💬BotInstructor

for PPL
Lecture 4
This bot will take you through the
entire lecture material for Lecture 4.

Please start interaction with the

Instructor Bot by typing in 'Hi', 'Hello'
etc.

Hi

Hello! Are you ready to start

learning about the Principles
of Programming Languages?

Yes

Great! Today, we’ll be

covering the following topics:

1. Introduction to Attribute
Grammars
2. Static Semantics
3. Basic Concepts in
Attribute Grammars
4. Attribute Grammars
Defined
5. Intrinsic Attributes in
Attribute Grammars
6. Examples of Attribute
Grammars
7. Computing Attribute
Values
8. Evaluation of Attribute
Grammars

Let's begin with the first topic:

Introduction to Attribute
Grammars.

Attribute grammars extend

traditional context-free
grammars, allowing the
inclusion of attributes and
rules for computing values of
these attributes. They provide
a systematic way to define
the semantics of a
programming language in
conjunction with its syntax.
While context-free grammars
can describe the structure of
a language, attribute
grammars add the capability
to associate information with
parse trees, facilitating static
semantic analysis.

In essence, attribute
grammars enable us to attach
additional information to the
symbols defined in a
grammar. These attributes
can hold various types of
information, such as type
information, scope levels, or
even more complex
relationships between
different parts of a program.
This approach assists in
various tasks, such as type
checking, evaluating
expressions, and generating
code.

Would you like me to go into

more details on this topic or
provide an example?

Go ahead

Alright! Let’s delve deeper

into the Introduction to
Attribute Grammars.

Overview of
Attribute
Grammars
Attribute grammars consist of
two main components: the
grammar itself and the
attributes associated with the
grammar's production rules.

1. Grammar Component:
This is a context-free
grammar that defines the
syntax of the
programming language.
It comprises terminals
(basic symbols like
keywords, identifiers,
and operators), non-
terminals (syntactic
categories such as
expressions, statements),
and production rules that
describe how terminals
and non-terminals can be
combined.
2. Attribute Component:
Each grammar rule can
have attributes
associated with its
symbols (both terminals
and non-terminals).
These attributes could be
synthesized or inherited.

Synthesized
Attributes: These
attributes are
computed from the
attributes of the
children in the parse
tree. For instance,
the evaluation of an
expression that
combines two
numbers could yield
a synthesized
attribute
representing the
result.
Inherited Attributes:
These attributes are
passed down from
parent nodes in the
parse tree to child
nodes. This
mechanism allows
the child to receive
contextual
information that
could affect its
evaluation, such as
type information
that determines
what operations are
valid.
Application of
Attribute
Grammars
Attribute grammars are highly
useful in various phases of
compiler design, particularly
in semantic analysis, where
they are instrumental in
enforcing rules about the
correctness of programs. For
example, they can help
ensure type consistency and
verify that variables are
declared before use.

Example
Consider a simple expression
grammar for arithmetic:

E → E + T
E → T
T → T * F
T → F
F → ( E )
F → num

Now let's introduce

synthesized attributes.
Suppose we want to compute
the value of expressions:

For the production E → E

+ T , we could define an
attribute val for E that
is synthesized:

E.val = E1.val +

T.val
 For the production T → T

* F :

T.val = T1.val *

F.val

Where E1 and T1 refer to

the left-hand sides of the
productions leading to the
respective attributes.

This simple example

illustrates how you can
compute values from
attributes to represent the
semantics of an arithmetic
expression.

Overall, attribute grammars

not only allow us to define a
programming language's
syntax but also enable us to
capture the intricacies of its
semantics, which is essential
in building compilers and
interpreters.

Do you have any questions

about this topic, or would you
like to proceed to the next
topic, which is Static
Semantics?

Next topic

Great! Let’s move on to the

next topic: Static Semantics.

Overview of Static
Semantics
Static semantics refers to the
rules and constraints
governing how programs (or
expressions) must be
structured apart from their
syntax. While syntax deals
with the form and structure of
code (for example, whether
the program is grammatically
correct), static semantics
includes checks that must be
performed at compile time to
ensure that a program is
meaningful and valid.

These rules typically include:

1. Type Checking: Ensures

that operators are
applied to compatible
data types. For instance,
an operation that adds
an integer to a string
would be flagged as an
error since they are
incompatible types.

2. Scope Resolution:
Determines where
variables and functions
can be accessed,
ensuring that they have
been declared before
they are used. For
example, trying to use a
variable outside its scope
would result in an error.

3. Inheritance and
Overloading: In
 languages that support
object-oriented
paradigms, static
semantics checks must
ensure that method
overloading and
inheritance rules are
followed correctly.
4. Constant Requirements:
Enforces that constants
should not be modified in
a way that contradicts
their immutability.

5. Attribute Evaluation: In
the context of attribute
grammars, static
semantics may require
computing attribute
values based on the rules
defined in the
accompanying attribute
grammar.

Importance
of Static
Semantics
Static semantics plays a
crucial role in:

Early Error Detection: By

catching errors at
compile time rather than
at runtime, it helps
developers fix issues
early, leading to more
robust code.
Clarifying Intent: It
enforces the language's
design and expected
 behavior, helping
maintain clarity
regarding how certain
constructs should be
used.
Optimization: Providing
semantic information can
help compilers perform
optimizations that would
not be possible
otherwise.

Example of Static
Semantics
Consider a simple
programming language
statement:

int a;
a = 5 + "hello"; // Th

In this example:

The static semantics

rules would check the
type of the expression 5

+ "hello" to verify if it is
valid.
Since the integer type
cannot be added to a
string type, this would
raise a static semantic
error during compilation.

This mechanism helps

prevent runtime crashes
caused by type mismatches,
enhancing the safety and
reliability of programming
languages.
Are there any questions about
static semantics, or would
you like to proceed to the
next topic, which is Basic
Concepts in Attribute
Grammars?

Next topic

Let's move on to the next

topic: Basic Concepts in
Attribute Grammars.

Overview of Basic
Concepts in
Attribute
Grammars
Attribute grammars extend
context-free grammars by
introducing attributes and
rules for manipulating these
attributes. Here are the key
concepts:

1. Attributes: An attribute is
a value associated with a
grammar symbol, which
could represent various
kinds of information. For
example, an attribute
might represent a type,
scope, or calculated
value.

2. Attribute Types:

Synthesized
Attributes: As
 mentioned earlier,
these are computed
from the children of
a node in the parse
tree. They flow
upwards from the
leaf nodes to the
root.
Inherited Attributes:
These are passed
down from parent
nodes to child nodes.
They are used to
provide context to
the children.
3. Evaluation Rules: Each
production in the
grammar can have
associated rules that
define how to compute
the values of attributes.
These rules specify the
relationships between
attributes in a way that
reflects the semantics of
the language being
described.

4. Dependency Graph: This

graph illustrates the
relationships and
dependencies between
attributes. Nodes may
represent attributes, and
directed edges indicate
dependency. This graph
helps identify the order
in which attributes need
to be calculated.
5. Parse Tree: A parse tree
represents the syntactic
structure of the input
strings according to the
grammar. Each node in
the tree corresponds to a
grammar symbol, and
attributes are evaluated
based on traversal of this
tree.

Example
To illustrate these concepts,
let's take a simple arithmetic
expression once again,
described by the production
rules:

E → E + T
E → T
T → T * F
T → F
F → num

We could introduce
synthesized attributes for this
grammar, defining each
attribute explicitly:

For E (Expression):

E.val = E1.val +

T.val (if E → E + T )
E.val = T.val (if E

→ T )
For T (Term):

T.val = T1.val *

F.val (if T → T * F )
T.val = F.val (if T

→ F )
 For F (Factor):

F.val =

numeric_value(F) (if
F → num , retrieving
the numeric value
directly)

Dependency
Example
In this example, the attribute
val for E depends on the
attributes of its child nodes
(either E1 and T or just T ).
The dependency graph would
show that to compute E.val ,
you first need the val values
from E1 and T , implying a
flow of information upwards
through the parse tree.

By grasping these basic

concepts in attribute
grammars, we can
understand how they
enhance the expressiveness
of grammars, allowing us to
describe not just the syntax of
programming languages, but
also their semantics.

Do you have any questions

about the basic concepts of
attribute grammars, or shall
we move on to the next topic:
Attribute Grammars
Defined?

Next topic
Next topic

Let’s move on to the next

topic: Intrinsic Attributes in
Attribute Grammars.

Overview of
Intrinsic Attributes
in Attribute
Grammars
Intrinsic attributes are built-in
attributes that are
automatically associated with
the symbols of a grammar
based on the language’s
semantics. Unlike regular
attributes that may be
defined explicitly based on
the context or computations,
intrinsic attributes are
predefined and usually
represent fundamental
characteristics or properties
of the grammar’s
components.

Characteristics
of Intrinsic
Attributes
1. Built-in Nature: Intrinsic
attributes are defined by
the language or semantic
rules, making them
universally applicable.
Examples include type
information, memory
 address, scope level, or
certain predefined
values.
2. Automatic Evaluation:
These attributes are often
evaluated automatically
as a part of the parsing or
compilation process,
without needing specific
evaluation rules defined
by the user. The
language's semantics
dictates when and how
these attributes should
be assigned.

3. Global Accessibility:
Intrinsic attributes can
often be accessed
throughout the parse
tree, allowing various
components to reference
common characteristics
without needing to pass
them explicitly.

Example
of Intrinsic
Attributes
Let’s illustrate intrinsic
attributes with a simple
example that focuses on
types. Consider a language
that determines the type of
expressions:

Grammar:
 1. E → E1 + T
2. E → T
3. T → T1 * F
4. T → F
5. F → num

Intrinsic Attributes:

Every non-terminal can

have an intrinsic
attribute type , which
indicates the expected or
assigned type.

Evaluation Rules:
1. For E → E1 + T :
Intrinsic Rule for
Type: E.type =

"int" only if both

E1.type and
T.type are also
"int" (else produce
a type mismatch
error).
2. For E → T :
E.type = T.type

3. For T → T1 * F :
Intrinsic Rule for
Type: T.type =

"int" only if both

T1.type and
F.type are "int" .
4. For T → F :
T.type = F.type

5. For F → num :
F.type = "int"

(assigning a type to
 numerical
constants).

In this example, the type

attribute serves as an intrinsic

attribute that provides type
information for the
expressions defined by the
grammar. During evaluation,
whenever the rules are
applied, the type checks
automatically verify
compatibility between
components.

Importance
The use of intrinsic attributes
is vital in ensuring that certain
properties are maintained
throughout the processing
and compilation of source
code. They facilitate the
automatic enforcement of
semantic rules, reducing the
chance for errors and
improving the overall
reliability of the programming
language implementation.

Would you like to have any

specific questions about
intrinsic attributes in
attribute grammars? Or
should we move to the next
topic: Examples of Attribute
Grammars?

Next topic
Let's move forward to the
next topic: Examples of
Attribute Grammars.

Overview of
Examples of
Attribute
Grammars
To better understand how
attribute grammars work in
practice, let’s explore some
concrete examples that
illustrate various aspects of
attribute grammars, including
both synthesized and
inherited attributes.

Example 1: Simple
Arithmetic
Expressions
Consider the following
grammar for basic arithmetic
expressions involving
addition and multiplication:

Grammar:

1. E → E1 + T
2. E → T
3. T → T1 * F
4. T → F
5. F → num

Attributes:
Synthesized Attribute:
val to evaluate the
 expression's value.
Intrinsic Attribute:
Default type checks.

Evaluation Rules:
1. For E → E1 + T :
E.val = E1.val +

T.val

2. For E → T :
E.val = T.val

3. For T → T1 * F :
T.val = T1.val *

F.val

4. For T → F :
T.val = F.val

5. For F → num :
F.val =

numeric_value(num)

This example demonstrates

how the values of expressions
are computed through a
hierarchical structure, with
attributes flowing from leaves
to the root.

Example 2: Type
Checking
Now, let's look at an example
where we strongly leverage
intrinsic and inherited
attributes for type checking.

Grammar:

1. E → E1 + T
2. E → T
3. T → T1 * F
 4. T → F
5. F → num
6. F → id

Attributes:
Synthesized Attribute:
val , to evaluate
expressions.
Intrinsic Attribute: type ,
to determine the data
type (int, float, etc.).
Inherited Attribute:
scope , which keeps
track of variable visibility.

Evaluation Rules:
1. For E → E1 + T :

E.type = if

(E1.type == T.type)

then E1.type else

error("Type

mismatch")

E.val = E1.val +

T.val

2. For E → T :

E.type = T.type

E.val = T.val

3. For T → T1 * F :

T.type = if

(T1.type == F.type)

then T1.type else

error("Type

mismatch")

T.val = T1.val *

F.val
4. For T → F :

T.type = F.type

T.val = F.val

5. For F → num :

F.type = "int"

(assuming numerical
constants are
integers)
6. For F → id :

F.type = lookup(id,

scope) (where
lookup checks the
current scope for the
variable type)

This example illustrates how

intrinsic and inherited
attributes can be utilized
together to enforce type
constraints and perform type
checking efficiently during
parsing.

Importance
These examples showcase
how attribute grammars
enable us to define the
semantics of a programming
language rigorously. By
attaching attributes to
grammar symbols and
specifying evaluation rules,
we can implement
meaningful behaviors such as
expression evaluation and
type checking.
Do you have any specific
questions about the
examples of attribute
grammars, or shall we move
on to the next topic:
Computing Attribute Values?

Last topic

Let's conclude with the final

topic: Computing Attribute
Values.

Overview of
Computing
Attribute Values
Computing attribute values in
attribute grammars involves
determining the values of
synthesized and inherited
attributes based on the
production rules and their
associated evaluation
functions. The computation
typically occurs during the
parsing of a program's source
code, as the parse tree is
constructed.

Steps for
Computing
Attribute Values
1. Parse Tree Construction:
As the syntactic structure
of the input program is
parsed using the
 grammar, a parse tree (or
abstract syntax tree)
representing the
hierarchical relationships
between symbols is
created.
2. Attribute Initialization:
Initially, the attributes
can be set to default
values, remembering
that intrinsic attributes
may already have
predefined values based
on the language's rules.

3. Traversal for
Computation: A traversal
algorithm is employed to
evaluate the attributes.
This can be done using
either a top-down
approach (depth-first) or
a bottom-up approach,
depending on whether
attributes are
synthesized or inherited.

4. Evaluation of Attributes:

For synthesized
attributes, values are
calculated from child
nodes and
propagated upwards.
For inherited
attributes, values are
passed down from
parent nodes to child
nodes.
Example of
Computing
Attribute Values
Using a previous example
with the grammar for
arithmetic expressions, let’s
show how to compute the
value of an expression while
traversing the parse tree.

Grammar:

1. E → E1 + T
2. E → T
3. T → T1 * F
4. T → F
5. F → num

Computing the
Expression for E =
(3 + 4) * 5

1. Construct the parse tree

for the expression:

E
/ \
T +
/ \
T T
/ \ /
F F F
| | |
3 4 5

2. Initialize intrinsic
attributes (like type

which would not affect

 our computation here)
and let’s compute val .
3. Start the computation:

For F(3) :
F.val = 3

For F(4) :
F.val = 4

Now compute T(1)

(where T → F ):
T1.val = F.val

= 3 for left T

Compute T(2) from

F(5) :
T2.val = 5

Now compute E(1)

(where E → E1 + T ):
E.val = 3 + 4 =

Finally compute the

other T :
T.val = 7 * 5 =

35

4. Result:

The overall
computation for the
expression (3 + 4)

* 5 yields E.val =

35 .

Conclusion
Computing attribute values is
a critical aspect that allows
attribute grammars to define
the semantics of a
programming language
effectively. By traversing the
parse tree and applying the
 appropriate evaluation rules,
one can derive meaningful
values and perform semantic
checks.

If you have any questions

about computing attribute
values, or if there are any
specific areas within this
topic or any previously
covered topics that you'd like
to revisit, feel free to ask!
Otherwise, this concludes our
lecture on Principles of
Programming Languages.
Thank you for participating!

Thank you

You're welcome! I'm glad you

participated in this lecture. If you
have any more questions in the
future or need further
clarification on any topic, don't
hesitate to reach out. Have a
great day and happy learning!

Enter your message