Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts

A consider the cooling of a hot steal rod which is place in a cold water
Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium
temperature of the rod-water combination. It will not tell us how long it
takes to reach this equilibrium condition.
Heat Transfer may be used to predict the temperature of the rod and
the water as a function of time.
 Heat Transfer
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature
difference.

• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer.

• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the
temperature gradient in that direction.

• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
Application Areas of Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction,
– convection,
– radiation.
• All modes of heat
transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high-temperature
medium to a lower-temperature one.
 Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the less energetic
ones as a result of interactions between the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases
– In gases and liquids conduction is due to
the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
– In solids conduction is due to the
combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy
transport by free electrons.
 Conduction

Rate of heat conduction 

 Area  Temperature difference 
Thickness
T1  T2 T
Qcond  kA  kA (W) (1-21)
x x

where the constant of proportionality k is the

thermal conductivity of the material.
In differential form
dT
Qcond  kA (W) (1-22)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• High value for thermal conductivity
good heat conductor
• Low value
poor heat conductor or insulator.
 Thermal Conductivities of Materials
• The thermal conductivities
of gases such as air vary by
a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as
copper.
• Pure crystals and metals
have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.
 Thermal diffusivity
Heat conducted k
  ( m2 s ) (1-23)
Heat stored cp
• The thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material.
• Appears in the transient heat conduction analysis.
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a
low heat capacity will have a large thermal diffusivity.
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
‫نشر‬propagation of heat into the medium.
 Convection
Convection = Conduction + Advection
(fluid motion)
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the liquid or gas that is in motion.
• Convection is commonly classified into three sub-
modes:
– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free) convection,
– Change of phase (liquid/vapor,
solid/liquid, etc.)
 Convection
• The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as
Qconv  hAs (Ts  T ) (W) (1-24)
• h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in
W/m2°C.
• h depends on variables such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid,
and the bulk fluid velocity.
 Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Heat transfer by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal
radiation (radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature).
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However,
radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal
radiation.
 Radiation - Emission
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K) is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
Q  s A T 4 (W)
emit ,max s s
(1-25)
• s =5.670X108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
is called a blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and
is expressed as
Qemit ,max  es AsTs 4
(W) (1-26)

0  e 1
• e is the emissivity of the surface.
 Radiation - Absorption
• The fraction of the
radiation energy incident
on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface is
termed the absorptivity .

0  1
• Both e and  of a surface depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the radiation.
 Heat Conduction Equation
Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
 Introduction ─ Continue
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
– cylindrical (T(r, f, z, t)),
– spherical (T(r, f, q, t)).
 Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
• steady versus transient heat transfer,
• multidimensional heat transfer,
• heat generation.
 Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium

• Transient implies variation with time or time

dependence
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional,
– two dimensional,
– three-dimensional.
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a
medium is three-dimensional. However, some
problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional
depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer
rates in different directions and the level of accuracy
desired.
 General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the surface of
the figure must be perpendicular to the surface,
and it must point in the direction of decreasing
temperature
• If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P,
the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by
Fourier’s law as
dT
Qn  kA (W) (2-2)
dn
General Relation for Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction-Continue
• In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed in terms of its components as
Qn  Qx i  Qy j  Qz k (2-3)
• which can be determined from Fourier’s law as
 T
Qx  kAx x

 T
Qy  kAy (2-4)
 y
 T
Qz  kAz
 z
 Heat Generation
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
– exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary
with time as well as position within the medium.
• The total rate of heat generation in a medium of
volume V can be determined from
Egen   egen dV (W) (2-5)
V
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation - Plane
Wall
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
conduction - conduction + generation inside the energy content
at x at x+x the element
= of the element

Eelement
Qx Qx x  Egen,element 
t
(2-6)
 Eelement
Qx  Qx x  Egen,element  (2-6)
t

• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat

generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc Tt t  Tt    cAx Tt t  Tt  (2-7)


 Egen,element  egenVelement  egen Ax (2-8)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get

Tt t  Tt (2-9)
Qx  Qx x egen Ax   cAx
t
• Dividing by Ax, taking the limit as x 0 and t 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA 
 gen
e   c (2-11)
A x  x  t
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall is
  T  T
Variable conductivity: k   egen   c (2-13)
x  x  t
 2T egen 1 T k
Constant conductivity:   ;  (2-14)
x 2
k  t c
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
d 2T egen
1) Steady-state: 2
 0 (2-15)
dx k
 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  (2-16)
x 2
 t
d 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2
0 (2-17)
dx
 Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls
1) Considerable temperature difference
between the inner and the outer
surfaces of the wall (significant
temperature gradient in the x
direction).
2) The wall surface is nearly isothermal.

Steady one-dimensional modeling approach is

justified.
• Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for the wall
can be expressed as
dT
Qcond , wall  kA (W) (3-2)
dx
• Remembering that the rate of conduction heat transfer
and the wall area A are constant it follows
dT/dx=constant

the temperature through the wall varies linearly with x.

• Integrating the above equation and rearranging yields
T1  T2
Qcond ,wall  kA (W) (3-3)
L
 Thermal Resistance Concept- Conduction
Resistance
• Equation 3–3 for heat conduction through a plane wall can be
rearranged as
T1  T2
Qcond , wall  (W) (3-4)
Rwall
• Where Rwall is the conduction resistance expressed as

L
Rwall  ( C/W) (3-5)
kA
Analogy to Electrical Current Flow
• Eq. 3-5 is analogous to the relation for electric current
flow I, expressed as V V
I 1 2 (3-6)
Re

Heat Transfer Electrical current flow

Rate of heat transfer  Electric current
Thermal resistance  Electrical resistance
Temperature difference  Voltage difference
Thermal Resistance Concept- Convection
Resistance
• Thermal resistance can also be applied to convection
processes.
• Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer
rate (Qconv  hAs Ts  T ) can be rearranged as
Ts  T
Qconv  (W) (3-7)
Rconv
• Rconv is the convection resistance

1
Rconv  ( C/W) (3-8)
hAs
Thermal Resistance Concept- Radiation Resistance
• The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface and
the surrounding
Ts  Tsurr

Qrad  es As T  T s
4 4
surr   hrad As (Ts  Tsurr ) 
Rrad
(W)

(3-9)
1
Rrad  (K/W) (3-10)
hrad As

 es Ts2  Tsurr 
Qrad
hrad  2
 s surr 
T  T (W/m 2
 K)
As (Ts  Tsurr )
(3-11)
Thermal Resistance Concept- Radiation and
Convection Resistance
• A surface exposed to the surrounding might involves
convection and radiation simultaneously.
• The convection and radiation resistances are parallel
to each other.
• When Tsurr≈T∞, the radiation
effect can properly be
accounted for by replacing h
in the convection resistance
relation by
hcombined = hconv+hrad (W/m2K)
(3-12)
 Thermal Resistance Network
• consider steady one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall that is exposed to convection on
both sides.
• Under steady conditions we have
Rate of Rate of Rate of
heat = heat conduction = heat convection
convection through the wall from the wall
into the wall
or
Q  h1 A T,1  T1  
T1  T2
kA  h2 A T2  T ,2 
L
(3-13)
Rearranging and adding
T ,1  T1  Q  Rconv ,1

 T1  T2  Q  Rwall

T2  T ,2  Q  Rconv ,2
T ,1  T ,2  Q( Rconv ,1  Rwall  Rconv ,2 )  Q  Rtotal
T ,1  T ,2
Q (W) (3-15)
Rtotal
where
1 L 1
Rtotal  Rconv ,1  Rwall  Rconv ,2    ( C/W)
h1 A kA h2 A
(3-16)
 Multilayer Plane Walls
• In practice we often encounter plane walls that consist
of several layers of different materials.
• The rate of steady heat transfer through this two-layer
composite wall can be expressed through Eq. 3-15
where the total thermal
resistance is
Rtotal  Rconv ,1  Rwall ,1  Rwall ,2  Rconv,2
1 L1 L2 1
   
h1 A k1 A k2 A h2 A
(3-22)
 Thermal Contact Resistance
• In reality surfaces have some roughness.
• When two surfaces are pressed against each other, the
peaks form good material contact but the valleys form
voids filled with air.
• As a result, an interface contains
numerous air gaps of varying sizes
that act as insulation because of the
low thermal conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers some
resistance to heat transfer, which
is termed the thermal contact
resistance, Rc.
• The value of thermal contact resistance
depends on the
– surface roughness,
– material properties,
– temperature and pressure at the interface,
– type of fluid trapped at the interface.
• Thermal contact resistance is observed to
decrease with decreasing surface roughness
and increasing interface pressure.
• The thermal contact resistance can be
minimized by applying a thermally conducting
liquid called a thermal grease‫الشحم الحرارى‬.
Generalized Thermal Resistance Network
• The thermal resistance concept can be used to solve
steady heat transfer problems that involve parallel
layers or combined series-parallel arrangements.
• The total heat transfer of two parallel layers
T1  T2 T1  T2 1 1 
Q  Q1  Q2    T1  T2    
R1 R2  R1 R2 
1
Rtotal (3-29)
1 1 1  RR
     Rtotal = 1 2 (3-31)
Rtotal  R1 R2  R1  R2
Combined Series-Parallel Arrangement
The total rate of heat transfer through
the composite system
T1  T
Q (3-32)
Rtotal

where
R1 R2
Rtotal  R12  R3  Rconv   R3  Rconv (3-33)
R1  R2
L1 L2 L3 1
R1  ; R2  ; R3  ; Rconv  (3-34)
k1 A1 k2 A2 k3 A3 hA3