International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

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International Journal of Intercultural Relations

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

The effects of academic adaptation on depression of international

students in China: A case study on South Asian students of TCSOL
teacher program
Lan Yu a, *, 1, Md Sahariar Rahman b, Xun Li c
a
Faculty of Teacher Education, Beijing Language and Culture University, China
b
International Education Development, Graduate School of Education, Peking University, China
c
Faculty of Teacher Education, Beijing Language & Culture University, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The empirical research has not provided definitive answers to questions about how to assess and
Academic adaptation report academic adjustment and whether or not it influences psychological and sociocultural
Depression adjustments. This study is a longitudinal investigation into the relationship between academic
Longitudinal survey
and psychological adjustment of international students from South Asian countries in a cross-
South Asian students
Internationalization of Chinese higher
cultural learning context who partied in Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages
education (TCSOL) teacher education programs in Chinese universities. Using Zun’s Self-Rating Depression
Scale and the self-developed Scale of Academic Adaptation, the first test in December 2017 (T1)
and the second in December 2019 (T2) were conducted to measure depression, learning moti­
vation, learning behavior, learning efficacy, academic achievement, and satisfaction of South
Asian students. The paper discovered significant positive correlations between five variables,
indicating an interaction between the five aspects showing how involved and effective overseas
students were in learning in China and a cross-lagged relationship between depression and aca­
demic adjustment. This longitudinal empirical study of international students in China aimed to
help expand the application of cross-cultural adjustment theory in different educational back­
grounds, and provide diverse samples and methods different from the traditional western
perspective.

1. Introduction

Throughout the systematic research of intercultural adaptation in the past 70 years, overseas students have probably the more
accessibility and distinctiveness in the empirical literature, compared to the other culture contact groups such as immigrants, business
people, travelers, volunteers, and diplomats, etc. The conclusions identify culture shock, adjustment sequence and various curves,
stress and coping strategies of intercultural adaptation theoretical propositions (Berry et al., 1989, Berry, 1997; Berry, Kim, Power,
Young, & Bujaki, 1989; Ward and Kennedy, 1994; Ward, 1996; Kim & Young Yun, 2001), and elaborate themes of international
students’ experience and various influence factors, such as interpersonal interactions, intergroup perceptions and relations, social

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Yu).
1
Her major fields of research are the disciplines of international student mobility, intercultural adaptation, teachers of Chinese to speakers of
other languages (TCSOL), internationalization of higher education.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2023.101804
Received 23 October 2022; Received in revised form 25 March 2023; Accepted 30 March 2023
Available online 11 April 2023
0147-1767/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Yu et al. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

support, social identification, intercultural classroom, cultural distance (Furnham and Bochner, 1982; Opper et al., 1990; Searle and
Ward, 1990; Henderson et al., 1993; Redmond, 2000). Academic difficulties were also ranked as some of the most salient problems by
overseas students in a Canadian study (Chataway and Berry, 1989). Ward et al. (2001) emphasized that academic objectives and goals
distinguished students from other intercultural sojourners, because students sojourn for the purpose of obtaining a degree, academic
performance is a significant component of cross-cultural adaptation. For international students, they have entered the process of
intercultural adaptation from the moment of arrival in the host country or even from the time of preparation for departure from the
home country. If they can’t adjust their mentality and adapt to the learning and living environment of the host university, it is difficult
for them to obtain the expected learning gains and experience.
Student sojourners are also face the psychological and sociocultural adaptation difficulties that are common to other cross-cultural
travelers. The pressure caused by homesickness, loneliness, even discrimination and prejudice often leads to psychological depression
tendency and symptoms, but the temporal variations in psychological depression are not adequately reflected in the empirical liter­
ature due to the lack of stable and sizable research samples (Furnham, A. and Tresize, L., 1983). Cross-cultural adaptation is a
continuous, dynamic and complex process. The traditional theoretical framework composed of psychological and sociocultural di­
mensions cannot explain the uniqueness of cross-cultural adaptation of international students. Academic adjustment is a critical
component of international students’ intercultural adjustment because it fully reflects the specificity of international students’
adjustment in intercultural educational contexts and is especially important for developing a relatively independent theoretical
framework for international students’ intercultural adjustment. As the third dimension, whether there is interaction between academic
adaptation and the above two dimensions needs to be described and explained by empirical research.
In addition, Ward et al. (2001) referred that it is important to take into account the countries/cultures from which the sojourners
come and to which they go, both to replicate findings supporting culture-general effects and to examine the highly specific effects that
occur in unique cultural circumstances. Therefore, it is impossible to design a longitudinal quantitative study without a specific in­
ternational student group and intercultural learning context. Participants in this case study are South Asian students enrolled in
Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (TCSOL) teacher education programs in three Beijing higher education institutions
(Beijing Normal University, Beijing Foreign Studies University, and Beijing Language and Culture University), majoring in Teaching
Chinese as a second language for four-year undergraduate education. This study aims to answer the following questions: 1) how the
psychological depression of international students changes over time during their intercultural mobility; 2) how the academic
adjustment is measured and described; 3) whether there is interaction between the two dimensions and how it occurs.

1.1. TCSOL teacher education program

The program was a unique government-cooperation scholarship education program established by China and South Asian nations
to train local Chinese language teachers. It chose excellent South Asian students to obtain scholarships to study at Chinese HEI,
receiving a bachelor’s degree in Teaching Chinese as a second language. From 2015–2018, the program enrolled 1731 South Asian
students, with the three Beijing HEI in this study generating the most students among the 18 Chinese universities. The sample had been
studying in China for 4–5 years, some need to attend a year of Chinese language preparatory studies. The university organization and
the social network of South Asian students can ensure a stable and specific number of regular questionnaire participants, which is
conducive to collecting long-term tracking data and in-depth interviews. During this time, there is also a return flow between China
and their home countries, making cross-cultural mobility and adaptation situations more complex and continuous, thereby creating
the opportunity and conditions for a follow-up study.
International students from countries along One Belt and One Road had become the main source of international students in China,
which accounted for 23.40% of international students in 2005 and 45.51% in 2014 of the total number of international students from
all over the world (Wen et al., 2014). The average annual growth rate of South Asian students (including Bhutan, Nepal, India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives) was 21.20% in 2015, with a total number of 43,019 and about 10.80% of inter­
national students in China. The source structure of international students and the multicultural composition of Chinese universities had
been changed by South Asian student groups and their subculture. Taking them as the research object can not only enriches the theory
of cross-cultural adaptation on international students under the context of Chinese HEI, but also highlight the characteristics of
intercultural communications and social interaction between South Asia countries and China.

1.2. Internationalization of Chinese HEI

Internationalization includes the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions—and even individu­
als—to cope with the global academic environment (Philip G. Altbach & Jane Knight, 2007; De Wit, 2011). The internationalization of
higher education takes three major forms: studying abroad, integrating an international dimension into university teaching and
learning, and providing transnational programs in cooperation with foreign /overseas institutional partners in Chinese universities
(Yang, 2016). The international development of higher education in China has accelerated the pace of localization from learning the
good experience of developed countries and the communication and contact with neighboring and developing countries, especially
with the deepening of the reform and opening up (Li, 2021). According to the statistics of the Ministry of education of the People’s
Republic of China (MOE), the total number of international students from 196 countries and regions had been reached 492,185, and
enrolled in 1004 Higher Education Institutions (HEI) in 2018. The proportion of students obtaining degrees and students from
countries along One Belt and One Road both exceeded 50%. The new policies, such as Opinions on the opening up of education in the new
era, Promoting the One Belt, One Road education action, and Quality standard of higher education for international students in China (MOE,

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2010, 2016, 2018) focus on the proportion of international students, their learning experiences and academic performance, and the
effect of educational program, as the important indicators of internationalization and quality of Chinese higher education.

2. Literature review

2.1. Psychological adaptation and depression measurement

The psychological adjustment of overseas students in cross-cultural environments has always been a critical concern. It has
gradually developed a relatively mature theoretical model by shifting from focusing on sojourners’ mental health problems to treating
the sojourn experience as a positive and dynamic experience, which emphasizes the interaction of psychological preparation, coping
strategies, skill training, and social support in the process of adaptation. For example, Mendenhall et al.’s "Emotion, Behavior, and
Cognition (ABC)" (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985), Kim Y Y’s "Pressures-Adaptation-Growth" (Kim & Ruben, 1988), Colleen Ward et al.’s
"Intercultural adaptation Process" (Ward et al., 2008). From the dimension of temporal change, the U-shaped curve (Lysgaand, 1955),
the W-shaped curve (Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963), and the five-stage theory (Adler & Gundersen, 2001) have been offered.
Depression can originate from individual psychology and personality, as well as cross-cultural life transitions, interpersonal re­
lationships, and academic stress. Academic adjustment and depression are also interacting and causative, with the potential for this
connection to evolve. Chinese scholars have begun to focus on the psychological adjustment of international students coming to China
by adopting Western psychometric techniques and instruments, conducting research on the dimensions of mental health problems’
manifestations, causes, and solutions, and conducting a meta-analysis of theoretical developments in Western cross-cultural psy­
chological adjustment and a comparative study in the Chinese context.
Lei Longyun and Gan Yiqun (2004) assessed the occurrence of varying degrees of depression symptoms among overseas students
entering China, as well as the necessity to focus on primary prevention. Adapting to the speed of life in China, attending religious
services, adjusting to the climate, and locating favorite cuisines, housing, and shopping were among the sociocultural adjustment
challenges related to depression. Li (2007) contends that extraversion, flexibility, inclusivity, control, success motivation,
self-confidence, self-efficacy, and self-monitoring impact international students’ cross-cultural psychological adjustment process. Zhu
(2011) discovered that most overseas students entering China fall into the category of moderate depression. Age, country, length of
study, familiarity with China, and study status substantially influenced the psychological adjustment of international students coming
to China. As represented by instructors and administrators, school support does not play a substantial role in psychological adjustment
for overseas students in China. However, family and friends are crucial social supports for easing psychological transition issues.
Western research on the cross-cultural psychological adjustment of international students has three phases: beginning with the in­
fluence of cultural contextual shift on psychological well-being, the cultural sensitivity and instruction of intercultural competency,
and the experimental field-based participatory observation, emotional expression, and meaning-making. The modern school of
constructivist cultural psychology focuses on the joint production of psychological meaning and reality and views research as a vital
means of assisting and promoting the intercultural psychological adjustment of international students. Dongyan et al. (2012) used a
categorical regression tree to predict international students’ adjustment. They discovered that the social service system and the
psychological personality characteristics of international students were the most influential factors on the level of adjustment, while
the school’s hardware and software environment also influenced international students’ adjustment to some extent. Furthermore,
more targeted studies need to specifically explain what kind of psychological state international students from what cultural group will
exhibit in what foreign culture (Zhu, 2011).

2.2. International students’ academic adaptability

Academic adjustment is the most prominent research topic that distinguishes international students from immigrants, refugees, and
sojourners. International students’ frequent global mobility has given rise to novel cross-cultural adaptation difficulties and research
perspectives, including the psychological stress and academic hurdles provided to international students by learning or academic
adaptation in cross-cultural environments. Meeting learning demands, dealing with learning pressure, and adjusting to the learning
environment are the most difficult obstacles for overseas students (Wan et al., 1992; Zhai, 2004). Active participation in the learning
process in the host nation, as well as critical reflection on one’s own academic performance and experiences, are fundamental drives
and growth methods for proactively coping with the stresses and challenges of learning. According to Burnapp D. (2006), overseas
students must adjust their learning methods and perspectives in order to learn in a new setting, but this is not a complete intercultural
adaptation process. Encouragement and intervention to make them reflect on their own cross-cultural experience can promote aca­
demic achievement. Furthermore, Gill (2007) discovered that intercultural learning has the potential to reshape personal experiences,
with international students’ transformative understanding of their own learning experiences causing profound changes in their
self-perceptions, sense of otherness, values, and worldviews. Of course, learning to adjust to a new situation is not solely cultural.
Changes in learners’ behavior and attitudes are typically dependent on comprehending and identifying with the new learning envi­
ronment and intimately tied to the teacher-student and interpersonal interactions within that context. According to Martin Cortazzi
et al., differences in cultural beliefs and values about teaching and education are objective and difficult to change, and simply
expecting international students to change their classroom behavior to assimilate into the host country’s learning environment can
lead to cultural identity conflicts. This is why the concept of ’cultural synerg’ was formed, in which teachers and students interact in a
mutually reinforcing relationship to understand each other’s cultural differences, clarify issues and expectations, and collaborate to
adjust to each other in order to maximize academic achievement (Cortazzi & Jin, 1997).

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Empirical studies focusing on earning experience of international students in China have emerged in recent years. The perceived
classroom environment varies between international student groups and is a significant predictor of educational progress (Wen Wen
et al., 2014) Ma Jiani’s study (2018) painted a picture of the study experience of international students from countries along the Belt
and Road by investigating their motivation, interpersonal interaction, learning engagement, and changes in study abroad, and the
conclusions were drawn based on four dimensions of analysis: action-selective experience, interactive experience, practical experi­
ence, and reflective experience, as well as their enhancement strategies. The social structure, institutional environment, spiritual
culture, and other vehicles, as well as their individual characteristics, shaped and interacted with the learning experience of inter­
national students. The institutions need to use systemic thinking to build the educational governance and social support system for
international students (Ma, 2020).
The adaptation of academic, psychological, and sociocultural adaptation frequently inter-twine with each other, occurring in the
interaction between the individual learner and the learning environment. How do international students’ psychological well-being and
sociocultural adaptation contribute to their academic achievement, and what differences exist in the effects of different cultural
backgrounds and destinations, as suggested by domestic and international scholars (Smith & Khawaja, 2011; Zhou et al., 2008).
Different educational cultures, teaching programs and arrangements, library resources, computer and Internet systems, and
communication with Chinese teachers and students all contributed to the students’ discomfort, and the ’double language barrier’
exacerbated their educational experience in China. By an interpretative phenomenological approach, the problems experienced by
non-native Chinese-speaking students were struggling to master a range of graduate-level material and conceptual frameworks in
addition to the academic language in the language of teaching. It was determined that during the initial adaptation and the crisis phase
of the U-curve of cultural adaptation or the crisis period of the W-curve of cultural adaptation, which presents the most difficulties for
overseas students (Xue, 2016). More study is required to explain precisely which cultural groups of overseas students present with
what psychological profiles in their integration into Chinese university’s teaching and learning system.
The study of the process, cognition, and attitude of international students adapting to Chinese universities from the perspective of
international students is not only a specific topic at the micro level of higher education internationalization but also an essential
component of the study of international students’ overall adaptability. It is unclear how the mental health and social adaptation of
overseas students affect their academic development. In contrast, academic adaptability is not a distinct research feature and is
interwoven with psychological and social adaptability influenced by numerous individual and environmental factors, such as social
structure, institutional environment, spiritual culture, and other carriers, as well as individual characteristics, influence the learning
experiences of overseas students, and that these elements interact. The relationship between the process of international students’
integration into the teaching and learning system of the host country and cross-cultural adaptation is not clear, according to both
domestic and international specialists, which hinders the in-depth development of this topic. What are the differences in the influence
of students from different cultural backgrounds and study abroad countries (Zhou et al., 2008; Smith & Khawaja, 2011). There are few
empirical studies, especially longitudinal ones, to investigate the relationship among them, and a methodical approach is necessary to
develop educational governance and social support networks for international students.

3. Methodology

The best research is difficult and expensive to undertake because it is done longitudinally and with a good matched control sample
of host nationals (Gerdes and Mallinckrodt, 1994). The existing literature applies longitudinal research to the field of international
students’ cross-cultural adaptation, mainly in two aspects: one is to use the variables before the departure of international students to
predict their cross-cultural adaptation in the destination country; another is to present diachronic changes in levels of psychological
and sociocultural adaptation. These patterns were observed in several longitudinal investigations of the adaptation of Japanese stu­
dents in New Zealand (Kennedy, 2000; Ward et al., 1998a). They found that the adaptive problems of international students were most
pronounced and difficult in the early arrival stages but diminished or weakened over time, and factors such as pre-trip stress, low
expectations, and language ability, had predictive functions.
This paper focuses on the interaction and dynamic change between psychological adaptation and academic adaptation, selects a
significant psychological adaptation evaluation index (the Self-Rating Depression Scale) and draws on student engagement theory to
develop a self-completion academic adaptation questionnaire. The purpose of this study is to analyze the cognition and academic
adjustment of South Asian international students at Chinese universities, as well as the cross-lagged link between the two utilizing
tracking data.

3.1. Hypothesis

According to the above research purpose, our hypothesis is that the lower cross-cultural learners’ self-assessment of learning
adjustment, the greater the psychological stress, which may lead to depression over time. On the contrary, the better the indicators of
learning adaptability are, the psychological pressure will be gradually relieved, and the symptoms and tendency of depression will no
longer be obvious. In short, academic adaptation of international students can effectively predict and influence psychological
adaptation.

3.2. Participants

Due to minimizing the problem of sample attrition for the longitudinal design, this study selected the South Asian students of the

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TCSOL program as the questionnaire’s respondents. Meanwhile, the variables such as sample composition, academic level, institutions,
cultural background, and economic origin can be under effective control.
After obtaining informed consent from the participant and the school administration, the survey was conducted in December 2017
(T1) using a web-based questionnaire link distributed by Wenjuanxing (a Chinese survey web platform) and an on-site paper version of
the questionnaire and again in December 2019 (T2) with the same group of South Asian students using the same methodology. At the
two times, 120 and 129 legitimate questionnaires were received, respectively, yet there was still considerable attrition in the sample
due to withdrawal, suspension, or cessation of scholarship. In the end, 89 participants participated and submitted valid questionnaires
on two consecutive dates, with precise demographic information described in Table 1.

3.3. Instruments

The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS, 1965, appendix 1) was extensively utilized in the field of cross-cultural psychological
adaptation of international students (Searle & Ward C., 1990; Lei Longyun & Gan Yikun, 2004; Zhu Guohui, 2011). The descriptive
self-assessment scale is composed of 20 symptoms of depression, and is divided into four dimensions of emotional, physiological,
behavioral and cognitive. It appears to have adequate validity and reliability statistics and simple for test-takers to comprehend and
self-evaluate and does not depend on their culture. The scale consists of 10 positive and 10 negative questions, each set up as a 4-point
scale corresponding to "always" (1 point), "often" (2 points), "occasionally" (3 points), and "never" (4 points), and questionnaire re­
spondents were asked to select the corresponding option based on their psychological state in the previous week. The overall scale
score is 80, and the final score came from the original score divided by 80 and multiplied by 100 or multiplied directly by 1.25. The
lower the total score of the result, the lower the level of depression, and vice versa. Particularly, a score of fewer than 50 means that
everything is normal, 51–60 means that depression is mild, 61–70 means that depression is moderate, and over 70 means that
depression is severe.
This study developed the self-administered Scale of Academic Adaptation to examine international students’ perceptions and
evaluations of their own learning adaptation in two dimensions: individual learning engagement and perceptions of the learning
environment (appendix 2). The academic adaptation scale was based on the individual perspective of the learning engagement
theoretical framework (Kahu, 2013), which reflected the specific performance beyond the general concept of academic adaptation in
the past literature. Its dimensions and questions referred the Students Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) designed by Baker
& Siryk (1989), and the Chinese version applied on the measurement of international students’ learning adaptation in Chinese uni­
versities (Zhu, 2011; Sun, 2012). Overall, a higher total score suggests a greater degree of individual engagement in learning.
Individual learning engagement is concerned with the following:
1) Learning behavior (4 points for "always," 3 points for "often," 2 points for "occasionally," and 1 point for "never") according to the
frequency of their learning behavior.
2) Learning motivation (4 points for "strong", 3 points for "average", 2 points for "uncertain", and 1 point for "weak") based on own
inner driving force.
3) Learning efficacy (4 marks for "totally agree," 3 marks for "somewhat agree," 2 points for "unsure"; 1 point for "completely
disagree") according to the feeling during learning.
4) Academic achievement (4 marks for "totally agree," 3 marks for "somewhat agree," 2 points for "unsure"; 1 point for "completely
disagree") based on their assessment of their learning gains).
The perception of the learning environment factor employs satisfaction with learning as a variable, with respondents selecting the
corresponding choice depending on their overall learning experience and feelings ("satisfied," "okay," and "unsure"). The consequence
is that the lower the total score, the greater the pleasure of learning, and vice versa.

Table 1
Basic demographic description of the sample.
Project Number %（n = 89）

Gender male 60 67.42

female 29 32.58
Age 18–22 42 47.19
23–29 46 51.69
30–40 1 1.12
Nationality Nepal 42 47.19
Pakistan 38 42.7
Bangladesh 5 5.62
Sri Lanka 2 2.25
Maldives 1 1.12
India 1 1.12
Abroad experience First time abroad 74 83.15
Less than 3 months 9 10.11
More than 3 months 6 6.74
Time in China 3 months 5 6.00
1 year & 3 months 57 64.00
2 years & 3 months 27 27.00

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3.4. Cross-lagged analysis

MPlus was used to do cross-lagged regression analysis in this study by using T1 and T2 as the pre and post-measurement time points
and pairing the scores on the pre and post-measurement dimensions of depression and learning adaptation. For example, using T2
depression as the dependent variable, T1 depression and T1 learning adaptation as independent variables, then entering the regression
equation successively through the forced formulation method.

4. Results

4.1. Questionnaire reliability

All variables were examined for normal distribution using the SPSS 24.0 statistical program, and the results indicated that the data
usually followed a normal distribution. Additionally, reliability tests were conducted for the learning adaption and depression ratings.
Cronbach alpha coefficients reached.891 and.833 for the T1 and T2 time points, respectively, for the learning adaption questionnaire
and.936 and.909 for the depression self-rating scale, showing a high degree of internal consistency (Table 2).

4.2. Descriptive statistics

The t-test for paired samples revealed a significant correlation between T1 and T2 depression levels among the participants (p =
.05). As depicted in Fig. 1, the distribution of T1 and T2 depression levels and numbers demonstrated dynamic changes, with 48, 12,
16, and 13 students exhibiting normal, mild, moderate, and severe depression at T1 and 58, 15, 8, and 8 students corresponding to T2,
respectively.
The survey respondents were divided into three groups of three months, one year and three months, and two years and three
months when they initially completed the questionnaire. The length of time in China was dynamically associated with the level and
distribution of depression among South Asian students (Table 3).
ANOVA was conducted to examine whether demographic variables (such as gender, age, nationality, oversea experience, and time
in China) of South Asian students were correlated with T1 and T2 depression and adjustment to learning. The findings revealed no
statistically significant difference at the p.05 level, with T1 showing a significant difference in learning behavior between South Asian
students of different nationalities (p = .003), but in T2, this difference was not significant.

4.3. The correlation analysis

According to the Pearson correlation test, learning adaptation was significantly related to depression as follows: the coefficient of
T1 learning adaptation and T1 depression (r = . 247, P < 0.05), T2 learning adaptation (r = . 426, P < 0.01), and T2 depression (r = .
386, P < 0.01). There was no significant correlation between T2 learning adaptation and T1 depression, but it was related to T2
depression (r = . 239, P < 0.05).
It can be seen from Table 4 that T1 and T2 depression scores are positively correlated with the scores of some variables of learning
adaptation:
T1 depression scores are positively correlated with T1 learning motivation scores (r = . 233, P. 05) and T1 academic achievement
scores (r = . 326, P. 01);.
T2 depression scores are positively correlated with T1 learning motivation score (r = . 275, P. 01); T1 learning behavior score (r = .
392, P. 01), T1 and T2 academic achievement scores (r = . 324, 300, P. 01);.
T1 learning satisfaction score (r = Investigating the correlation between T1 and T2 learning adaptation dimensions, we found that
learning motivation was positively correlated with learning behavior (r = . 213 -. 541, P < . 01).
Academic achievement (r = . 267 -. 477, P < . 01), and learning satisfaction (r = . 330 -. 513, P < . 01);.
Learning behavior was positively correlated with academic achievement (r = . 290 -. 536, P < . 01) and significantly correlated
with learning satisfaction (r = . 300 -. 553, P < . 01);.
There was a significant correlation between academic achievement and learning satisfaction (r = . 211 -. 673, P < . 01).
It is worth noting that T1 learning efficacy is positively correlated with T2 learning efficacy (r = . 216, P < . 05), T1 academic
achievement (r = . 212, P < . 05), and T2 learning efficacy is positively correlated with T1 academic achievement (r = . 306, P < . 01).
Results of the Pearson correlation test indicate that learning adaptation is significantly related to depression, with higher scores on
learning adaptation variables being associated with lower scores on depression variables. Additionally, T2 learning adaptation was

Table 2
Mean、standard deviation, and reliability test of academic adaptation and psychological depression.
Time 1 Time 2

Mean S.D. α Mean S.D. α

Academic Adaptation 1.674 0.75 0.891 1.677 0.98 0.833
Psychological Depression 2.123 0.019 0.936 1.946 0.025 0.909

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Fig. 1. The Dynamic Change of Depression Tendency and Number of People.

Table 3
The dynamic change in psychological depression types and population distribution among South Asian students in different periods.
SDS_T1 SDS_T2

Depression number of people Proportion number of people Proportion

3 months（5 people） normal（≤ 50分） 4 80.00% 4 80.00%

mild（51–60分） 1 20.00% 1 20.00%
5 100.00% 5 100.00%
1 year & 3 months（57 people） normal（≤ 50分） 30 52.63% 38 66.67%
mild（51–60分） 6 10.53% 8 14.04%
moderate（61–70分） 10 17.54% 4 7.02%
severe（≥ 70分） 11 19.30% 7 12.28%
57 100.00% 57 100.00%
2 years & 3 months（25 people） normal（≤ 50分） 14 51.85% 16 59.26%
mild（51–60分） 5 18.52% 6 22.22%
moderate（61–70分） 6 22.22% 4 14.81%
severe（≥ 70分） 2 7.41% 1 3.70%
27 100.00% 27 100.00%

positively correlated with T1 learning adaptation. Learning behavior and academic achievement are positively correlated, as are
learning satisfaction and academic achievement. Learning efficacy is positively correlated with both academic achievement and
learning efficacy over time. Finally, depression scores are positively correlated with learning motivation and academic achievement
scores. These findings suggest potential relationships between the variables, but it should be noted that correlation does not imply
causation and further research is necessary to elucidate these relationships.
In Table 5, the correlation significance between the sub-dimensions of academic adaptation from T1 to T2 is relatively stable:
learning motivation is significantly correlated with learning activities (r = .541, P < .01), with academic achievement (r = .477,
P < .01) and with learning satisfaction (r = .513, P < .01). Learning activities were significantly correlated with academic achieve­
ment (r = .290 ~.536, P < .01) and learning satisfaction (r = .300 ~.553, P < .01), respectively. In addition, there was a significant
correlation between academic achievement and learning satisfaction (r = .435 ~.673, P < .01). There is no correlation between
learning efficacy and most other variables. However, there is a significant correlation between learning efficacy and T1 academic
achievement (r = .306, P < .01) and T1 learning satisfaction (r = .212, P < .05), which indicates the time effect of learning efficacy. In
other words, whether an individual has enough confidence in learning and coping strategies is usually after seeing good results. Of
course, it is also closely related to the individual’s previous learning experience and academic achievements. However, for interna­
tional students, it often takes a long time to adapt to the academic environment of a university in a strange host country.
Further paired sample t-test shows that 89 South Asian students have significant differences in academic adaptation from T1 to T2,
mainly reflected in learning efficacy (Table 5). Then, each item has paired sample t-test conducted to obtain the significance (double-
tailed). Significant items are as follows: The frequency of learning activities is F5 "to discuss problems related to learning with teachers
and classmates" (.011) and F9 "to actively seek opportunities to use Chinese in daily life" (.049). Learning satisfaction S1 "learning
hardware (classroom, library, network)" (.000) and S6 "work-study program" (.000), learning efficacy E1 "I am full of happiness and
gain when I study" (.000), E3 "I always have a way to solve the difficulties I meet in the study" (.010), E5 "I will be eliminated if I do not
study hard" (.000).

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Table 4
The correlation between the sub-dimensions of academic adjustment and psychological depression [ ± s）/n = 89].
M_T1 M_T2 E_T1 E_T2 F_T1 F_T2 V_T1 V_T2 S_T1 S_T2
M_T1 1
M_T2 0.282 ** 1
E_T1 -0.072 -0.032 1
E_T2 0.067 0.022 0.216 * 1
F_T1 0.541 ** 0.237 * 0.099 0.189 1
F_T2 0.213 * 0.230 * 0.027 0.03 0.443 1
**
V_T1 0.477 ** 0.267 * 0.128 0.306 ** 0.536 0.253 1
** *
V_T2 0.116 0.337 ** 0.067 0.022 0.290 0.500 0.253 1
8

** ** *
S_T1 0.513 ** 0.330 ** 0.212 0.151 0.524 0.203 0.673 0.230 1
* ** ** *
S_T2 0.189 0.354 ** 0.131 -0.054 0.300 0.553 0.211 0.435 0.335 1
** ** * ** **
D_T1 0.233 * 0.051 -0.16 -0.012 0.186 0.078 0.326 -0.103 0.125 -0.011
**

International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

D_T2 0.275 ** 0.005 0.041 0.163 0.392 0.201 0.324 0.300 0.226 0.162
** ** ** *
M±SD 9.79 ± 2.57 9.56 ± 2.21 10.28 ± 2.55 9.35 ± 2.23 16.98 ± 4.14 17.48 ± 3.58 13.16 ± 3.81 12.39 ± 3.38 12.69 ± 3.83 12.35 ± 3.59
Note. M-Motivation, E-Efficacy, F-Frequency, V-academic achievement, S-Satisfaction, D-Depression
* p＜.05，** p＜.01
L. Yu et al. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

Table 5
Paired sample t-test of individuals in the sub-dimension of academic adaptation.
Mean S.D. t DOF Significance

F_T1 - F_T2 -.506 4.101 -1.163 88 .248

M_T1 - M_T2 .225 2.875 .737 88 .463
E_T1 - E_T2 -.933 3.003 -2.930 88 .004
V_T1 - V_T2 .764 4.411 1.634 88 .106
S_T1 – S_T2 .337 4.280 .743 88 .459

4.4. The Cross-lagged regression analysis

The individual-level learning engagement and outcomes of South Asian students significantly predicted their subsequent psy­
chological adjustment, but not vice versa, with a unidirectional lag effect of the crosswalk. The results are shown in Fig. 2.

1. T1 academic motivation significantly predicted T2 depression (β = .026, p < .05), T1 depression did not significantly predict T2
academic motivation;
2. T1 academic behavior significantly predicted T2 depression (β = .036, p < .01), T1 depression did not significantly predict T2
academic behavior;
3. T3 academic achievement significantly predicted T2 depression (β = .029, p < .05), T1 depression did not significantly predict T2
academic achievement;
4. Neither T1 nor T2 academic satisfaction significantly predicted depression.

5. Discussion

The results indicated: 1) T1 depression was significantly correlated with T2 depression; 2) T1 learning adaptation was significantly
correlated with T1 depression, and T2 learning adaptation was significantly correlated with T2 depression; 3) the dimensions of
learning adaptation showed a stable correlation from T1 to T2; 4) the dimensions of T1 learning adaptation significantly predicted T2
depression, with a unidirectional lagged effect of the crossover path. Therefore, we think there are three issues worth discussing based
on major findings.

Fig. 2. Results of the Cross-lagged regression between depression and learning adaptation.

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L. Yu et al. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

5.1. Diachronic change and regional characteristics of depression

The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale was proved to be reliable and not affected by cultural differences by the data of South Asian
students studying abroad in Chinese universities. The finding indicated that in the process of psychological adjustment, South Asian
students exhibited varying degrees of depressive symptoms and changed over time under the intercultural environment, which went
beyond the simple conclusion of existing local research on the psychological health status of international students in China on a time
section (Chen & Chang, 2008; Zhu, 2011). International students studying in China were susceptible to emotional reactions and
stressful behaviors such as anxiety, tension, loneliness, irritation, and alienation due to unfamiliar linguistic, social, and cultural
contexts. It also highlighted that the same individual changed from normal to depression, and after one year, the change in depression
was the greatest and the degree of differentiation was the greatest. Of course, there was also opposite examples, that is, with the
enhancement of individual adaptability and strategy adjustment, depression had been relieved to varying degrees and even turned to a
positive attitude and flexibly coped with new learning and life pressures. As a supplementary open question, South Asian students
answered that their important social support mainly came from family members, relatives, and friends of alleviating their psycho­
logical pressure. Chinese colleges and universities committed to improving the level of internationalization should pay long-term
attention to the psychological situation of international students and provide necessary social support to prevent or help them
adjust psychological discomfort by the faculty, local students and professional personnel.

5.2. Representation and correlation of academic adaptation

Chinese scholars mainly analyzed the environmental elements that influence the learning adaption of international students,
including teaching techniques, teacher-student interaction, classroom atmosphere, learning facilities, and management style. There is
a shortage of empirical studies on individual aspects, particularly the level of involvement or participation in international students’
academic performance. The existing literature described academic adjustment without further breaking down the specific represen­
tations of academic adjustment. In addition of satisfaction of external learning environment, this research focused on the linear process
of internal factors including motivation, behavior, efficacy, and achievement by self-evaluation, which involved in the college students
learning engagement theory and its questionnaire dimensions. the finding showed that the significant positive correlations among
them based on the data analysis of South Asian students, as well as between academic achievement and satisfaction on the pre-test and
learning efficacy on the post-test. It indicated that there were an interaction between the five dimensions, which collectively can
reflected the learning engagement and effectiveness of international students during their study.

5.3. Causal inference between academic adaptation and depression

Moreover, this study yielded new findings through the correlation and cross-lag analysis between the above variables of academic
adaptation and psychological adjustment. The academic adjustment at the former time point was significantly correlated with the
psychological adjustment at the same time, and a unidirectional lag characterized the interaction between the psychological and
academic adaptation. However, individual’s perception of external satisfaction had no such lag effect on psychological adaptation.
Because cross-lag analysis is helpful to infer causality, this finding has more profound significance than previous correlation analysis. It
revealed the individual-level academic engagement of South Asian students significantly and timely predicted their subsequent
psychological adjustment.

6. Conclusion and enlightenment

6.1. Conclusions

Due to the inevitable problem of sample attrition, it is challenging to implement long-term longitudinal designs in both domestic
and international studies, despite the questionable but still widely used assumptions of earlier models of the psychological adjustment
stages of international students by Western scholars, such as the U-shaped and W-shaped curve assumptions. Ward et al. discovered
that after four months of adjustment, overseas students had generally stabilized, with no substantial changes or recurrence, and hy­
pothesized that this would continue. Throughout continuous follow-up investigation for three years, this study discovered that even
after four months, psychological adjustment was still sensitive to swings in other factors, such as high academic strain and social
tension. In contrast to the reverse U-curve proposed by Colin Wood, in which the worst adaptation stage occurs at the beginning, the
lowest adaptation point of international students in the intercultural learning situation in Chinese universities occurs between one and
two years or longer (Qi & Li, 2009). On the whole, the number of people falling into severe depression and rigidity tends to decrease,
indicating that the ability of most individuals to adapt to Chinese universities were gradually increasing. It is possible to conduct
longitudinal studies on the psychological adjustment of long-term students who have been in China for more than a year. This will
provide new insights and a foundation for cross-cultural study on long-term adaptation to developed Western nations’ education
systems and cultures. In practice, the faculty of universities should pay more attention to the psychological health of international
students and provide them with the appropriate psychological advice and social support. In addition to understanding the situation
and causes of psychological stress and depression among international students, effective countermeasures need to be taken. The entire
group and key targets must receive continuous attention and psychological counseling to identify and actively prevent depressed
students promptly.

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For international students who aim to obtain degrees and intercultural competency, it often takes a long time to adjust to the
unfamiliar academic environment of the host university. In the South Asian student group, there was a more significant covariate
association between depression and cross-cultural learning adaption over time. Learning adaptation on the pre-test strongly predicted
depression on the post-test, but depression on the pre-test did not significantly correlate and predict learning adaptation on the post-
test, indicating a unidirectional cross-lag route from learning adaptation to depression. This research helps us deeper understanding
the relationship between learning adaptation and psychological adaptation throughout international students’ cross-cultural
experiences.
It is worth noting that the overall learning efficacy of intercultural learners has changed significantly, such as " I am full of
happiness and gain when I study, "I always have a way to solve the difficulties I meet in the study, "and " I will be eliminated if I do not
study hard. " This indicates that the three-year-long study experience at a Chinese university has, to some extent, shaped the positive
learning efficacy of South Asian students in terms of their sense of learning acquisition, positive emotional experience of learning,
ability to learn independently, self-confidence in solving learning difficulties, and moderate perception of learning stress. This means
that a person’s confidence in their mastery of learning and coping strategies often comes after they have seen good results. This is, of
course, linked to their previous learning experiences and academic achievements. Positive learning efficacy builds on prior learning
commitment. It, therefore, requires local teachers, students, and schools to work together to create a positive learning environment,
guide international students to accept temporary setbacks in the learning process, and provide academic support and assistance to
stimulate motivation and behavior.
At the level of the individual learner, active participation in the learning process of the host country and critical reflection on one’s
own academic accomplishments and experiences are essential motivating factors and effective strategies for actively coping with
learning pressure and problems. Certainly, academic adaptation does not mean that a single change will have the desired effect.
According to cultural interaction theory, the change in learners’ behavior is contingent on their understanding and recognition of the
new learning environment, as well as the interpersonal interaction in this context, notably between teachers and students. Therefore,
universities should continue to improve the academic guidance service system for international students and promote a more open and
inclusive learning community to support the improvement of positive learning experiences and academic competencies of Chinese and
international students.

6.2. Implications

Based on the results, it can be suggested that depression may have a negative impact on learning adaptation, particularly on
learning motivation, behaviour, and academic achievement (Hysenbegasi et al., 2005). Therefore, educators and counselors should be
aware of the potential link between depression and learning difficulties and take steps to identify and support students who may be
experiencing depression.
The findings also suggest that promoting learning adaptation, particularly learning motivation, behaviour, and academic
achievement, may have a positive impact on reducing depression among students. Educators can design interventions and programs
that focus on these dimensions of learning adaptation to promote mental health and well-being among students.
Overall, the study highlights the importance of addressing mental health concerns, such as depression, in the education sector and
promoting learning adaptation to support student well-being and academic success.

6.3. Contribution

This study contributes to the study of international students’ cross-cultural adaptation in three ways. Firstly, it develops a ques­
tionnaire on academic adjustment from the perspectives of international students’ individuals, which contains five variables: learning
motivation, learning behavior, learning efficacy, academic achievement, and learning satisfaction. Secondly, the results indicate that
academic adjustment has a significant cross-lagging effect on psychological adjustment of international students over time. Thirdly,
the study provides a case study in the context of Chinese higher education internationalization, which offers diverse perspectives and
cultural references for the development of intercultural adaptation theory.
Research on the cross-cultural adaptation of international students in China has developed from sorting out and verifying western
theoretical models in the early stage to focusing on local cases and empirical studies. Some studies have begun to break out of the
traditional dichotomy of psychological and sociocultural adaptation and instead emphasize that the changes and experiences of
learning in cross-cultural contexts bring special adaptive problems to international students. To describe and analyze the learning
experiences of individual overseas students, Chinese scholars now rely primarily on qualitative research methods due to the un­
availability of large samples for empirical investigations. While these cases contribute to our understanding of the learning experiences
and adaptation of international students in Chinese universities, they do not respond well and creatively expand the existing findings
and theories, nor do they reflect the phenomena and patterns of international student mobility and cross-cultural adaptation in the
process of internationalization of Chinese higher education.
Lacking a transformative perspective on the emerging study abroad market and global educational environment, most existing
literature has used European and American study destinations as research contexts to study the academic and psychological adjust­
ment of ethnic minority cross-cultural groups. With the quality of education and international influence of Chinese universities
gradually increasing and socio-economic and cultural development providing more opportunities for education and employment,
China has become an emerging destination country for studying abroad. International students’ enormous and consistent global
migration has eased the application and development of intercultural adaptation theory to non-Western perspectives and fields. Due to

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L. Yu et al. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

the significant disparities in social development, educational experiences, language, and culture, overseas students must frequently go
through a lengthy period of cross-cultural adaptation before studying and living at Chinese universities and integrating into the local
society. This longitudinal empirical study of international students in Chinese universities can help to expand the application of
intercultural adjustment theory in various educational contexts and provide diversified samples and approaches, depart from the
traditional Western perspective. This study has also practical applications, including the improvement of Chinese policy and the
provision of social assistance for international students so that they can better adapt to university education in China.

7. Limitations and future research

We must admit that there are still limitations that cannot be ignored in this study. Because the overall size and nationality dis­
tribution of the study sample are still not wide enough, the generalization of the conclusion needs to be verified by further research.
Furthermore, if we can track the academic and psychological status of these South Asian students regularly for a longer time year by
year, we may be able to draw more significant and subtle changes based on richer data. At present, our description and measurement of
academic adaptation still remain in several limited but important aspects, and the cross-lag relationship between it and psychological
depression, the more complex and diverse three-dimensional structure needs empirical research in academic, psychological and so­
ciocultural adaptation. This research needs a deeper dialogue with China’s higher education internationalization policies and practices
to promote higher education cooperation and project implementation among countries along the One Belt and One Road.

Funding

This study was supported by the 2017 Beijing Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science, Study on the Cultivation Mode of
South-Asian Native Chinese Teachers in Beijing universities (17JYC015).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their deepest appreciation to Dr. Gao Xin for her technical support in statistical analysis on this
research project and to the South Asian students of the TCSOL program for their voluntary participation.

Appendix

The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (1965)

How often (from ’always’ to ’never/ a little’) have you been feeling during the past week? Please tick"√" in the corresponding cell.

code items Always Often Sometimes Never

D_1 I feel downhearted and blue.

D_2 Morning is when I feel the best.
D_3 I have crying spells or feel like it.
D_4 I have trouble sleeping at night.
D_5 I eat as much as I used to.
D_6 My physiological response is normal.
D_7 I notice that I am losing weight.
D_8 I have trouble with constipation.
D_9 My heart beats faster than usual.
D_10 I get tired for no reason.
D_11 My mind is as clear as it used to be.
D_12 I find it easy to do the things I used to.
D_13 I feel restless and can’t keep calm.
D_14 I feel hopeful about the future.
D_15 I am more irritable than usual.
D_16 I find it easy to make decisions.
D_17 I feel that I am useful and needed.
D_18 My life is meaningful.
D_19 I feel that others would be better if I were dead.
D_20 I still enjoy the things I used to do.

The Scale of Academic Adaptation of International Students in China

What is your frequency (from ’always’ to ’never’) of doing the following learning activities? Please tick "√" in the corresponding
cell.

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L. Yu et al. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 94 (2023) 101804

code item Always Often Sometimes Never

F_1 Being concentrated during a class.

F_2 Ask or answer questions initiatively in class.
F_3 Actively participate in group study or class discussion.
F_4 Complete the assignments or tasks assigned by the teacher on time
F_5 Discuss issues related to study with the teacher & classmates.
F_6 Attend the school’s tutoring center to get help from Chinese assistants.
F_7 Behaviors such as skipping a class, asking for leave, being late for a class, or/and leaving a class early.
F_8 Use the university’s resources to learn (such as libraries, study rooms, etc.)
F_9 Create opportunities to use Chinese in daily life.
F_10 Fail examinations.

How (from ’strong’ to ‘weak’) do you think about your learning motivation? Please tick “√” in the corresponding cell.

code item Strong Average Unknown Weak

M_1 Learn Chinese and understand Chinese culture.

M_2 find a satisfactory job after graduation.
M_3 Get a diploma from a Chinese university.
M_4 Travel while studying in China.
M_5 Meet the expectations of parents or other people.
M_6 work and live in China in the future.

Which best describes your feelings (from ’fully agree’ to ’Disagree’) about studying? Please tick "√" in the corresponding blank.

Code Item Fully agree Agree Not sure Disagree

E_1 I feel happy and derive satisfaction when I concentrate on my studies.

E_2 I can adapt to the stress of studying.
E_3 I can always find solutions to questions.
E_4 I realize that my classmates study harder than me.
E_5 I must force myself to study; otherwise, I may fail.

How do you evaluate overall academic achievements (from ‘fully agree’ to ‘disagree’) through studying in Chinese universities?
Please tick “√”in the corresponding cell.

Code Item Fully agree Agree Not sure Disagree

V_1 Master the basics of Chinese.

V_2 Broaden my knowledge and vision.
V_3 Improve my ability to get along with others and teamwork.
V_4 Improve my logical thinking.
V_5 Feel confident and capable of facing difficulties.
V_6 Enhance my awareness of social norms.
V_7 Encourage me to respect and understand others from different perspectives.
V_8 Expand my understanding from a global or international point of view.

How do you evaluate (from ’satisfied’ to ’dissatisfied’) your Chinese universities? Please tick "√" in the corresponding cell.

Code Item Satisfied Acceptable Not sure Dissatisfied

S_1 Learning facilities (classroom, library, internet, etc.)

S_2 Living conditions (dining hall, dormitories, stadiums, etc.)
S_3 The teaching style of Chinese teachers.
S_4 Community events and cultural experiences
S_5 Arrangements of learning content and curriculum.
S_6 Work-study program.
S_7 Scholarship.
S_8 Overall study experience.

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