crucial for users' engagement with brands on
social media (Shi et al., 2016; Tsai & Men, 2013). However, amusing
branded content may also enhance brand performance and consumer
2.2.3 | Self‐enhancement and social media
interactivity on social media (Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Muntiga et al.,
brand‐related activities
2011). For example, Kim and Ko (2012) assert that entertaining
branded social media content may reinforce perceptions of brand
Self‐enhancement is an important motivation for electronic word‐of‐
equity. Consumers may also appreciate educational content from
mouth (e.g., Berger, 2014) and for social media participation (e.g., Park
brands on social media (Tafesse, 2016). Thus,
& Lee, 2014). Users may employ social media to promulgate positive
impressions and enhance their self‐concept (Toma & Hancock, 2013). H5. . Openness to Change values will significantly
Research has investigated self‐enhancement motivations in relation influence brand sharing and content creation activities
to various online behaviors. Self‐enhancement motivations may drive on social media.
online users to write about brands on social media (Muntiga et al.,
UGC activities have been found to require greater use of creative
2011), share advertising content (Taylor, Strutton, & Thompson,
skills than activities such as browsing or resharing existing branded
2013), create brand content (Muntiga et al., 2011), and write online
content on social media. Consumers who design and generate their
reviews (Lampel & Bhalla, 2007). Given the above findings, we expect
own branded content (UGC) engage in a creative process that entails
that users strongly driven by self‐enhancement values to be an impor-
transforming and redefining brand identities on social media (Berthon,
tant target group for sharing and creating brand content on social
Pitt, & Campbell, 2008; Christodoulides, Jevons, & Blackshaw, 2011;
media. Thus,
Halliday, 2016). We expect that users characterized by openness to
H3. . Self‐enhancement values will significantly influ- change values will view content creation on social media as an outlet
ence brand sharing and content creation activities on for creativity, novelty, and stimulation. Thus, social media users who
social media. are driven by openness to change values may be more likely to engage
in content‐creation brand activities and less likely to engage in less
Prior research has shown that knowledge sharing may lead to a
creative activities such as sharing information, promotions, ads, or
sense of power and discernment (e.g., Lampel & Bhalla, 2007). Con-
reviews.
sumers may feel discerning by disseminating expert information such
as news, innovations, and specialized reviews (e.g., Wojnicki, 2006). H6. . Openness to change values will have a more sig-
Taylor et al. (2013) suggest that users who share social media ads nificant influence on content‐creation activities, than
are driven by self‐enhancement motivations, that is, they endorse content‐sharing activities on social media.
ads that are congruent with their identity and which enhance their
self‐concept. Nikolinakou and King (2018) found that consumers
who share ads may employ the symbolism and messages of advertising 3 | METHOD
stories to feel unique, ahead of trends or distinctive. We posit that
sharing news, innovations, and specialized reviews for brands and Participants of the research were millennials social media users (males
products may provide a stronger opportunity to express self‐ and females, 18–34 years of age) as millennials are the second largest
enhancement values compared with sharing advertisements and market segment in the United States (Pew Research Center, 2018c)
branded stories. Sharing ads and stories may provide a sense of and represent an important target group for social media marketing
uniqueness and differentiation, but sharing expert opinions and knowl- (Business Insider, 2017). The study was conducted with members of
edge may enable users to more directly connote achievement and the Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) online panel. AMT is an online
power on social media. global crowdsourcing service where anonymous online workers com-
plete web‐based tasks in exchange for monetary rewards (Crump,
H4. . Self‐enhancement values will have a more signif-
McDonnell, & Gureckis, 2013). It is often used in survey and experi-
icant influence on the sharing of brand information
mental research as it provides a large and diverse pool of respondents
(e.g., news and innovations) and sharing of reviews
that is renewed over time. The AMT panel was deemed more appro-
than the sharing of brand advertisements and stories.
priate for this specific study compared with student samples as it pro-
vided access to a more diverse representation of millennials based on
2.2.4 | Openness to change and social media age, gender, and geography (Crump et al., 2013; Difallah, Filatova, &
brand‐related activities Ipeirotis, 2018).
Three online surveys were administered separately on the
Users may also be driven to share and create brand‐related content on Qualtrics platform: one with Facebook users, one with Twitter users,
social media driven by values that relate to stimulation and enjoyment and one with Instagram users. We aimed to collect a total of 480–
(openness to change). In recent years, brands are producing more 500 participants and represent each platform with at least 160 users
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NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA 17

(Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram). Data collection was conducted on 4 | R ES U LT S

November–December 2017. Only users of ATM that lived in the
United States and had approval rating over 90% were able to see 4.1 | Sample
the advertisements and access the links to the online questionnaires.
Participants for each survey were recruited separately via three adver- The sample consisted of 491 respondents, ages 18–34. Specifically,
tisements (HITs) announcing the three surveys on ATM. These adver- the participants were 16.9% 18–24 years old, 39.1% 25–29 years
tisements specified that ATM users had to be 18–34 years of age and old, and 44% 30–34 years old and, according to gender, 49.5% male
actively participate in the corresponding social media platform (either and 50.5% female. There were 166 Facebook users, 165 Twitter users,
Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram) in order to be eligible for the study. and 160 Instagram users. Participants on average visited each platform
Further, specific filter questions were incorporated in each of the three twice a day.
questionnaires to ensure respondents met the age requirements, had
an active social media account, and visited the social media site corre-
sponding to each survey at least once every 2 weeks. We defined
active users as participants that visited each platform at least once 4.2 | Preliminary analyses
every 2 weeks in order to include both heavy and light users of each
platform (Pew Research Center, 2018a). 4.2.1 | Factor analysis and paired sample t test
results: Higher order values

A factor analysis was performed among individual values to identify

3.1 | Procedure and measures the higher order values. The structure of the factors was overall similar
to the initial model by Schwartz and Boehnke (2004; Figure 1). A major
At the beginning of each survey, respondents were asked general
difference with Schwartz and Boehnke (2004) was that the value of
questions (frequency of usage, time spent in each visit, and number
Self‐Direction loaded with Benevolence and Universalism values for
of followers/friends) with regard to their usage of the corresponding
the millennial U.S. sample, forming a construct that was named Open
social media platform (Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram). They were
Self‐Transcendence. Cronbach's alpha for Open Self‐Transcendence
then presented with statements describing brand‐related social media
was .800; for Conservation, it was .726; for Self‐Enhancement, it
activities. They were asked to think about their activities in the social
was .747; and for Openness to Change, it was.728.
media platform corresponding to the survey for the last 30 days and
A paired sample t test was conducted among the higher order
rate how frequently they engaged in each activity presented to them.
values. Examining social media users' profiles on the higher order
Participants rated their frequency of engagement with each activity on
values, Open Self‐Transcendence (M = 5.39) was higher than Open-
a 7‐point Likert scale (7: I do this very often to 1: I never do this). Brand‐
ness to Change (M = 4.45), t (490) = 16.723, p < .001. Openness to
related social media activities measures were based on the social
Change was at the same levels with Conservation (M = 4.38), t (490)
media brand engagement scale (Schivinski, Christodoulidis, &
= 1.053, p = .293. Openness to Change and Conservation were higher
Dabrowski, 2016) that segments activities into consumption activities
than Self‐Enhancement (M = 4.0), t (490) = 7.032, p < .001 and t (490)
(browsing or reading or watching or searching content = Cronbach's
= 5.418, p < .001, respectively. Social media millennial users were
alpha: .90), contribution activities (interacting or sharing content =
characterized more by Open Self‐Transcendence and the least by
Cronbach's alpha: .93), and creation activities (writing reviews or creat-
Self‐Enhancement values.
ing posts = Cronbach's alpha: .94). The “Values” questions were asked
at the end of the questionnaire and were assessed using the 21‐item
Portrait Values Questionnaire developed by Schwartz (2003). The Por-
trait Values Questionnaire includes short verbal portraits of different 4.2.2 | Factor analysis results: Brand activities
people which describe what is important to these people in terms of
goals and aspirations in life. For example, participants were presented A factor analysis was performed including all brand activities. Three
with the following phrases that express the value of universalism: “He factors were extracted (Schivinski et al., 2016) using principal factor
(she) strongly believes that people should care for nature. Looking axis and with varimax rotation. The three factors (Table 1) described
after the environment is important to him (or her),” “He (she) thinks the constructs of brand‐related: content sharing (sharing information,
it is important that every person in the world be treated equally. He promotions, ads, or stories and reviews), content consumption (read-
(she) wants justice for everybody, even for people he (she) doesn't ing or watching brand content, reading or watching ads, searching
know.” Respondents were asked to rate on a 7‐point Likert scale for promotions or discounts, following brands, browsing celebrities'
how much they were similar or dissimilar to the person described by pages, and commenting or “liking” brand content), and content crea-
each phrase, ranging from “not like this person at all” to “very much tion (creating posts, stories, videos, or photos for brands or writing
like this person.” This type of questioning helps identify respondents' reviews for brands). Cronbach's alpha for content sharing was .884;
values without mentioning the term values in the description of the for content consumption, it was .934; and for content creation, it
question or the portraits. was 800.
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18 NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA

TABLE 1 Factor analysis brand‐related activities (orthogonal varimax rotation)

Activities Sharing Consumption Creation

Share content that is informational from brands or companies (e.g., news, launch of new products/services, .77a .42 .17
innovations, and infographics)
Share promotions, coupons, contests, offers, and events from brands .75a .34 .28
Share advertisements and stories from brands .74a .41 .24
a
Share my reviews and evaluations about products or services .72 .32 .40
a
Share other consumers' reviews and evaluations about products or services .71 .35 .36
Watch/read posts related to brands on social media .29 .76a* .17
Watch/read an advertisement .35 .67a .16
Comment or “like” or “reply” on content from a brand/company .39 .61 a
.29
Follow new accounts/pages from a brand or company .42 .60a .23
a
Browse a celebrity page .19 .59 .23
Look for exclusive offers, coupons, discounts, or exclusive events in brands' accounts .45 .51a .32
Write reviews or evaluations about a product or service .51 .34 .60a
Write (initiate) posts (photo, video, posts, or stories) related to brands/companies .41 .39 .54a
a
Highest factor loading for the specific statement.

4.3 | H1–H6: Regression results brand‐related brand sharing or total brand creation activities. In the multiple regres-
activities and values sions describe on Table 3, the independent variables were the values,
and the dependent variable was different types of content sharing
Multiple regressions were performed between values and different (e.g., sharing of information, sharing of promotions, and sharing of ads
types of brand activities. In the multiple regressions depicted on or brand stories) or content creation activities (e.g., creating videos,
Table 2, the independent variables were the higher order values, and posts, and stories or creating reviews). The values' dimensions explained
the dependent variable was either total brand consumption or total 24.8% of the total variance of brand activities (adjusted R2 = .248).

TABLE 2 Multiple regression: Brand‐related activities and values

Total content Total content Total content

Total consumption sharing creation
activities activities activities activities

Values R2 b R2 b R2 b R2 b

Open self‐transcendence .021* −.142 .002 −.042 .027* −.162 .029* −.173
Openness to change .022* .148 .021* .145 .013* .115 .020* .148
Self‐enhancement .049* .219 .038* .194 .054* .233 .028* .173
Conservation .134* .368 .123* .355 .121* .352 .089* .307

*p < .05.

TABLE 3 Multiple regression: Types of brand‐related sharing or creation activities and values

Content sharing activities Content creation activities

Information
Promotions Ads or brand (news, new products, Content (photos, videos,
(discounts and offers) stories Reviews and innovations) posts, and stories) Reviews

Values R 2
b R 2
b R2
b R2
b R 2
b R2 b

Open self‐transcendence .037* −.194 .028* −.166 .022* −.146 .008* −.092 .028* −.174 .019* −.142
Openness to change .005 .075 .016* .131 .016* .130 .004* .068 .020* .152 .012* .118
Self‐enhancement .031* .179 .036* .193 .052* .234 .052* .235 .016* .133 .031* .185
Conservation .120* .359 .104* .331 .088* .301 .099* .322 .078* .291 .068* .270

*p < .05.
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NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA 19

As shown on Table 2, the most influential value for brand sharing opportunities to protect other consumers (H1). We provide further
and brand creation activities was Conservation (R2 = .121, b = .352, support (H3) that self‐enhancement values are important drivers for
p < .05 and R2 = .089, b = .307, p < .05, respectively). Thus, Hypothe- brand‐related activities on social media (Muntiga et al., 2011; Taylor
sis 1 is supported. Further, in the context of content sharing and con- et al., 2013); self‐enhancement is the second most important value
tent creation activities, conservation values influenced the most after conservation for brand‐related sharing and creation
sharing promotions (R2 = .120, b = .359, p < .05; Table 3). Self‐ activities. An important insight that derives from this research is that
Transcendence had a negative influence on content sharing (R2 = self‐enhancement values especially influence sharing of
.027, b = −.162, p < .05) and content creation (R = .029, b = −.173,
2
informational content, as well as sharing and writing of reviews.
p < .05) activities (Table 2). Thus, Hypothesis 2 is supported. Self‐ Further, the findings clarify in relation to past research (Lampel &
Enhancement was the second significant value after Conservation for Bhalla, 2007; Taylor et al., 2013) that consumers connect more with
content sharing (R2 = .054, b = .233, p < .05) and content creation self‐enhancement values when they share informational
2
(R = .028, b = .173, p < .05; Table 2). This finding supports Hypothe- content from brands or companies (e.g., news, launch of new
sis 3. Self‐Enhancement positively influenced more sharing of brand products/services, and innovations) than when they share ads or
information (R2 = .052, b = .235, p < .05) and sharing of reviews brand stories (H4). Therefore, sharing ads and branded stories
(R2 =.052, b = .234, p < .05) than sharing of ads and brand stories may provide a sense of uniqueness and differentiation (Nikolinakou
2
(R = .036, b = .193, p < .05; Table 3). Thus, Hypothesis 4 is supported. & King, 2018), but sharing expert opinions and
Openness to Change values were significant but less influential values knowledge may enable users to more directly express achievement
on brand sharing (R2 = .013, b = .115, p < .05) and creation (R2 = .020, b and power.
= .148, p < .05), compared with Conservation and Self‐Enhancement
The results of the research affirm that self‐transcendence values
(Table 2). Subsequently, Hypothesis 5 is supported. Openness to
(benevolence, universalism, and self‐direction) are very important
Change values positively influenced more content creation (R2 =
values for U.S. millennials consumers (paired sample t ‐test results
.020, b = .148, p < .05) than content sharing (R2 = .013, b = .115, p <
on higher order values). Although companies have increased their
.05; Table 2). Thus, Hypothesis 6 is supported. Further, Openness to
social responsibility efforts in recent years (D'Angelo, 2018) and
Change values in the context of content creation influenced more cre-
there is a surge of philanthropic initiatives on social media (Litsa,
ating photos, videos, posts, or stories for brands (R2 = .020, b = .152, p
2018), we indicate that millennial consumers demonstrate skepticism
< .05) than creating reviews (R2 = .012, b = .118, p < .05; Table 3). Self‐
towards social media activism efforts by businesses and are not
Enhancement values in the context of content creation had a stronger
2 driven by self‐transcendence values to engage with brands on social
influence on creating reviews (R = .031, b = .185, p < .05) than creat-
media (H2). Further, the findings reveal that for millennial
ing photos, videos, posts, or stories for brands (R2 = .016, b = .133, p <
consumers, openness to change values (stimulation and hedonism)
.05; Table 3).
are important values in relation to brand‐related social media activi-
ties. Openness to change values motivate not only consumption
activities (e.g., browsing, reading, or watching content; Ashley &
5 | DISCUSSION AND THEORETICAL Tuten, 2015; Muntiga et al., 2011) but also active engagement
I M P L I C A T IO N S behaviors such as sharing and content creation (H5). A key takeaway
is that openness to change values drive more content creation than
Online marketers are increasingly interested in identifying profiles of
content sharing (H6). Thus, creating posts, photos, and videos for
audiences that are most likely to share and create content for their
brands on social media may offer users a stronger outlet for
brands on social media (Adweek, 2018). Such audiences can help
enjoyment and stimulation than merely resharing existing brand
companies spread their social media‐based branded messages,
content.
increasing the persuasiveness of their marketing efforts (Sprout
Index, 2018). The results of this research demonstrate that human Human values represent guiding principles in life that influence
values are drivers of valuable brand‐related social media behaviors. human behavior (Schwartz, 2012). Past research shows that human
Human values may be used by companies to identify, segment, and values may influence judgement and decision‐making (Schwartz &
target audiences for sharing, content creation, and reviews. Thus, Bardi, 2001) as well as consumer behavior, consumption practices,
this study represents a significant contribution to social media litera- and brand preferences (Sarabia‐Sanchez et al., 2012; Torelli et al.,
ture as it provides a strategic tool that can be used by businesses to 2012). This research is unique in that it examines human values in
better engage their social media audiences with their content and relation to brand‐related social media activities. The findings
brands. demonstrate that for millennial audiences, human values predict
The findings clarify in relation to past studies (Heinonen, 2011; sharing and content creation activities (UGC and reviews) on social
Muntiga et al., 2011; Shao, 2009; Tsai & Men, 2013) that emotional media. Thus, this research extends the human values and consumer
needs that relate to safety and control are the most influential behavior literature by asserting that, in a social media
drivers of brand‐related sharing and creation on social media: Con- context, human values are important for eliciting engagement with
sumers primarily seek trust and safety from brands as well as brands.
 14791838, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cb.1790 by University Of British Columbia, Wiley Online Library on [26/09/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
20 NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA

6 | MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS and self‐transcendence‐driven users). Self‐enhancement‐driven users

may share expert information and opinions (e.g., product news, new
Companies are increasingly producing and promoting brand‐related launches, innovations, and reviews) in order to feel discerning and
content on social media, such as social cause initiatives (e.g., Airbnb's knowledgeable. Thus, companies should target self‐enhancement‐
#weaccept and Nike's #equality), informational or educational content, driven users in order to spread news about products and services. Par-
promotions, consumer reviews, UGC (e.g., #GoPro and Apple ticularly, companies that often launch consumer‐related product inno-
#ShotoniPhone), and brand stories (e.g., Google's #YearInSearch; vations, such as Apple and Shopify (Fast Company, 2019), should
Sprout Social, 2018). Employing the human values framework, this target users who value power and achievement, in order to motivate
research offers insights into types of millennial audiences that engage social media word‐of‐mouth for their innovations and new services.
the most with branded content on social media. It also provides rec- Companies should also address self‐enhancement‐driven users'
ommendations on how marketers can further motivate these audi- needs for discernment by providing them with opportunities to edu-
ences, based on human values, to share and create different types of cate consumers. They should motivate them to help explain new
branded content on social media. product features, give advice on how products work (e.g., beauty
Results of the current research indicate that users who are strongly products), and demonstrate how to use complex products and ser-
driven by conservation values (certainty, stability, and security of the vices (e.g., new tech products and appliances). For example, cosmetics
self and one's community) should be primary target audiences for companies (e.g., L'Oréal) could specifically motivate self‐enhance-
brand‐related sharing and creation activities. In order to elicit sharing ment‐driven users to share demonstration videos (e.g., how‐to‐use
(information, promotions, reviews, ads, and stories) and creation of videos) for new beauty products. Additionally, self‐enhancement‐
brand‐related content (UGC and reviews), companies should focus driven users are also more likely (compared with openness to
on users characterized by conservation values on social media. By change‐driven and self‐transcendence‐driven users) to write product
appealing to these users through high‐quality and trustworthy infor- reviews on social media. Self‐enhancement‐driven consumers are
mation, companies can gain their trust, thus motivating them to share motivated to share their brand‐related experiences on social media
brand‐related content and write reviews. Users driven by conservation in order to influence others' opinions. Companies should therefore
values may also be motivated to advocate for trustworthy brands to tap into self‐enhancement‐driven users' need for empowerment in
protect and guide other likeminded consumers. Companies, especially order to motivate them to write social media reviews. For example,
those in high‐risk product categories such as insurance, investment brands could invite self‐enhancement‐driven users on social media
banking, and real estate rentals, should therefore highlight and com- to test, experience, and review new products before they are available
municate product features through their social media content that to the general public.
may best protect consumer safety and improve quality of life. Branded Although less influential than conservation or self‐enhancement
content that provides value and safeguards consumers may maximize values in relation to social media activities, openness to change values
sharing and content creation activities by conservation‐driven con- (stimulation or hedonism) may also drive brand‐related sharing and
sumers. For instance, the brand Airbnb (#airbnbphoto) encourages its content creation on social media. Further, the results of the study indi-
customers to share their experiences with renting homes in order to cate that openness to change values are very important values to mil-
reassure other consumers about the safety of their services (Pixlee, lennial consumers. Therefore, companies should further enhance their
2018). Companies similar to Airbnb could therefore specifically target efforts to address openness to change‐driven users' needs for stimula-
conservation‐driven users in order to expand their customer base, as tion and enjoyment by producing educational and entertaining social
conservation‐driven users would be more likely to generate word‐of‐ media content that may motivate these users to share and contribute
mouth for the brand on social media in the form of information, pro- UGC in order to express their creativity on social media.
motions, reviews, ads, and brand stories. Users who are driven by openness to change values are more likely
Additionally, based on this study's findings, conservation‐driven to create content for brands (e.g., videos, images, and stories) than
users are especially likely to share social media‐based promotions. share content or write reviews (compared with self‐enhancement
Useful promotions may make conservation‐driven users feel more in users). The findings of this research indicate that openness to
control of their consumption choices. Companies should offer exclu- change‐driven users are more prone to creative social media activities
sive rewards or benefits to conservation users (e.g., free products, and, thus, represent an important target audience for UGC‐based cam-
exclusive entertainment content, membership privileges, and exclusive paigns. Companies looking to encourage UGC in their social media‐
behind‐the‐scenes content) in order to motivate them to share promo- based marketing activities (e.g., Coca Cola #shareacoke, Go Pro #Hero,
tions. Such incentives may enhance the perceived value of promotions and Apple #ShotoniPhone) should target openness to change‐driven
for these users. Companies should also consider conservation‐driven users. These users seek novelty and excitement and are therefore
users' needs in relation to specific product categories to identify more likely to showcase their brand‐related experiences in creative
branded offers perceived as useful and valuable by these users. ways. Coca‐Cola's UGC campaign #shareacoke was very successful
Users driven by achievement or power (self‐enhancement) are also as it targeted specifically consumers who share photos and stories
strongly motivated to share brand‐related social media content, partic- on social media (Adweek, 2018). The findings of this research show
ularly informational posts (compared with openness to change‐driven that companies like Coca‐Cola should also specifically target openness
 14791838, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cb.1790 by University Of British Columbia, Wiley Online Library on [26/09/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
NIKOLINAKOU AND PHUA 21

to change‐driven users for future UGC campaigns, as these users are which future studies should take into account. Further, potential dif-
more likely to engage in brand‐related storytelling on social media. ferences between product categories were not examined in this
Brands should address openness to change‐driven users' needs using research. Future studies should consider how human values influence
original and exciting UGC campaign concepts that inspire personal brand‐related social media activities in relation to specific product cat-
brand‐related storytelling. For example, UGC campaigns such #Hero egories and market segments (e.g., automotive and cosmetics). Future
by Go Pro may appeal to openness to change‐driven users as they pro- research should also examine how brand values (Torelli et al., 2012)
vide opportunities to document and showcase exciting and out of the may influence different value‐driven audiences and their brand‐related
ordinary personal experiences (e.g., skydiving and rock climbing; activities on social media. For example, users driven by a specific cat-
Adweek, 2018). egory of human values may be more motivated to share or create con-
As previously defined, self‐transcendence values express authentic tent for brands that represent values compatible (rather than
concern for issues such as social justice, protection of the environ- incompatible) with this category.
ment, and interest for the greater good (Schwartz, 2012). Companies
are increasingly infusing self‐transcendence values in their brands' ORCI D
identities on social media (D'Angelo, 2018), as exemplified by global Angeliki Nikolinakou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4929-5570
social media campaigns including Airbnb's #weaccept, P&G's
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