ECSS-Q-ST-70-01C

15 November 2008

Space product
assurance
Cleanliness and contamination
control

ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
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Foreword
This Standard is one of the series of ECSS Standards intended to be applied together for the
management, engineering and product assurance in space projects and applications. ECSS is a
cooperative effort of the European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry
associations for the purpose of developing and maintaining common standards. Requirements in this
Standard are defined in terms of what shall be accomplished, rather than in terms of how to organize
and perform the necessary work. This allows existing organizational structures and methods to be
applied where they are effective, and for the structures and methods to evolve as necessary without
rewriting the standards.
This Standard has been prepared by the ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01 Working Group, reviewed by the ECSS
Executive Secretariat and approved by the ECSS Technical Authority.

Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory, including,
but not limited to, any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose or any warranty
that the contents of the item are error‐free. In no respect shall ECSS incur any liability for any
damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages arising out
of, resulting from, or in any way connected to the use of this Standard, whether or not based upon
warranty, business agreement, tort, or otherwise; whether or not injury was sustained by persons or
property or otherwise; and whether or not loss was sustained from, or arose out of, the results of, the
item, or any services that may be provided by ECSS.

Published by: ESA Requirements and Standards Division

ESTEC, P.O. Box 299,
2200 AG Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Copyright: 2008 © by the European Space Agency for the members of ECSS

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Change log

ECSS‐Q‐70‐01A First issue

11 December 2002 Transforming ESA PSS‐01‐701 into an ECSS Standard
ECSS‐Q‐70‐01B Never issued
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C Second issue
15 November 2008 The main differences between ECSS‐Q‐70‐01A and this Standard are listed
hereunder:
• Reorganization of the document to conform to the ECSS drafting rules
(e.g. split of descriptive and normative text), and
• Creation of two DRDs

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Table of contents

Cleanliness and contamination control ................................................................................ 1

1 Scope.......................................................................................................................8

2 Normative references .............................................................................................9

3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms..........................................................10

3.1 Terms from other standards ..................................................................................... 10
3.2 Terms specific to the present standard .................................................................... 10
3.3 Abbreviated terms .................................................................................................... 14

4 Principles ..............................................................................................................16

5 Requirements........................................................................................................17
5.1 Cleanliness and contamination control programme ................................................. 17
5.1.1 General....................................................................................................... 17
5.1.2 Documentation ........................................................................................... 17
5.1.3 Contamination budget ................................................................................ 18
5.1.4 Contamination predictions .......................................................................... 18
5.1.5 Contamination prediction with respect to budget........................................ 19
5.1.6 Cleanliness and contamination process flow chart..................................... 19
5.2 Phases ..................................................................................................................... 20
5.2.1 Design ........................................................................................................ 20
5.2.2 MAIT ........................................................................................................... 22
5.2.3 pre-launch and launch ................................................................................ 23
5.2.4 Mission ....................................................................................................... 24
5.3 Environments ........................................................................................................... 25
5.3.1 Cleanrooms ................................................................................................ 25
5.3.2 Vacuum facilities......................................................................................... 33
5.3.3 Other facilities............................................................................................. 34
5.4 Activities ................................................................................................................... 34
5.4.1 Cleaning of hardware ................................................................................. 34
5.4.2 Cleanliness monitoring of space hardware................................................. 36

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5.4.3 Cleanliness verification............................................................................... 39
5.4.4 Packaging, containerization, transportation, storage.................................. 42

Annex A (normative) Cleanliness requirement specification (CRS) - DRD ........44

Annex B (normative) Cleanliness and contamination control plan (C&CCP)

- DRD ....................................................................................................................47

Annex C (informative) Cleanliness and contamination control process

overview ...............................................................................................................51

Annex D (informative) Guidelines for general cleanliness and

contamination control.........................................................................................52
D.1 General..................................................................................................................... 52
D.2 Contamination attributes .......................................................................................... 52
D.2.1 Typical contaminants and their sources ..................................................... 52
D.2.1.1. On ground .....................................................................................................52
D.2.1.2. On launch ......................................................................................................54
D.2.1.3. During mission...............................................................................................55
D.2.2 Transport mechanisms ............................................................................... 58
D.2.2.1. Overview .......................................................................................................58
D.2.2.2. Contaminants transport on ground................................................................58
D.2.2.3. Contaminants transport in space ..................................................................58
D.2.3 Main effects of contamination on space systems ....................................... 59

Annex E (informative) Cleanliness-oriented design............................................61

Annex F (informative) Modelling guidelines ........................................................63

Annex G (informative) Airborne particulate cleanliness classes

equivalence..........................................................................................................64

Annex H (informative) Particulate levels on surfaces .........................................65

H.1 Standard method 1: Particle distribution .................................................................. 65
H.2 Standard method 2: Obscuration factor ................................................................... 65
H.2.1 Overview..................................................................................................... 65
H.2.2 Correlation for particles on surfaces........................................................... 65

Annex I (informative) Compatibility of various solvents with listed

materials ..............................................................................................................67

Annex J (informative) evaporation residue of commercially available

solvents................................................................................................................69

Annex K (informative) Molecular contaminant content of some wipe

materials ..............................................................................................................70

Annex L (informative) Effects of humidity on materials and components ........71

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Annex M (informative) Cleaning methods ............................................................72
M.1 Removal of particulate contamination ...................................................................... 72
M.1.1 Overview..................................................................................................... 72
M.1.2 Vacuum cleaning and wiping...................................................................... 72
M.1.3 Gas jet cleaning.......................................................................................... 72
M.1.4 Tapes and films trapping ............................................................................ 73
M.2 Removal of molecular contamination ....................................................................... 73
M.2.1 Overview..................................................................................................... 73
M.2.2 Mechanical cleaning ................................................................................... 73
M.2.3 Solvent and detergent cleaning .................................................................. 73
M.2.4 Films trapping ............................................................................................. 73
M.2.5 Gas jet cleaning.......................................................................................... 73
M.2.6 Plasma cleaning ......................................................................................... 74
M.2.7 Bakeout ...................................................................................................... 74
M.2.8 Ultra-violet-ozone cleaning ......................................................................... 74

Figures
Figure 5-1: Graphical representation of ISO-class concentration limits for selected ISO
classes................................................................................................................. 27
Figure C-1 : Cleanliness and contamination control process overview .................................. 51

Tables
Table 5-1: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of sensitive items around RT ....... 21
Table 5-2: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of sensitive items at
temperature below RT ......................................................................................... 21
Table 5-3: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of cryogenic surfaces................... 21
Table 5-4: Selected airborne particulate cleanliness classes for cleanrooms and other
controlled environment ........................................................................................ 28
Table 5-5: Correlation airborne and PFO for cleanrooms ...................................................... 29
Table G-1 : Classification system........................................................................................... 64
Table H-1 : Correlation between ideal class of IEST-STD-CC1246D and obscuration
factor.................................................................................................................... 66
Table I-1 : Examples of compatibility of various solvents with listed materials ...................... 68
Table J-1 : Commercially available solvents evaporation residue.......................................... 69
Table K-1 : Molecular contaminant content of some wipe materials ...................................... 70
Table L-1 : Effect of humidity on materials and components ................................................. 71

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Introduction

The objective of this Standard is to ensure a successful mission by the definition

of acceptable contamination levels for space system elements, their
achievement, and maintenance, throughout
• performance assessment versus contamination,
• facilities and tools definition for contamination control and monitoring,
• materials and processes selection, and
• planning of activities.

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1
Scope

The purpose of this standard is to define:

• The selection of critical items, the definition of cleanliness requirements
to satisfy the mission performance requirements and control the levels to
be met by personnel, items, facilities and operations of space projects.
• The management, including organization, reviews and audits, acceptance
status and documentation control.
It covers design, development, production, testing, operation of space products,
launch and mission.
In this standard are also guidelines given for identification of possible failures
and malfunctions due to contamination and guidelines for achieving and
maintaining the required cleanliness levels during ground activities, launch and
mission.
This Standard applies to all types and combinations of projects, organizations
and products, and during all the project phases, except manned missions.
It also applies to those ground systems that have a hardware interface to space
systems, such as MGSE integration stands.
This Standard does not address magnetic, electrical or electrostatic cleanliness.
This Standard does not address completely biocontamination aspects.
However, references to relevant ECSS standards are provided.
This standard may be tailored for the specific characteristic and constrains of a
space project in conformance with ECSS‐S‐ST‐00.

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2
Normative references

The following normative documents contain provisions which, through

reference in this text, constitute provisions of this ECSS Standard. For dated
references, subsequent amendments to, or revision of any of these publications
do not apply, However, parties to agreements based on this ECSS Standard are
encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the more recent editions of
the normative documents indicated below. For undated references, the latest
edition of the publication referred to applies.

ECSS‐S‐ST‐00‐01 ECSS system — Glossary of terms

ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10‐09 Space product assurance – Nonconformance control
system
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐20 Space product assurance — Quality assurance
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐20‐07 Space product assurance — Quality assurance for test
centres
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70 Space product assurance — Materials, mechanical
parts and processes
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐02 Space product assurance — Thermal vacuum
outgassing test for the screening of space materials
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐29 Space product assurance — Determination of
offgassing products from materials and assembled
articles to used in manned space vehicle crew
compartment
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐50 Space product assurance — Particle contamination
monitoring for spacecraft systems and cleanrooms
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐53 Space product assurance — Material and hardware
compatibility test for sterilization processes
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐55 Space product assurance — Microbial examination of
flight hardware and cleanrooms
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐58 Space product assurance — Bioburden control of
cleanrooms
ISO 14644 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments
IEST‐STD‐CC1246D Product cleanliness levels and contamination control
program

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3
Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms

3.1 Terms from other standards

For the purpose of this Standard, the terms and definitions from ECSS‐ST‐00‐01
and ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70 apply.

3.2 Terms specific to the present standard

3.2.1 airborne particle
particle suspended in air

3.2.2 airborne particle cleanliness class

level of cleanliness specified by the maximum allowable number of particles per
cubic metre (or cubic foot) of air

3.2.3 bakeout
activity of increasing the temperature of hardware to accelerate its outgassing
rates with the intent of reducing the content of molecular contaminants within
the hardware
NOTE Bakeout is usually performed in a vacuum
environment, but can be done in a controlled
atmosphere.

3.2.4 biocontamination
contamination of materials, devices, individuals, surfaces, liquids, gases or air
with viable particles
[ISO 14698‐1:2003, 3.1.4] [ISO 14698‐2:2003, 3.4]

3.2.5 cleaning
actions to reduce the contamination level

3.2.6 cleanliness (contamination) control

any organized action to control the level of contamination

3.2.7 cleanliness level

quantitative level of contamination

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3.2.8 cleanliness verification
activity intended to verify that the actual cleanliness conditions of the space
system, the cleanrooms or the vacuum chambers are in conformance with the
applicable specifications and other cleanliness requirements

3.2.9 cleanroom
room in which the concentration of airborne particles is controlled, and which is
constructed and used in a manner to minimize the introduction, generation and
retention of particles inside the room, and in which other relevant parameters,
e.g. temperature, humidity and pressure, are controlled as necessary
[ISO 14644‐6]

3.2.10 clean zone

dedicated space in which the concentration of airborne particles is controlled,
and which is constructed and used in a manner to minimize the introduction,
generation and retention of particles inside the room, and in which other
relevant parameters, e.g. temperature, humidity and pressure, are controlled as
necessary
[ISO 14644‐6]
NOTE This zone can be open or enclosed and can or can
not be located within a cleanroom.

3.2.11 contaminant
any unwanted molecular or particulate matter (including microbiological
matter) on the surface or in the environment of interest, that can affect or
degrade the relevant performance or life time

3.2.12 contaminate, to
act of introducing any contaminant

3.2.13 contamination budget

permissible contamination levels defined at different stages of the life of the
instrument and satellite

3.2.14 contamination potential

potential amount of contaminant in the source which can produce
contamination

3.2.15 controlled area

environmentally controlled area, operated as a cleanroom, with two pre‐filter
stages but without the final stage of HEPA (or better) filters used in cleanrooms

3.2.16 fibre
particle with a length to diameter ratio of 10 or more

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3.2.17 FTIR spectrometer
analyser (chemical identification) of organic and inorganic contamination using
infrared wavelengths

3.2.18 HEPA particle filter

throwaway, extended‐medium, dry type filter in a rigid frame that has a
minimum particle‐collection efficiency of 99,97 % (that is a maximum particle
penetration of 0,03 %) for 0,3 μm thermally generated DOP or specified
alternative aerosol

3.2.19 induced contaminant environment

environment created by the presence of contaminating items

3.2.20 molecular contamination

airborne or surface contamination (vapour, gas, liquid, or solid) without
observable dimensions (i.e. with dimensions at molecular level)

3.2.21 monitoring
to perform routine, quantitative measurements of environmental parameters in
and around cleanrooms, clean zones, and other clean areas, including
contamination parameters

3.2.22 non-volatile residue (NVR)

quantity of residual soluble, suspended, and particulate matter remaining after
the controlled evaporation of a volatile liquid at a specified temperature

3.2.23 obscuration factor (OF)

ratio of the projected area of all particles to the total surface area on which they
rest

3.2.24 offgassing
evolution of gaseous products from a liquid or solid material into an
atmosphere

3.2.25 outgassed quantity

total quantity of outgassed species expressed as a mass (e.g. gram or percent of
the initial specimen) or as pressure × volume (e.g. hPa × m3)

3.2.26 outgassing
evolution of gaseous species from a material, usually in vacuum
NOTE Outgassing also occurs in a higher‐pressure
environment.

3.2.27 particle
unit of matter with observable length, width and thickness

3.2.28 particle fallout

accumulated deposit of particulate matter on a surface

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3.2.29 particle size
apparent maximum linear dimension of a particle in the plane of observation as
observed with an optical microscope, or the equivalent diameter of a particle
detected by automatic instrumentation
NOTE The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a
reference sphere having known properties and
producing the same response in the sensing
instrument as the particle being measured.

3.2.30 particulate
of or relating to minute separate particles

3.2.31 particulate contamination (PAC)

airborne or surface contamination due to particles

3.2.32 plume
exhaust (molecules or particles) of thrusters and engines

3.2.33 purging
supply of clean gas to protect the critical hardware from contamination

3.2.34 quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)

device for measuring small quantities of mass deposited on a quartz crystal
using the properties of a crystal oscillator

3.2.35 ram direction

in the direction of velocity vector

3.2.36 sensitive item

item whose contamination may affect its performance or life time

3.2.37 ULPA particle filter

throwaway, extended‐medium, dry‐type filter in a rigid frame that has a
minimum particle‐collection efficiency of 99,999 % (that is, a maximum particle
penetration of 0,001 %) for particles in the size range of 0,1 μm to 0,2 μm

3.2.38 venting
conveying unwanted gaseous products through an aperture

3.2.39 visibly clean

absence of surface contamination when examined with a specific light source,
angle of incidence and viewing distance using normal or magnified vision

3.2.40 wake direction

direction opposite to the velocity vector

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3.2.41 witness sample
sample used to collect contaminants during exposure, usually in an
environmentally controlled area, and then analysed or measured

3.3 Abbreviated terms

For the purpose of this Standard, the abbreviated terms from ECSS‐S‐ST‐00‐01
and the following apply:

Abbreviation Meaning
ACS American Chemical Society
AIT assembly, integration and testing
AIV assembly, integration and verification
AO atomic oxygen
BOL beginning of life
CC contamination control
C&CCP cleanliness and contamination control plan
CRS cleanliness requirement specification
CVCM collected volatile condensable material
DIW deionised water
DML declared materials list
DOP dioctylphthalate
ECLS environmental control and life support
EGSE electrical ground support equipment
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EOL end of life
EVA extra vehicular activity
FTIR Fourier transform infrared
GSE ground support equipment
HEPA high‐efficiency particulate air filter
ICC internal contamination control
IPA isopropyl alcohol
IR infrared
LEO low Earth orbit
MGSE mechanical ground support equipment
MLI multi layer insulation
MOC molecular contamination
MRR manufacturing readiness review

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NVR non‐volatile residue

OF obscuration factor
PAC particulate contamination
PDR product definition review
PFO particle fallout
PMP parts, materials and processes
QCM quartz crystal microbalance
RH relative humidity
RT room temperature
RML recovered mass loss
SRR system requirement review
TB thermal balance
TML total mass loss
TRR test readiness review
TV thermal vacuum
UV ultra‐violet
ULPA ultra‐low‐particle air filter
VBQC vacuum balance quartz crystal
VCM volatile condensable material

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4
Principles

The cleanliness and contamination control process is applied all along the
project life cycle, from the definition of the C&CCP programme during the early
phases (see clause 5.1) until its implementation during phases B, C, D, E and F
(see clause 5.2) through the systematic verification of the cleanliness
requirements baseline including: predictions through contamination modelling
and the establishment of agreed procedures (see clause 5.3 and 5.4) for:
environments control (see clause 5.3) packaging, containerization,
transportation and storage of the space system.
NOTE Figure C‐1 of Annex C gives an overview of an
example of a cleanliness and contamination process.

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5
Requirements

5.1 Cleanliness and contamination control programme

5.1.1 General
a. The supplier shall define and implement a cleanliness and contamination
control programme for each level of configuration.
NOTE 1 Surveys can also be made to determine the
contamination control requirements, based on
mission objectives and scenarios.
NOTE 2 The objective of this programme is, starting from
the mission performance requirements, to establish
cleanliness and contamination levels to be
achieved at different manufacturing, AIT and
mission stages.
NOTE 3 In general, the organization of regular workshops
dedicated to cleanliness and contamination control
for a specific programme is a good practice.
b. The supplier shall establish measures for the coordination and resolution
of cleanliness and contamination control issues among the parties
involved in the project.

5.1.2 Documentation

5.1.2.1 Contamination requirements specification

a. The supplier shall define and document cleanliness requirements in a
cleanliness requirement specification (CRS), in conformance with the
DRD in Annex A.
b. The CRS shall be defined as early as possible in the programme, in order
to properly address it during the design phase and provided at the latest
at SRR, as part of the review data package.
NOTE Cleanliness is of fundamental importance for the
space system’s performance.

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c. The CRS should be prepared in collaboration with users and engineers
from the different disciplines.
NOTE Users can be, for example, experimenters or
scientists.
d. In case the CRS cannot be produced at an early stage of the design, a
cleanliness control policy document shall be used.
NOTE 1 The cleanliness control policy document gives the
correlation data between acceptable performance
losses and the contamination levels from library
search or from tests that are performed.
NOTE 2 The cleanliness control policy document can
become the CRS during the development of the
design.

5.1.2.2 Contamination and Cleanliness Control Plan

a. In reply to the CRS, the supplier shall establish a cleanliness and
contamination control plan (C&CCP) in conformance with the DRD in
Annex B (C&CCP DRD), to be provided at the latest at PDR, as part of
the review data package.

5.1.3 Contamination budget

a. As part of the CRS (see Annex A), a contamination budget (allocations)
shall be established.
NOTE This budget determines the maximum allowed on
ground and in‐orbit molecular and particulate
contamination levels.
b. The specified contamination levels shall be derived from the acceptable
performance losses simulated through dedicated modelling.

5.1.4 Contamination predictions

a. As part of the C&CCP (see Annex B), particulate and molecular
contamination predictions shall be established.
NOTE Contamination predictions are done in order to
estimate the expected on ground and in‐orbit
molecular and particulate contamination levels.
b. These predictions shall be updated to evaluate the molecular and
particulate contamination levels generated during all on ground activities
and during launch and in‐orbit phases.
NOTE Ground activities can be MAIT, storage,
transportation, launch preparation.
c. Modelling techniques shall be used to predict “in orbit“ contamination
levels.
NOTE Examples of modelling techniques are given in
Annex F.

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d. For each on ground activity, for launch and in‐orbit phases, the following
items shall be identified in the contamination prediction:
1. the seen environment,
2. the sensitive surfaces,
3. the duration of the exposure to this environment, and
4. the potential means of protection.
e. During all on ground activities, the contamination predictions shall be
consolidated with the results of molecular and particulate monitoring.

5.1.5 Contamination prediction with respect to

budget
a. The contamination predictions for all the different phases shall be
compared to the cleanliness requirements, i.e. contamination budget.
NOTE For example, for of such phases are MAIT, BOL
and EOL
b. If the contamination predictions or when available actual measurements,
result in a higher than the specified level, then corrective actions and
precautions to reduce contamination shall be investigated and
implemented.
NOTE The linear dependency of MOC and PAC as a
function of time is not always valid for longer
periods.

5.1.6 Cleanliness and contamination process flow

chart
a. The supplier shall establish a contamination and contamination process
flow chart.
NOTE An example of cleanliness and contamination process
flow chart is given in Figure C‐1 of Annex C.
b. Whenever the CRS requirements are not met, countermeasures should be
prioritized from the most to the least preferred.
NOTE The most preferred is categorized as “1”and the least
preferred as “4” in the example given in Figure C‐1.

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5.2 Phases

5.2.1 Design

5.2.1.1 General design aspects

a. The level of sensitivity to contamination shall be one of the drivers in the
initial design.
b. The design shall be cleanliness oriented.
NOTE 1 A way to implement a cleanliness oriented design
is given in Annex E.
NOTE 2 Such design can contribute to achieve the
contamination levels defined by the CRS on
ground as well during the launch and mission.
NOTE 3 A way to achieve the target contamination levels
can be found in Annex D.
c. When the design baseline is incompatible with cleanliness requirements,
the design changes shall be identified and corrective actions shall be
taken in close cooperation with all levels involved.

5.2.1.2 Materials selection

a. When the offgassing effect of a material is a selection criteria, the supplier
shall apply ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐29.
NOTE For modelling the molecular contamination during
on‐ground activities, when outgassing data are too
conservative, offgassing data are advisable.
b. For the particulate contamination, the supplier shall apply ECSS‐Q‐ST‐
70‐50.
c. When the microbiological contamination effect is a selection criteria, the
supplier shall apply ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐55.
d. When sterilization and material compatibility is a selection criteria, the
supplier shall apply ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐53.
e. For the outgassing screening of materials, the supplier shall apply ECSS‐
Q‐ST‐70‐02.
f. The outgassing requirements shall be based on the quantity of material
concerned, and the specific environmental conditions.
NOTE Specific environmental conditions can be available
volumes and temperatures.
g. When contamination sensitive items are involved or for materials in the
vicinity of cryogenic surfaces, more stringent requirements shall apply.
NOTE Those more stringent requirements are specified in
clauses 5.2.1.2h to 5.2.1.2j.
h. The outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of sensitive items
around RT shall conform to Table 5‐1.

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i. The outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of sensitive items at
temperature below RT shall conform to Table 5‐2.
j. The outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of cryogenic surfaces
shall conform to Table 5‐3.
k. Volatile metals shall not be used.
NOTE 1 This is especially the case when the temperatures
are above room temperatures.
NOTE 2 Some metals such as cadmium and zinc have high
vapour pressures and deposit metallic films can
occur on adjacent surfaces.

Table 5‐1: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of

sensitive items around RT
Mass of material concerned
CVCM (%) RML (%)
(g)
>100 < 0,01 <1
10 ‐ 100 < 0,05 <1
< 10 < 0,1 <1

Table 5‐2: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of

sensitive items at temperature below RT
Mass of material concerned
CVCM (%) RML (%)
(g)
>100 < 0,01 < 0,1
10 ‐ 100 < 0,05 <1
< 10 < 0,1 <1

Table 5‐3: Outgassing criteria for materials in the vicinity of

cryogenic surfaces
Mass of material concerned
CVCM (%) TML (%)
(g)
>100 < 0,01 < 0,1
10 ‐ 100 < 0,05 <1
< 10 < 0,1 <1

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5.2.2 MAIT

5.2.2.1 Manufacturing
a. Personnel involved in the manufacturing of sensitive items shall be
trained with respect to the cleanliness control policy.
b. All elements manufactured in non‐controlled areas or under non‐clean
conditions shall be the object of a cleaning process until the cleanliness
requirements are met, before they are packaged for delivery.
c. Cleaning and packaging operations for all elements shall be processed
according to procedures approved by the customer for the specific
application/product.
d. Elements that can be cleaned after manufacturing shall be cleaned till the
cleanliness requirements are met.
e. For elements that cannot be cleaned after manufacturing, then
manufacturing and assembling areas shall meet the cleanliness level
requirements specification.
f. The conformity of the manufacturing facilities shall be verified during
MRR or TRR.
g. An audit of the manufacturing facilities shall be performed according to
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10 clause 5.2.3 criteria.
h. An audits shall be held after problems have already occurred or as part
of a plan to establish if facilities and personnel are adequate.

5.2.2.2 Assembly and Integration

a. Involved personnel shall be trained with respect to the cleanliness policy.
b. Critical and sensitive elements shall only be exposed when necessary.
NOTE Exposition of sensitive and critical elements during
optical calibration or alignment cannot be avoided.
c. When an exposure of sensitive and critical elements cannot be avoided,
the exposure time and conditions shall be recorded.
d. A set of assembly tools and equipment for assembly and integration shall
be used and maintained in clean conditions.
e. Procedures for assembly and integration shall be established for critical
item assembly.
f. For the selection of the cleanroom, the allocated contamination budget
and the duration of the integration shall be known.
NOTE The correlation between the airborne contamination
and the particle fallout for normal cleanrooms is
basically known (see clause 5.3.1), and so a rough
estimate can be made of the type of cleanroom
required. A practical contamination level for the
cleanroom can be measured with representative
activities and a representative number of operators.
The expected contamination levels depend on the

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type of protection applied to critical hardware (e.g.
covers, shields and purging).
g. The conformity of the facilities shall be verified during MRR or TRR.
h. An audit of the integration facilities shall be performed according to
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10 clause 5.2.3 criteria.
i. An audit shall be held after problems have already occurred or as part of
a plan to establish if facilities and personnel are adequate.

5.2.2.3 Testing
a. Involved personnel shall be trained with respect to the cleanliness policy.
b. For test centres, ECSS‐Q‐ST‐20‐07 shall apply.
c. The conformity of the facilities shall be verified during MRR or TRR.
d. An audit of the test facilities shall be performed according to ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10
clause 5.2.3 criteria.
e. An audit shall be held after problems have already occurred or as part of
a plan to establish if facilities and personnel are adequate.

5.2.3 pre-launch and launch

5.2.3.1 General
a. Personnel involved in pre‐launch activities shall be trained with respect
to the cleanliness policy.
b. The space system shall be shipped to the launch base under clean
conditions as defined in the CRS and controlled by the C&CCP.
c. The potential contamination during launch preparation shall be also
controlled.
NOTE This can be done through the C&CCP or through
specific launch base procedures approved by the
project.
d. Contamination during launch shall be controlled through preventive
actions and specific design provisions.
NOTE Preventive actions can consist of cleaning and
purging of the fairing. Specific design provisions
can consist of shields controlling the
depressurization.

5.2.3.2 Specific design provisions

a. Launcher parts, shall be clean in order to avoid contamination of the
clean items of the space system.
NOTE Launcher parts can be fairings and mechanical
systems for double or multiple launches.

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
b. The materials of the hardware in the vicinity of the space system shall
meet the same outgassing and surface‐cleanliness requirements as the
space system itself.
c. The building environment in which the spacecraft is put inside the
fairing shall be compatible with the spacecraft characteristics.
NOTE 1 Specific spacecraft design provisions can be
protection mechanisms used to limit the launch
contaminants, especially the “unknown” figure of
particle transfer during launch.
NOTE 2 A second design aspect is the location of the
contamination‐sensitive items with respect to the
position of thrusters and of pyrotechnics or other
contamination sources.
NOTE 3 The reflection by atmospheric molecules (i.e.
atmospheric scattering) or by outgassing
molecules (i.e. self‐scattering) can take place and
some form of modelling is of interest.

5.2.4 Mission
a. External contamination control during mission shall be done through
preventive actions, specific design provisions and operations.
NOTE 1 Preventive actions include materials selection (see
clause 5.5.3 in ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐02), bakeout (see
clause 5.4.3.2) and purging (see clause 5.4.3.3).
NOTE 2 Specific design provisions include the
implementation of heaters for decontamination of
sensitive surfaces, of shutters and baffles.
NOTE 3 Operations include shielding during dumping,
thrusters firing or venting,, decontamination of
sensitive surfaces through exposure to the Sun.
b. Fluids that can emerge to the exterior by leakage or intentional use of
valves shall be considered in the design and operational requirements of
system and equipment hardware.
c. A specific analysis shall be performed to ensure an optimum level of
detection, location and isolation techniques.
NOTE These fluids are originating from thermal,
environmental or life support systems or
subsystems or released due to crew activities
(nutrients, wastes), during maintenance and repair
and from experiments or payloads as well as the
propellant systems.

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008

5.3 Environments

5.3.1 Cleanrooms

5.3.1.1 Design of cleanroom: shell, entrances and

anterooms
a. Cleanroom shell, floors, walls and ceiling shall be low shedding and the
finish readily cleanable.
b. The covering floor shall consist of one piece or, if this is not feasible, shall
have a minimum number of joints.
c. The floor shall be resistant to withstand wear by personnel and
operations within the room.
d. The room shall be designed such that only one door or entrance can be
opened at one time, except in case of emergency.
e. Entrances shall provide an air lock to allow a maintained pressurisation
of the area.
f. Anterooms shall be equipped for the changing of clothes and the storage
of clothing, personal belongings and cleaning equipment.

5.3.1.2 Air supply

a. Air supply and filtration equipment shall have the capacity to filter all
new and recirculated air entering the room to guarantee the defined ISO
class.
b. Air conditioning equipment for prefiltering (particular and molecular),
cooling, heating, humidification and dehumidification of the cleanroom
air supply shall be supplied to guarantee the environmental conditions.
NOTE See clauses 5.3.1.8, 5.3.1.9, 5.3.1.10 and 5.3.1.11.
c. In laminar flow cleanrooms, the air flow velocity through the cross
section of the room shall be maintained at 27 m/min with a uniformity
within ± 20 % throughout the undisturbed room.
d. Airflow patterns shall be uniform with minimum turbulence.

5.3.1.3 Filters
a. In laminar flow cleanrooms, (HEPA) filters shall cover either one entire
wall or the entire ceiling, except when diffusion ceiling or wall systems
are used or when built‐in benches are included in the incoming air end of
the room.
b. Monitoring shall be done and any work with highly sensitive equipment
shall not be performed before the defined ISO class for the hardware has
been reached. as specified in the C&CCP for the following situations:
1. after the installation of new filters,
2. after “at rest “ period,
3. after stand by period.

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
NOTE Due to the transitory pressure gradients,
contamination previously trapped by HEPA filters,
together with a reduction in the operating life of the
filters themselves can be released.
c. The air flow inside cleanrooms and independent HEPA filtering systems
shall be maintained during “at‐rest” periods, except for the maintenance
operations.
NOTE 1 For example, during filters replacement.
NOTE 2 Independent HEPA filtering systems can be like
those used for the laminar flow tents and benches.
NOTE 3 This is to avoid the risk of redistribution of
particles at restart of the flow.
NOTE 4 Exception can be made for independent HEPA
filtering systems that can work with a reduced air
flow rate during stand‐by periods.
d. In cases where a uniform and controlled molecular environment is
required, the filtering system shall be equipped with additional charcoal
filters positioned before the HEPA filters.
e. When charcoals filters are used, the initial charge shall be assessed on
installation and analysed regularly.
NOTE It can be useful to evaluate the charge in
contaminants of the filtering system which can
release its charge in contaminants trapped. in order
to be able to monitor the evolution and when a
failure occurs.

5.3.1.4 Particle levels and cleanroom classification

a. Any airborne controlled environment shall be classified according to ISO
14644‐1:1999.
NOTE 1 The number of particles per m3 as a function of the
diameter from 0,1 μm to 5 μm as classes is reported
in Figure 5‐1 (derived from ISO 14644‐1:1999). This
classification depends upon the ideal number‐size
distribution and is given graphically in Figure 5‐1.
NOTE 2 Table 5‐4 presents selected airborne particulate
cleanliness classes and the corresponding particle
concentrations for particles equal to and larger
than the considered sizes shown.
NOTE 3 The maximum permitted concentration of
particles, Cn, for each considered particle size, D,
is determined from the equation:
Cn=10N∙(0,1/D)2.08
where:
Cn is the maximum permitted concentration
(in particles per cubic metre of air) of
airborne particles that are equal to or

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
larger than the considered particle size. Cn
is rounded to the nearest whole number,
using no more than three significant
figures.
N is the ISO classification number, which
does not exceed a value of 9. Intermediate
ISO classification numbers can be
specified, with 0,1 the smallest permitted
increment of N.
D is the considered particle size, in
micrometres.
0,1 is a constant, with a dimension of
micrometres.
NOTE 4 From the particle point of view, the number of
5 μm particles per given volume of air is much
more critical than the number of smaller particles,
since the fallout is mainly determined by particles
of 5 μm or larger. The cleanliness level of a
cleanroom can only be selected when the specified
obscuration factors for critical spacecraft surfaces
are known. The particle size 5 μm is often used as a
criterion, because for optical surfaces particles
larger than 5 μm are critical, whereas for bearings
and gears, particles in the range 10 μm to 40 μm
are more harmful.

Figure 5‐1: Graphical representation of ISO‐class concentration limits for selected

ISO classes

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008

Table 5‐4: Selected airborne particulate cleanliness classes for cleanrooms

and other controlled environment

5.3.1.5 Monitoring of cleanroom air

a. The cleanroom air shall be monitored with dust counters.
b. Accuracy and repeatability of instrumentation shall be demonstrated.
c. Particle counts shall be acquired continuously for the monitoring of the
cleanroom itself.
d. A minimum of two particles counters shall be installed, one close to the
air inlet and one or more according to the surface extent of the cleanroom
by using the following law:
N = log10 (S)
where N is the number of particle counters and S is the surface of the
cleanroom in m².
NOTE The purpose of the location close to the air inlet is to
check the quality of the in‐coming air.
e. For any sensitive hardware, sampling frequency and locations shall be
defined in the C&CCP.
f. Monitoring techniques and routines shall be established to meet the
requirements of a specific category of cleanroom or clean work station.
g. Sampling air volume for the cleanroom classification shall be established
on the basis of the ISO 14644‐1, Annex B.
h. Compliance with particles concentration limits shall be done with a
frequency as specified per ISO 14644‐2, Clause 4.2.1.
i. Determining the extent to which particles are deposited on surfaces shall
be achieved.

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15 November 2008
NOTE This can be done through the exposure of test
surfaces or samples to the environment and
counting the settled particles by appropriate
methods.
j. Air monitoring of class ISO 8 or better shall be achieved by means of light
scattering equipment.
k. Tests shall be performed to determine if leaks exceed the specified limits,
according to the filter characteristics:
1. in the filter media themselves,
2. in the bond between filter media and the interior of the filter
frame,
3. between filter frame gasket and filter bank supporting frames,
4. between supporting frames and walls or ceilings.
l. The cleanrooms shall have a monitoring function of the contamination
levels and the environmental parameters.
m. The cleanroom shall have an alarm function activated when warning
levels are exceeded.
NOTE 1 Those warning levels are usually defined well
below the out of specification limits in order to
prevent their exceedence.
NOTE 2 Environmental parameters are temperature,
relative humidity and differential pressure.
n. Planned corrective actions shall be initiated to re‐establish the nominal
conditions in the shortest possible time and to prevent recurrence.

5.3.1.6 Surface particulate levels

a. For a preliminary budget only, i.e. for SRR, the correlation between the
airborne and PFO shall be established on the basis of the Table 5‐5.
b. The budget, during the different project phases, shall be consolidated
with in‐situ measurements.

Table 5‐5: Correlation airborne and PFO for cleanrooms

PFO
ISO class
(mm2/m2/24 h)
5 2,0
6 10
7 52
8 275
NOTE The data contained in this table are based on several
measurements performed in different cleanrooms.
They are represented by this approximate law:
PFO = 0,069 10(0,72M‐2.16)
where M is the ISO class (e.g. ISO class 5)

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15 November 2008
5.3.1.7 Surface molecular levels
a. Molecular deposits shall be monitored by exposure witness plates.
b. For actual measurements at least, two different witness plates shall be
placed in two different locations.
c. For each location, one of the two witness plates shall be analyzed at least
once month.
d. The other witness plate is cumulative and shall be analyzed after more
than one month.
e. These locations shall be selected in order to measure molecules in
significant points of the environment with at least one representative of
the empty cleanroom.
f. Molecular contamination in controlled environments shall not exceed
0,5 × 10‐7 g/cm2 during a continuous period of one week.
NOTE 1 In case of contamination sensitive equipment, a
lower level can be required, based on the
contamination budget (including exposure time).
NOTE 2 In a normal cleanroom (without charcoal filters)
levels can be achieved that are 10 to 100 times
better.
g. For those hardware items where the accumulation from the air becomes a
major issue, the use of charcoal filters as molecular contamination trap
should be considered.
NOTE Example of such a hardware are coated mirrors.

5.3.1.8 Temperature control

a. Cleanroom temperature shall be maintained at nominally 22 °C ± 3 °C
and shall be monitored continuously.
NOTE Temperature variations of ± 3 °C at the control point
are acceptable for most operations, but more
stringent conditions can be imposed in case of
critical operations.
b. The temperature distribution inside a cleanroom shall be controlled at
representative locations for the hardware items.
NOTE 1 In order to ensure that a nominal temperature is
achieved throughout the room. Automatic devices
can be used for temperature monitoring.
NOTE 2 If items being worked on are extremely sensitive to
temperature changes, automatic devices with a
warning system that comes into operation when a
temperature change occurs can be used.

5.3.1.9 Pressure control

a. A positive pressure differential shall be maintained between the
cleanroom and the outside.

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
b. Pressure shall decrease successively between the cleanroom, entrance
lock, anteroom and the surroundings.
c. The positive minimum pressure delta to be maintained shall be:
1. Between cleanroom and surrounding area; 1,2 mm H2O (12 Pa).
2. Between cleanroom and entrance lock; 0,5 mm H2O (5 Pa).
d. Pressure in all areas shall be monitored continuously
NOTE In order to take timely corrective actions in case of a
pressure drop.

5.3.1.10 Humidity control

a. The relative humidity shall be maintained at (55 ± 10) % for general
applications and shall be monitored continuously.
NOTE Humidity becomes detrimental due to electrostatic
charging or surface corrosion (see Annex L).

5.3.1.11 Bioburden control

a. ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐58 shall apply for the control of bioburden in cleanroom.

5.3.1.12 Maintenance and cleaning

a. All maintenance and cleaning activities shall be reported in a logbook.
b. A maintenance and cleaning procedure or document shall be available,
along with a planning.
c. Maintenance shall comprise regular inspections of the cleanroom, its
control facilities and its operating equipment, including calibration of all
inspection and monitoring devices as specified in ECSS‐Q‐ST‐20.
d. Inspections of the cleanroom shall be performed at specified frequency,
depending on the ISO class.
NOTE Those inspections assess the quality of the clean
facility and describe any contamination production
or events that are detrimental to the cleanroom
cleanliness (e.g. repairs, system modifications,
replacements, filter resistance measurements, leak
checks or air speed measurements).
e. The frequency of inspections and cleaning processes for a cleanroom
shall be optimized.
NOTE The inspections and cleaning can themselves be the
source of contamination.
f. Data shall be recorded in a logbook.
g. Regular cleaning shall be performed depending on the ISO class.
h. Procedures shall cover the cleaning of the cleanroom including personnel
air lock; equipment air lock, walls, floors, furniture, crane lifting devices
and GSE.

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15 November 2008
i. The cleanliness after the cleaning operations shall be verified by
inspection by means of UV or high intensity white light.
j. Any personnel involved in cleaning operations shall be trained and
informed about the criticality of a cleaning operation within a cleanroom.
k. Cleaning tools, solvents and gases that are used for cleaning purposes
shall be chosen not to have a detrimental effect on the hardware within
the cleanroom.
NOTE Cleanroom air of better than class ISO 8 is
transported in a close loop. Since only a limited
percentage of fresh air is fed to the loop, excessive
use of solvents offgassing into the air, even if not
flammable or toxic, can cause health problems.
l. When the level of contamination exceeds the cleanliness requirements
specification, corrective actions shall be taken.
NOTE The decision as to whether or not to clean depends
on the integration flow of the unit within the
cleanroom.

5.3.1.13 Access control requirements

a. An access control system shall be available independently for
cleanrooms, storage area and equipment airlock.
b. The access to the areas shall be controlled by a permanently operating
access control or door lock system.
c. Only authorized personnel shall have access to the cleanroom.
NOTE Access control areas have a security lock at the
entrance.
d. Visitors and personnel without a work order shall not be allowed to enter
the cleanroom.
e. Visitors working in the cleanroom, shall:
1. wear the complete clothing,
2. be identifiable,
3. be instructed about the behaviour in a cleanroom.
f. Racks or cabinets for street clothing shall be separated from those used
for cleanroom clothing.
g. Barriers or similar means separating clean and not clean zones inside the
airlock shall be placed.
NOTE Similar means can be tacky mats.
h. Lint‐free clothing shall be available and worn by all personnel within
cleanroom area.
i. Head covers or other garments shall be used as required to trap loose
particles of hair or skin flakes.
j. Gloves, approved finger cots, tweezers or clean handling methods and
equipment shall be used while working with or handling sensitive parts.

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
NOTE This is to avoid contamination of those parts by
loose skin or natural skin oils.
k. All equipment shall be cleaned by dusting, vacuum suction, washing, or
other means suited to the equipment involved before being brought into
the area.
l. Exhaust systems for grinding, welding or soldering, machining or related
operations shall be installed.
m. Actions related to equipments items with cooling fans shall be identified
and mitigated in order to avoid contamination of critical hardware.
NOTE Equipments items with cooling fans are potential
contamination sources.
n. Personnel shall be instructed about the behaviour in a cleanroom.
o. Personnel movements to and from the cleanroom shall be kept to a
minimum.
p. Smoking, eating and drinking shall not be permitted in the cleanroom,
including the entering areas and air locks.
q. Local cleanroom instructions shall specify the amount of protective
clothing to be worn and shall reduce to the minimum the contaminant
transfer.
r. If air showers are used, only suitably clothed personnel shall be allowed
to enter.
s. Paper, pencils or erasers shall be kept outside the clean facilities. Only
special non‐shedding papers and ball‐points shall be used.
t. Cosmetics and medicaments that can produce contamination shall not be
used by any personnel.
NOTE In particular, eye make‐up, rouge, face powder and
hair spray.
u. Fingernail polish shall not be permitted in the area.
v. Before entering a cleanroom, hand lotions, creams or soap containing
lanolin to tighten skin particles shall be used.
w. Contact of hands with solvents shall be avoided.
NOTE Many solvents remove natural oils and cause
excessive skin peeling or flaking.

5.3.2 Vacuum facilities

a. Procedures shall be available for:
1. The cleaning of the test facilities.
NOTE Handling of solvents and running a bakeout
2. The pump‐down and recovery sequences with respect to
contamination redistribution.
NOTE A good solution, for chamber repressurization, is to
add an HEPA filter to the repressurization piping

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
and to collect the air for repressurization in a clean
area (preferably ISO class 5).
3. The regeneration of sorption pumps.
NOTE Sorption pumps can be e.g. cryopumps, zeolites, or
charcoal.
4. The cleaning of cold trap.
b. For a test in a vacuum facility, it shall be ensured that the item under test
does not pose any risk of contamination of the facility.
c. An approved declared material list (DML) of the hardware under test,
including the test adapter and all connections shall be provided.
NOTE Including, for example mechanical and electrical
connexions.
d. A pre‐test shall be performed to prove the cleanliness of the facility.
e. During the pre‐test, test equipment and cabling shall be included in the
facility.
f. During the pre‐test, pump down and repressurization sequences shall be
similar to the actual test.
NOTE In typical “clean” vacuum systems, a sensor (or a
critical surface) is not contaminated by more than
1 × 10‐7 g/cm2 during a blank test of 24 hours
duration. The sensor is normally at room
temperature, but, more stringent requirements can
be imposed, depending upon the budget allocation
for the equipment. In fact, for sensitive equipment,
0,3 × 10‐7 g/cm2, 24 hours (or 0,5 × 10‐7 g/cm2, week)
for a blank test is often specified.

5.3.3 Other facilities

a. The CRS and the C&CCP shall address the cleanliness and contamination
control policy for any other facilities such as anechoic chamber, EMC
chamber.

5.4 Activities

5.4.1 Cleaning of hardware

5.4.1.1 General aspects

a. Cleaning shall be performed in order to ensure that the required
cleanliness levels, expected in the contamination budget, and the final
product cleanliness level are achieved.
NOTE In order to meet the BOL requirements, a final
cleaning of external surfaces can take place just

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15 November 2008
before the entry of the space system into the fairing,
or even just before closing the fairing.
b. The choice of the cleaning method shall be determined by the following
criteria:
1. The type of contaminants to be removed.
2. The physical or chemical nature of the item to be cleaned.
3. The actual on ground phase.
NOTE 1 Examples are provided in Annex M for removal of
both particulate and molecular contamination.
NOTE 2 The cleaning of some parts is particularly
important during the course of manufacture or
before processing (e.g. prior to bonding, painting,
vacuum, coating, welding and soldering).
NOTE 3 Any detrimental effect of cleaning is evaluated as
well as the order of the defined cleaning methods.
NOTE 4 For those items that are too delicate to withstand
cleaning, preventive contamination control is of
the utmost importance.
c. The cleaning procedures shall be mentioned in the process specification.
d. The cleaning procedures shall be validated by tests on representative
samples, or by experience from previous and similar projects, in which
they were validated.

5.4.1.2 Cleaning tools

5.4.1.2.1 Cleaning aids

a. Cleaning aids shall not increase the contaminant levels of the items to be
cleaned.
b. Aids, such as wipe tissues, papers, cloths, brushes and foams shall be
non‐fluffing, lint free and dust free.
c. Damage to surfaces as scratches shall be minimal.
d. NVR of cleaning wipe materials shall be less than 0,01g/m2 for wiping
extremely clean surfaces when extracted with IPA.
NOTE Different examples of NVR for common tissues are
given in Annex K.
e. When wipe materials are selected for cleaning, measurements shall be
taken to determine their contaminant content.
f. All wipe materials should be precleaned to achieve the specified level of
cleanliness.
NOTE Extraction by solvents is the way for precleaning the
wipes materials.

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15 November 2008
5.4.1.2.2 Cleaning fluids
a. The cleaning solvent shall be selected on the basis of its compatibility
with the material or item to be cleaned and its efficiency in removing
contaminants.
NOTE A compatibility table between materials and
solvents is given in Annex I.
b. Toxicity and flammability of solvents shall be evaluated (see MIL‐HDBK‐
406) and be compliant to the local law.
c. For precision cleaning, solvents of high purity shall be used (see Annex J).
d. The cleaning gas shall be free of oil and filtered to remove particulate
contamination according to the needs.

5.4.2 Cleanliness monitoring of space hardware

5.4.2.1 General
a. Particulate and molecular contamination shall be monitored during all
the on ground phases.
NOTE For specific missions, particulate and molecular
contamination can be monitored during launch and
in space.

5.4.2.2 Particulate contamination monitoring

a. Particulate contamination shall be monitored through visual inspection
and shall be quantified through optical monitoring of surfaces.
b. Surfaces shall be examined with the naked eye or with the aid of
magnification devices under grazing incident light level of, at least,
1000 lux.
NOTE 1 Different kinds of lights can be used: portable
diving light or “white light” is often used for
standard inspection. In addition, ultra‐violet lamp
or “black light” (365 nm) can be used for
inspection of organic residues and dust particles as
it increases their visibility.
NOTE 2 Typical methods are the measurement of
transmission or reflection loss and nephelometry
(i.e. scattering of light). These methods can be used
for all types of contaminants, both organic and
inorganic. Photographic determination of dust
particles on surfaces is also possible, as is
automatic counting.
NOTE 3 There are commercially available instruments (e.g.
PFO photometers) that automatically measure the
particle fallout level on sensor plates, exposed
during phases of interest.
NOTE 4 The method for measuring of the PFO level is
described in the ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐50 but another

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15 November 2008
method for the determination of the particle
contamination can also be microscopic counting
(manual or with the aid of an imaging recognition
software).
NOTE 5 Extraction methods can be performed by:
• tape lift, using sticky tapes (according to ECSS‐
Q‐ST‐70‐50);
• blowing and suction of air;
• washing of the surface of interest and counting
the particles in the washing fluid either directly
using a commercial instrument, or on a filter
after filtration of the liquid.
NOTE 6 The “visibly clean” level roughly corresponds to
an obscuration factor smaller than 300 mm2/m2.
c. When using ultra‐violet or “black light” (365 nm) lamps for inspection of
organic residues, the induced thermal and health effects shall be
assessed.

5.4.2.3 Molecular contamination monitoring

a. Molecular contamination shall be monitored through visual inspection
and quantitative methods directly on the surface (including witnesses) or
indirectly after transfer of contaminants.
NOTE 1 Surfaces can be examined by the same visual
inspection methods as for particulate
contamination. Experience with Micro‐VCM tests
has shown that, generally, levels of organic
contamination above 1 × 10‐6 g/cm2 can already be
visible to the naked eye. By wet wiping of a
portion of the surface or after evaporation of a
droplet of a substrate compatible solvent, a
contamination can be revealed by contrast.
NOTE 2 A surface of a known area is wiped with a clean
tissue, the tissue is subjected to extraction with
chloroform of spectral grade, and the residue of
the chloroform is analysed by infrared techniques
in accordance with ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐05. This method,
applied to a wiped area of 100 cm2, permits
detection of organic contamination levels down to
3 10‐9 g/cm2. The results of this method depend
very much on the surface roughness, on the type of
tissue and on the solvent used. Particular attention
is paid to the compatibility between solvent and
surface.
NOTE 3 A surface of a known area is rinsed with a solvent
and the residue is weighed after evaporation
according to ASTM‐E1235M‐95.. The accuracy and
detection limit of this method depend greatly upon
the sensitivity of the balance, the substrate water

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 ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01C
15 November 2008
absorption, the washing efficiency and the solvent
background. The NVR measurement is expressed
in mass per unit area and the residue can be used
for further analyses). Direct measurements can be
made in situ using quartz crystal microbalances
(QCM).
NOTE 4 Further analyses can be performed to characterize
molecular contamination (e.g. gas
chromatography, mass spectrometry, ultra‐violet
degradation, SEM).

5.4.2.4 Contamination monitoring in vacuum facility

a. Monitoring of molecular and particulate contaminants in vacuum
facilities shall be achieved using the witness or the QCM method, or a
combination of both.
b. When using the witness method the temperature and location of
witnesses shall be representative of the item.
NOTE 1 Witnesses (for both molecular and particulate
contamination) can be placed on or near suspect
places for a specified time and then subjected to
one of the standard analyses.
NOTE 2 A QCM can be used to detect contamination levels
down to 1 × 10‐9 g/cm2, and to measure
condensation rates. Such QCMs can operate down
to liquid nitrogen temperatures.
NOTE 3 A mass spectrometer is not sufficient to monitor
the condensable contaminants but in combination
with a QCM, it can help describing the different
condensed species during a controlled
re‐evaporation from the QCM.
NOTE 4 A cryopanel can be used to collect all molecular
contaminants for further analyses.

5.4.2.5 Contamination monitoring during launch

a. QCM shall be used to monitor molecular contamination.
NOTE 1 The QCMs can be installed on the launcher and the
measuring time is limited to a few minutes; if the
QCMs are installed on the space system, the
measurements can continue during mission.
NOTE 2 The temperature of QCM can be either
uncontrolled or kept constant.
NOTE 3 For the interpretation, the thermal fluxes and the
solar fluxes can affect the QCM readings and
corrections can then be necessary.
NOTE 4 For the monitoring of particles during launch, no
specific method is established at present time.

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15 November 2008
5.4.2.6 Contamination monitoring in space
a. Contamination of external surfaces should be monitored.
NOTE 1 particulate contamination can be measured by
light scattering (e.g. using the Sun or a laser as the
a light source) or using QCMs with a crystal
having a surface to which particles stick.
NOTE 2 Molecular contamination can be measured using
QCM located near a sensitive item and maintained
at the same temperature as the item or using a
mass spectrometer.
NOTE 3 Measurements of contamination in space are not
often made because the policy of cleanliness
control is based upon the basic principle of
achieving the lowest possible contamination levels
with existing knowledge and within the allocated
financial budgets. However, it is advisable to
implement an “in space contamination
monitoring” as part of the spacecraft
housekeeping. When appropriate sensor elements
are applied it is possible to predict design
life‐times at system, subsystem, component or
equipment levels.
b. For internal environments monitoring of particulate, molecular and
microbiological contamination shall be assessed.

5.4.3 Cleanliness verification

5.4.3.1 General
a. The cleanliness verification activities shall be specified in the C&CCP.
b. The cleanliness verification shall include all the activities intended to
ensure that the actual cleanliness conditions of the space system, the
cleanrooms or the vacuum chambers conform to the applicable standards
or the applicable CRS (specific to a certain project).
c. The cleanliness verification shall make use of recognized methods for the
determination or the monitoring of the contamination levels.
d. The cleanliness verification of cleanrooms shall also include the
verification of the environmental parameters such as temperature,
relative humidity and the overpressure.
e. The cleanliness verification shall take place under one or more of the
following conditions:
1. At predetermined intervals, independently of the current activity,
to confirm the efficiency of the established cleanliness control
measures.
2. After the occurrence of an incident or anomaly that can have
influenced the cleanliness conditions of the space system or
cleanroom.

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3. Before the beginning of the ground (e.g. test campaign) or launch
activities, to confirm that the facilities and cleanrooms are conform
to the relevant C&CCP.
4. Before and after a test in a vacuum chamber.
f. A cleanliness declaration of conformity shall be delivered for space
hardware.
g. In case of nonconformance of an item, corrective actions shall be applied
and ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10‐09 shall apply.

5.4.3.2 Bakeout
a. When contamination predictions exceed the allocated contamination
budget, a bakeout shall be performed.
NOTE 1 The aim of the bakeout is:
• To improve the outgassing behaviour of a
material/item.
• To reduce the level of surface contamination
collected during processing or testing.
NOTE 2 Typical materials on which bakeout can be applied
are:
• Harness
• MLI
• Carbon and glass fibre components
• Glued, coated or potted materials.
b. The bakeout conditions (temperature, time, pressure) shall not have a
detrimental effect on the functionality of the material/item under
bakeout.
NOTE It is more efficient to perform a bakeout at the
lowest possible product level to allow reaching
higher bakeout temperature (i.e. to avoid
temperature constraints at higher assembly level)
c. The effectiveness of the bakeout shall be monitored by means of one the
following methods:
1. By using a QCM.
NOTE Eventually also a Residual Gas Analysis (RGA), as
already described in NOTE 3 of 5.4.2.3 “Molecular
contamination monitoring”.
2. By outgassing testing the material/item before and after the
bakeout.
NOTE 1 The second method is in general only practical for
materials and items containing a limited number
of materials.
NOTE 2 Other analytical methods can be considered but
their effectiveness is not yet be proven (e.g. in situ
optical methods).

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d. Independently of the chosen method, success criteria shall be established
and approved before starting the bakeout.
e. When the QCM monitoring or other in situ analytical methods are
chosen, a “stopping” criterion” shall be defined.
NOTE This “stopping” criterion is also a way to determine
if going further with the bakeout is worth or not.
For instance, this criterion can be based on the
change of the mass rate (i.e. on the second
derivative of the QCM frequency).
f. When outgassing testing methods are chosen, a “verification criterion”
shall be defined.
NOTE For instance, the “verification criterion” can be
based on the reduction of the outgassing potential.
g. The different outgassing mechanisms shall be used in the elaboration of
the stopping and verification criteria.
NOTE 1 Desorption and diffusion are examples of
outgassing mechanisms).
NOTE 2 In case of outgassing testing after the bakeout, a
certain time is necessary for reconditioning of the
material/item to consider the diffusion
phenomenon.
h. The background of the baking facility shall be determined before starting
the bakeout.
NOTE This can be done by using a QCM or molecular
witnesses. The use of QCM is preferred because it
provides the background of the chamber in function
of time whereas witness plates can only provide the
integrated value.
i. Independently of any stopping and verification criteria, the minimum
bakeout duration shall be 72 hours.
j. Baking time shall start when the material/item under baking has reached
the predefined bakeout temperature.

5.4.3.3 Purging
a. The purging shall be performed inside a cavity to maintain a constant
exchange of the gas present in the cavity.
NOTE 1 This exchange depends on the entry flow rate of
the gas and the total surface leaks.
NOTE 2 The aim of the purging is not only to protect the
critical hardware such as optics from
contamination by injecting a non‐ionized
high‐purity dry gas inside a cavity but also a way
for decontamination (e.g. removal of water for
dimensional stability of composite).
NOTE 3 The purging can be implemented at instrument or
spacecraft level during functional and performance

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tests at ambient conditions, during
repressurization after TB/TV and TV tests, during
all the phases without activities and during
storage, transport and pre‐launch phases up to the
final close of the fairing. (In case of an aborted
launch, purging can be not re‐installed).
b. The purity of the gas and the cleanliness of all the pipes shall be verified
before the first use of the purging system.
c. Filtering systems (both for MOC and PAC) shall be provided before the
gas comes into contact with the hardware.
d. The filtering capabilities shall be compatible with the relevant cleanliness
requirements.

5.4.4 Packaging, containerization, transportation,

storage
a. Provisions shall be taken for packaging, containerization, transportation
and storage.
NOTE In order to maintain the cleanliness levels achieved
at any point from initial precision cleaning to
delivery to the launch site.
b. Cleanliness protection shall be provided prior to leaving the controlled
areas, or whenever a storage period is planned.
c. The container for clean item shall maintain the cleanliness levels specified
for the product.
d. Storage areas shall provide adequate protection to the package and the
product for the intended storage period.
e. Transport and storage containers shall be made of low particle shedding
materials that do not evolve contaminants.
f. Containers carrying sensitive items shall be pressurized with gaseous
nitrogen.
NOTE Optical units and payloads are examples of
sensitive units
g. Containers carrying sensitive items shall also have as rigorous cleaning
schedule as the parts themselves.
h. It shall be ensured that containers used for transportation of clean parts
do not transfer contamination from surface to surface within the
cleanroom itself.
NOTE Witness plates can be placed inside containers.
i. When sensitive items are packaged, containers for long‐term storage or
transportation, shall include provision for internal flushing with dry
high‐purity nitrogen and over‐pressurization of 100 hPa minimum,
except if units are put in sealed bags.
j. For long term storage of sensitive items, containers shall be equipped
with an inlet valve and an outlet valve clearly identified.

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k. The design of the container shall facilitate easy cleaning and inspection of
its surfaces, avoiding any kind of dirt traps.
l. Small clean parts shall be double bagged in airtight envelopes during
storage or transportation outside controlled clean areas.
m. Bags for contamination‐sensitive items shall be flushed with dry nitrogen
or dry clean air and then sealed.
n. Only approved materials that were procured as cleaned films shall be
used.
o. Static sensitive items shall use metallized films.
p. Outer bags shall not enter controlled clean areas.
q. When used, desiccants shall be in bags that are clean and do not produce
particulate contamination.
r. Desiccants and humidity indicators shall be placed in the external
envelope.
s. Procedures shall be provided for packaging, containerization,
transportation and storage.

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Annex A (normative)
Cleanliness requirement specification
(CRS) - DRD

A.1 DRD identification

A.1.1 Requirement identification and source document

The CRS is called by the ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01, requirement 5.1.2.1a.

A.1.2 Purpose and objective

The purpose of the cleanliness requirement specification (CRS) is to establish
cleanliness and contamination levels to be achieved at different MAIT, launch
and mission stages.
Based on system or subsystem contamination budget, a CRS is established and
agreed by all parties involved.
The CRS defines and identifies the spacecraft items and the environmental
areas that are sensitive to contamination; and describes the effects of
contaminants on their performance.
Specifying the spacecraft performance requirements to be met is the
responsibility of the customer. The spacecraft performances specification is a
major input parameter to define the acceptable contamination levels.
The CRS provides the acceptable contamination levels for all on ground and in‐
flight phases to guarantee that the mentioned spacecraft performances are met.
On ground surface cleanliness levels are also univocally defined.
NOTE By using ISO 14644 or IEST‐STD‐CC1246D.

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A.2 Expected response

A.2.1 Scope and content

<1> Introduction
a. The CRS shall give a general overview of the item to which the CRS
refers, describing sensitive items and contamination sources, in
consideration of:
1. possible impacts of contaminants on their physical or functional
characteristics;
2. possible effects of contamination on the performance;
3. their impact as potential sources of contamination.
b. The CRS shall specify the pressures (or other molecular fluxes) that can
be reached in connection with voltage breakdown, arcing, corona
discharges, multipaction, opening time of shutters and ejection time of
covers.

<2> Environmental factors

a. The CRS shall basically specify major on‐ground activities to be analysed
for their impact on contamination and the relevant on‐ground
contamination environment.
NOTE Usually, the preparation of a flowchart, that can be
added as appendix to the CRS, helps in the
description (see Annex C).
b. The CRS shall specify the flight environmental factors (natural and
induced) that affect the contamination phenomena, such as solar
radiation, electron, proton and AO fluxes, together with the planned
mission profile/duration.
c. The CRS shall specify sensitive item temperatures to be used for the
analyses during ground and in‐flight operations.
NOTE The expected temperatures and temperature
profiles of these items can be important for
condensation and the residence times of the
contaminants.

<3> Contaminants
a. The CRS shall describe all possible contamination sources to be analysed
and the maximum acceptable emissions.
NOTE For example: Materials outgassing, lubricants
escaping from bearings, wear particles from moving
parts, terrestrial contaminants such as dust, plume
contaminants from thrusters and engines, leaks
from fuel systems and from hermetically sealed
components, dumps and EVA, co‐passengers,
fairing and equipment bay items of the launcher.

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b. The CRS shall specify the chemical nature of the contaminants listed
under <3>a. with their vapour pressures or relevant condensation
conditions.
c. The CRS shall specify the transport mechanisms of the potential
contaminants from the sources under <3>a. to the contamination sensitive
items or areas to be considered in the contamination analysis.
NOTE For example: direct flux, reflected flux, ambient
scatter, self‐scatter and creeping.
d. The CRS shall specify the contamination environment to be applied for
design.
NOTE For example, molecular column density, maximum
molecular deposition on the sensitive items.

<4> Contamination budget

a. The CRS shall specify all cleanliness requirements allocated to the major
integration and testing phases.
b. The CRS shall specify acceptable contamination levels of MOC and PAC
for all on ground and in‐flight phases.

A.2.2 Special remarks

None.

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Annex B (normative)
Cleanliness and contamination control
plan (C&CCP) - DRD

B.1 DRD identification

B.1.1 Requirement identification and source document

The C&CCP is called by the ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01, requirement 5.1.2.2a.

B.1.2 Purpose and objective

The purpose of the Cleanliness and contamination control plan (C&CCP) is to
establish the data content requirements for the cleanliness and contamination
control plan. This DRD does not define format, presentation or delivery
requirements for the cleanliness and contamination control plan (C&CCP),
which can vary depending on product level (i.e. equipment, subsystem,
system), and specific contractual requirements.
A cleanliness and contamination control plan is prepared in order to set out the
ways in which the required cleanliness levels are achieved and maintained
during the life of the programme, from design to end‐of‐life.
As it is of fundamental importance for the space system’s performance, the
C&CCP is established as early as possible in the programme, in order to
properly address the design.
The C&CCP is prepared for all levels of configuration items defined in the
project at the following levels:
• System
• Subsystem
• Equipment
The C&CCP is based on the requirements defined by the cleanliness
requirements specification (CRS).
The supplier is responsible for this document.
The C&CCP is prepared in collaboration with experimenters and engineers.

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B.2 Expected response

B.2.1 Scope and content

<1> Introduction
a. The C&CCP shall contain description of the purpose, objective, content
and the reason prompting its preparation.

<2> Applicable and reference documents

a. The C&CCP shall list the applicable and reference documents to support
the generation of the document.

<3> Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms

a. The C&CCP shall include any additional terms, definitions or
abbreviated terms used.

<4> Description of [insert item name

a. The C&CCP shall give a general overview of the item to which the
C&CCP is refers.
b. The C&CCP shall describe sensitive items and contamination sources,
listing those surfaces/items to be strictly controlled or protected from the
cleanliness point of view due to:
1. The possible impacts of contaminants on their physical or
functional characteristics.
2. Their impact as potential sources of contamination.

<5> Cleanliness requirements

<5.1> Requirements in CRS

a. The C&CCP shall contain: a summary of cleanliness requirements,
relevant for the system or hardware and eventual sub assemblies, as
given in CRS or dedicated analysis.
NOTE Example of such requirements are MOC, PAC, and
during the different phases on ground and in‐flight.

<5.2> Contamination budgets

a. The C&CCP shall l contain the allocation of contamination levels through
the splitting of cleanliness requirements during the major integration and
testing phases.
NOTE In case the outgassing contribution to the
performance loss is large with respect to other
contributions (mainly for sensitive instruments with
tight requirements), more detailed modelling are
performed.

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<5.3> Selection of materials and processes

a. The C&CCP shall define the requirements that have design impacts like
PMP selection criteria (see ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70), venting, purging and
thrusters’ locations, in accordance with the mission cleanliness and
outgassing requirements and the outcome of the clauses 5.1 and 5.2.

<5.4> Mitigation and corrective actions

a. The C&CCP shall describe the measures for the coordination and
resolution of cleanliness and contamination control issues among the
parties involved in the project.
b. The C&CCP shall describe the corrective actions in terms of design,
shielding, purging, bakeout in case the predictions are outside acceptance
limits and in cases where corrective actions are necessary because of
deviation from the original cleanliness policy.
NOTE In general, the organization of regular workshops
dedicated to cleanliness and contamination control
for a specific programme is a good practice.

<6> Environments and facilities

a. The C&CCP shall contain a brief description of MAIT areas, their
classification, facility location and tools for contamination control.
b. References for internal procedures dedicated to area or facilities
verification, control and maintenance shall be included.
c. The C&CCP shall contain a list (or brief description) of internal
procedures for personnel training and rules to operate under
contamination control conditions.

<7> MAIT activities

<7.1> Contamination prediction
a. The C&CCP shall detail the splitting of cleanliness prediction during
MAIT phases, according to planned duration, environment class, type of
operation, and dedicated provisions adopted.
b. The C&CCP shall list all phases where contamination can be expected
and where the levels can exceed the allocated levels.

<7.2> Contamination control

a. The C&CCP shall describe selected methods, procedures and instruments
to control contamination levels during MAIT activities on systems or
equipment and relevant documentation; in particular:
1. Contamination monitoring methods and tools.
2. Inspection procedures and tools.
3. Verification of tools or hardware.
4. Dedicated cautions for critical AIV operations.

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<7.3> Cleaning and decontamination methods and tools

a. The C&CCP shall define the cleaning and decontamination methods,
procedures and tools, also making reference to their applicability and
eventual process parameters.
NOTE List of items and process parameters (e.g. for a
bakeout: temperature, pressure and minimum
durations, stop criteria are part of the information of
this clause.

<7.4> Packaging, storage and transportation

a. The C&CCP shall describe the provisions for the transportation of critical
items.
b. The C&CCP shall include:
1. A description of containers and packaging tools to be used during
hardware transportation.
2. The way they are stored.
3. The way they are handled.
4. The way they are monitored and cleaned.

<7.5> Contamination control flow

a. The C&CCP shall define:
1. the sampling plan for PAC and MOC,
2. cleaning operations (when planned), and
3. inspection points.
b. A cleanliness control flow chart shall be established, showing the stages
at which specific cleanliness controls are undertaken, reported in an
annex to the C&CCP.

<7.6> Responsibilities
a. Responsibility and authority shall be assigned for the implementation of
the cleanliness and contamination control tasks.
b. The C&CCP shall describe responsibilities for:
1. Hardware inspections
2. Cleanrooms and facilities
3. Contamination monitoring (hardware).

<8> Forms
a. The C&CCP shall define the forms that are used to document the
cleanliness and contamination control activities defined by the C&CCP.
b. As minimum, the following forms shall be defined:
1. PAC and MOC measurement report.
2. Cleanliness declaration of conformity (see ECSS‐Q‐ST‐20).

B.2.2 Special remarks

None.

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Annex C (informative)
Cleanliness and contamination control
process overview

Figure C‐1: Cleanliness and contamination control process overview

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Annex D (informative)
Guidelines for general cleanliness and
contamination control

D.1 General
Contamination control cannot be applied effectively without an understanding
of the contaminant, the contaminant source and the detrimental effect that the
contaminant has.
The known causes of failure and degraded performance of space elements
attributed to contamination, including their sources, are given in this Standard.
When they are not known, tests and analyses can be performed (e.g. outgassing
rates as a function of time, chemical composition of outgassing products,
condensation rates or degradation as result of radiation).
The results of these tests and analyses can be used to calculate expected
contamination levels and their subsequent effects if other relevant parameters
are known.
Preventive cleanliness control is becoming more important as space systems
become more sophisticated and mission durations are extended.
A problem frequently encountered in space technology is the lack of data
enabling a good correlation between contaminant levels and mission
performance requirements.
NOTE This kind of information can be available in the
mass production areas of electronics and precision
mechanical devices.

D.2 Contamination attributes

D.2.1 Typical contaminants and their sources

D.2.1.1. On ground

D.2.1.1.1 Particulate contaminants

Many particulate contaminants, such as dirt, sand, industrial fumes, can, to a
large extent, be excluded from cleanrooms by filtering, and the space system

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can therefore be protected from them right up to the final preparation at the
launch site.
Nevertheless, a considerable quantity of particulate contaminants are produced
or released during all on ground phases of the space system, especially during
testing activities.
NOTE Test facilities can be inside cleanrooms, but are
basically not clean and can loosen particles and
cause their redistribution
For example:
• Human sources
⎯ Hair cosmetics, dead human skin cells.
⎯ Fibres and lint from clothing, dust carried in on hair and clothes.
• MAIT
⎯ Chips and burrs from machined surfaces, solder and weld spatters.
⎯ Particles produced by wear or shedding, corrosion products, flakes
from coatings and air filters.
⎯ Particles released from anechoic walls during the test.
⎯ Redistribution of particles during pumping down and
repressurization of vacuum chambers, vibration test,
transportation…
• Other sources
⎯ Bacteria, fungi, viruses and secondary products

D.2.1.1.2 Molecular contaminants

A considerable quantity of molecular contaminants are produced during all on
ground phases of the space system, especially during testing activities.
NOTE Test facilities even if inside cleanrooms can be
source of molecular contaminants the tested items.
Molecular contaminants can be found in different chemical phases, such as:
• Gases and vapours
⎯ Atmospheric gases, desorbed water, leaks in sealed units (e.g.
freon, hydrazine, helium, neon and krypton)
⎯ Outgassing products from organic materials (e.g. monomers,
plasticizers, additives and solvents)
⎯ Vapours from packaging materials and test facilities (e.g. vacuum
pump oils)
⎯ Vapours from substances used in cleanrooms (e.g. plasticizers and
cleaning fluids)
⎯ Secondary products coming from micro‐organisms.
• Liquids
⎯ Residues from cleaning agents

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⎯ Residues from adhesive masking tapes
⎯ Machine oils
⎯ Coolants
⎯ Lubricants
⎯ Solder fluxes
⎯ Cosmetics
⎯ Grease from human skin
⎯ Secondary products coming from micro‐organisms.
• Other contaminants
⎯ salt
⎯ acid
⎯ alkaline
⎯ corrosion products
⎯ oxidation products
⎯ finger prints
⎯ stains.

D.2.1.2. On launch

D.2.1.2.1 Particulate contamination

Launch contaminants can come from the acoustic noise and mechanical
vibrations. The contamination source is then the space system itself and the
fairing and structural parts during the first minutes of the launch.
Redistribution of the released particles can occur so that clean surfaces are
covered by particles.
Also the co‐passengers can be the source of contamination in the case of
multiple launches.
During the initial lift‐off, the pressure inside the fairing drops from atmospheric
pressure to high vacuum within a few minutes, and the turbulence of the air
can also redistribute the particles.
The contamination environment during launch can be severe and there is
basically no control of the contamination during this period.

D.2.1.2.2 Molecular contamination

Next to the particle contamination, the molecular contamination is of
importance, especially the outgassing of the materials, the release of
contaminants by mechanisms, separation mechanisms, such as pyrotechnics
and thermal knives, motors and thrusters.
The mechanism of molecular contamination is based upon outgassing under
high vacuum; however, the period for which the space system is under high
vacuum with other neighbouring hardware is very short.

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Predictions of the molecular transfer during this period can be estimated: this
type of estimation can be made for co‐passengers when the outgassing
requirements are less stringent than those for the space system of interest.

D.2.1.3. During mission

D.2.1.3.1 Overview
Even with a good contamination and cleanliness control policy, contamination
during mission can not be completely avoided. Indeed, lessons learned from
space systems returned to Earth after quite a long exposure to space e.g. LDEF,
EURECA and solar arrays from the Hubble Space Telescope, indicated visible
contamination especially near venting holes and at locations where
photodeposition and photopolymerization occurred due to solar radiation, or
where atomic oxygen has converted the volatile contaminants into non‐volatile
contaminants.
Natural environments and induced environment are normally taken into
consideration.

D.2.1.3.2 Natural environment

The natural environments described here affect the contaminants in the
environment or on surfaces or affect the deposition of contaminants on surfaces.
Most of the natural environments mentioned in the following clauses are
described in detail in ECSS‐E‐ST‐10‐04.
a. Vacuum and type of gases
The pressure of natural gases around the space system causes reflection
of the outgassing molecules originating from the space system. This
reflection is called “ambient scatter” and can result in a return of the
space‐system‐produced contaminants to the space system itself.
This type of reflection depends on the level of vacuum and thus upon the
orbital altitude. For low Earth orbits the ambient scatter can result in a
return contamination flux of a few percent.
The gas composition of the Earth environment is such that only in
cryogenic space system applications are contamination problems to be
expected.
b. Radiation (solar and other electromagnetic radiation)
Solar radiation and especially the ultra‐violet part can have effects such
as polymerization and decomposition of already deposited contaminants.
Photon induced deposition.
The generally observed effects are a reduction in reflection and
transmission of light for optical experiments and solar arrays. Another
observed effect is the increase of solar absorptance of thermal control
surfaces, which results in a temperature increase for those surfaces.
Solar radiation can also affect the contamination deposition mechanisms,
and although this combined effect of contamination and electromagnetic
radiation is theoretically difficult to describe, this phenomenon is well
known.

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Radiation ionizes the outgassed molecules in space and so can influence
the amount of ionized particles.
Also, the ionized molecules are attracted by a negative charged space
system and thus contaminate it.
c. Thermal aspects (thermal cycling)
Solar radiation, rotating space systems and planetary shieldings cause
temperature cyclings and these temperature cyclings have effects on the
outgassing of materials and on the condensation and evaporation of
contaminants on surfaces whose temperatures vary.
d. Atomic oxygen (AO) (speed effects)
AO is the main constituent of the residual atmosphere in Earth orbit at
between 200 km and 700 km altitude. The density is a function of altitude
and of other parameters such as solar radiation. In most cases the effect of
thermal AO on deposited contaminants can be neglected. However, due
to the relative velocity between AO and the space system (approx 8 km/s)
the collisional energy in the ram direction is around 5 eV.
The items and surfaces in the ram direction of the space system can be
attacked by AO, whereas the items and surfaces in the wake direction are
hardly attacked.
The effect of AO can be described as an oxidation and some materials can
become resistant to AO, e.g. non‐volatile oxides can be formed on some
metals.
Organic materials can be oxidized to volatile products such as CO and
H2O. The presence of silica contaminants on space system surfaces can
be explained by the attack of condensed silicone species by AO and the
formation of SiOx.
e. Charged particles (electrons, ions)
The effect of charged particles on outgassing and on already condensed
contaminants is probably small, but no exact data are known at this
moment.
f. Micrometeoroids (debris)
Micrometeoroids have no direct effect on outgassing and on condensed
contaminants. Micrometeoroids can pierce some materials and can also
result in partly destruction of some materials, which causes release of a
large amount of new particles which escape into space or affect
neighbouring items. Impacts can also cause evaporation of the
micrometeoroid and of the impacted surface.
Redistribution of particles, which were already on space system surfaces
by micrometeoroid collisions, have been reported, but the effects are very
small.
g. Speed effects of space systems w.r.t. molecular speeds
The speed of a space system has no direct effect on the outgassing of
materials or on the deposition mechanisms of contaminants on surfaces.

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However, the return contamination flux via the ambient scatter is highly
affected by the local pressure around the space system. This local
pressure depends upon the actual space system speed with respect to the
speed of the natural species. Because of the speed effects, the ram
direction pressure can be orders of magnitude higher than the normal
pressure for that orbit and the ambient scatter is then also orders of
magnitude higher than the normal ambient scatter.
The same can be expected for the wake directions, i.e. orders of
magnitude lower pressures and thus orders of magnitude lower ambient
scatter than expected.

D.2.1.3.3 Induced environment

The space system environment can be seen as being created by the space system
itself or by its operation.
a. Gas and fluid leakage from pressurized systems
In space systems one can expect sealed pressurized units, such as
batteries and gyros; for these units leak rates have been specified which
do not result in unacceptable performance losses of those units.
However, the level of their leak rate or their location in the space system
can be such that the performances of sensitive items can be affected. Also
the leaks from pressurized units such as containers holding propulsion
gases or fluids (e.g. hydrazine) can affect contamination sensitive items.
Within long‐term space (station) programmes a number of fluids are
used, which potentially emerge from containments such as tanks, lines
and pressure shells to the exterior by leakage, venting or purging.
All fluids contribute to contamination.
b. Contaminants from release mechanisms and moving mechanisms
Release mechanisms such as cable cutters and mechanisms based upon
sealed units with explosives, release particles from adjacent surfaces due
to the mechanical shocks.
Mechanisms that are based upon cutting of cables using thermal knives
release both molecular and particulate contaminants.
c. Contaminants from operating thrusters, engines or other propulsion
systems
Solid booster engines produce particles as well as molecular
contaminants, liquid gas rockets produce mainly gaseous contaminants,
and hydrazine thrusters produce gaseous reaction products and some
unburned fuels. Ion thrusters mainly produce not fully neutralized
gaseous products such as xenon and a small amount of sputtered metal
from the neutralizing grid material.
d. Release of contaminants that were collected during ground activities
During the ground life of the space system, both molecular and
particulate contaminants can be deposited, mainly on the external
surfaces. During launch especially particulate contaminants are released
and during the mission itself their release is mainly caused by shocks.
The release of these particulate contaminants from external surfaces by

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impingement of micrometeoroids and debris is small compared to the
amount of particles released from the surface materials by the same
impingements.
For molecular contaminants that collected on surfaces during ground
activities, the same outgassing effect can be expected as from material
outgassing.
e. Secondary products
Secondary products are generated by various intermolecular interactions
and chemical or physical processes due to payload or experiment
operations or interactions of the natural and induced environment
constituents and the space

D.2.2 Transport mechanisms

D.2.2.1. Overview
Most of the effects of contamination occur in space, especially when solar
radiation is involved.

D.2.2.2. Contaminants transport on ground

D.2.2.2.1 Overview
Surfaces can become contaminated by particles during all on ground phases
(e.g. MAIT, pre‐launch, and transportation).

D.2.2.2.2 Particle transport

For particles transport, the main mechanisms are fallout and air transport,
especially caused by air turbulences (e.g. human activities and pumping down
and air inlet in vacuum facilities) and vibrations (e.g. vibration test and acoustic
test).

D.2.2.2.3 Molecular contaminants transport

For molecular contaminants transport, the main mechanisms are due to
diffusion of airborne contaminants and creeping of liquids.
During vacuum tests, the mechanisms are basically the same as in space (see
next clause).

D.2.2.3. Contaminants transport in space

D.2.2.3.1 Particle transport

Only the surfaces in direct view of other surfaces can be contaminated by
particles originating from the other surface. Return of released particles to the
space system, for example return of charged particles to a charged spacecraft
(depending on their mass), can occur but such mechanisms are not often
modelled..

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D.2.2.3.2 Molecular contaminants transport
• Creeping
Liquid contaminants and also lubricants can contaminate adjacent items
by the liquid creeping over surfaces, and silicone fluids especially are
known to have a high creeping effect.
In order to reduce the creeping effect, anti‐creep barriers made of special
materials are generally applied.
• Direct flux
Contaminants in space move in straight lines from the space system into
deep space and can sometimes contaminate items located in the direct
view.
In order to mitigate this effect, design provision are generally a solution.
• Indirect flux
Contaminants from space systems can impinge on a surface and after
reflection (specular) or re‐evaporation (diffusive) these contaminants can
affect other items or areas.
• Collision with natural gases
Contaminants coming from the space system can collide with the natural
gases around the space system and after collision can return to the space
system. This phenomenon is known as ambient atmospheric scattering
and depends upon the density (and thus upon the altitude) of the natural
gas.
• Collision with other outgassed molecules
Molecules released from space systems (e.g. outgassing via venting
holes) can collide with other molecules from the same origin or from
other origins (e.g. plumes). After the collisions, some molecules can
return to the space system. This phenomenon is called self‐scattering and
the return flux strongly depends upon the intensities of the fluxes from
the contaminant sources.
• Ionization of gaseous contaminants and the re‐attraction by the negative
charged space system
Contaminants emitted from the space system can be ionized in space by
solar radiation (especially ultra‐violet radiation, electrons, protons and
ions) and these ions can be re‐attracted by a negative charged space
system. This phenomenon is well known, but has not yet been quantified.
One of the simple rules is that instruments that have deployable shutters
or ejectable covers can be deployed or ejected when the outgassing has
dropped to a certain level or after a pre‐determined time after the launch.

D.2.3 Main effects of contamination on space

systems
The main effects of contamination are:
• Failure of precision mechanisms due to particulate matter.

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• Light scattering by particle and molecular contaminants.
• Electrical discharge or arcing in high voltage equipment due to high
outgassing and other contamination.
• Noise on slip rings and electrical contacts.
• Results of certain experiments obscured by excessive molecular
contamination (e.g. mass spectrometers and ion counters).
• Degradation of optical elements (e.g. lenses, mirrors and windows) due
to molecular contamination, especially X‐ray and UV equipment and low
temperature IR detectors.
• Degradation of thermal control surfaces (absorptivity/emissivity ration,
α/ε) especially in the case of molecular contamination on optical solar
reflectors at low temperatures.
• Loss of efficiency in heat pipes.
• Effects on conductive and non‐conductive surfaces (leak paths in
electronics).
• Loss of efficiency in solar cell generators.
• Corrosion of electrical contacts due to the presence of halogenated solder
fluxes.
• Space charge and discharge effects related to contaminants.
• Thermal radiation from particles.
• Disorientation due to erroneous reaction of star trackers to luminous
particles.
• Multipaction in waveguides.
• Bad closing of a valve.
• Explosion of a cryotechnic motor (Oil + O2).
• HF for a motor.
• Disturbance of gas flux and combustion within thrusters.
• Disturbance and propagation within RF wave guides.
• For the space environment around the space system, the “column
density”, local gas pressures and gas composition can be limiting factors
for some experiments.

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Annex E (informative)
Cleanliness-oriented design

The lowest contamination levels can be achieved by applying the following

rules:
a. Locate contamination sensitive items far away from the contaminant
sources.
b. Position the sensitive items so that the view factors with respect to
contaminant sources (e.g. solar arrays, antennas and thrusters) are as low
as possible.
1. Locate the vent holes of the space system and the instruments
away from the sensitive items (= backdoor venting).
2. Manufacture the hardware in such a way that venting (of, for
example, thermal blankets) is directed towards the backdoor.
3. Design baffles or shields for the sensitive items or even for the
contaminant sources.
4. Design temporary covers (red‐tag covers) or hoods to reduce
contamination during ground life. (Optically transparent covers
can be used for calibration, alignment or functional testing of
optical instruments without removing the covers)
5. Design deployable covers for very sensitive instruments, that are
operated only in space.
6. Design cleaning mechanisms for the removing of contaminants by,
for example, heating the sensitive hardware, manoeuvre the space
system in such a way that in low orbit the AO can perform a
cleaning.
7. Selection of materials, processes, mechanisms and components
with low particulate and molecular, and bio‐ contamination
potential. In this respect low outgassing materials should be
chosen, and zinc and cadmium (or cadmium plating) should not be
used because of the relatively high vapour pressures of these
materials.
8. If the contamination potential of selected materials is still too high,
bakeout of the hardware should be considered before assembly or
even during tests.
9. The design, manufacturing order and assembly should be such
that bakeout can still be performed (sometimes baking is carried
out before further assembly is done because of the temperature

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limitations of certain hardware or because the products released
during the bakeout can have effects on other items).
10. Where sensitive items are expected, the design of the instruments
or space system should be such that purging is feasible in the
periods of assembly, integration, tests and launch preparations or
even up to launch.
11. Based upon these effects, the venting holes and other contaminant
sources should be located in the wake side of the space system.
c. On the other hand, the wake side of a space system can be used for
special experiments for which extremely low pressures in relatively low
Earth orbit are required.
d. Cleaning aptitude of materials and mechanical parts, e.g. in case
hardware cannot be cleaned after manufacturing temporary protection
devices are needed.
e. Measurement of contamination, e.g. adaptations for contamination
sensors.
f. Verification of the compatibility of the surface treatment with the
cleanliness level.
g. Ground support equipment, packaging, containerization, transportation
and storage.
h. Any other design provisions according to the specificity of the mission
(e.g. planetary missions).

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Annex F (informative)
Modelling guidelines

Outgassing and plume characterisation are essential for the modelling of

contamination in an environment around the space system.
Knowledge of the outgassing fluxes as a function of time, the surface
temperatures, the geometric view factors and the residence times (as a function
of surface temperature) of the contaminants on the surface of interest are
indispensable for the modelling of the contaminants on surfaces.
Most modelling methodologies are based upon outgassing data obtained
during outgassing kinetic tests.
For a worst case surface modelling, the Micro‐VCM data (see ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐02)
can be taken.
First, it is assumed that all the contaminants released during the Micro‐VCM
test of 24 hours at 125 °C, are released during the actual life time
The second assumption is that all the contaminants that impinge a surface will
stick on it; the geometric view factor (Vf) is then utilized.
The third assumption is that all the TML for surfaces at 100 °C or lower, all the
RML for surfaces between 100 °C and +25 °C or all the CVCM for surfaces at
25 °C, is deposited permanently on the surface of interest (see Table 5‐1 to Table
5‐3 in ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐01)
Knowledge of the plume shape, the effluence composition, the temperature, the
speed and direction, the discharge frequency are indispensable for modelling of
the plume contamination.
Detailed information on modelling approaches and tools is given in ECSS‐E‐ST‐
10‐04.
For sensitive instruments, such as optical instruments, modelling
methodologies are used to make an estimate of the superficial density of
contaminants (g/cm2) condensed on the surfaces as a function of time.
Complementary experimental tests on the outgassed materials should be
proposed to evaluate the transmittance losses induced by the molecular
contaminants in the spectral bands of the instrument. The molecular levels
calculated in the modelling in point 1 are then associated to these transmittance
losses

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Annex G (informative)
Airborne particulate cleanliness classes
equivalence

Table G‐1: Classification system

Classification system
Federal Standard 209 E ISO 14644‐1
English (ft3) SI (m3) SI (m3)
(0,01) ISO class 1
(0,1) ISO class 2
M1
1 M 1.5 ISO class 3
M2
10 M 2.5 ISO class 4
M3
100 M 3.5 ISO class 5
M4
1 000 M 4.5 ISO class 6
M5
10 000 M 5.5 ISO class 7
M6
100 000 M 6.5 ISO class 8
M7
ISO class 9

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Annex H (informative)
Particulate levels on surfaces

H.1 Standard method 1: Particle distribution

This can be done as per IEST‐STD‐CC1246D and ISO 14644‐9.
These documents give the size‐number distribution function for particles on
surfaces.
Levels are measured by counting the number and sizes of the particles on a
known surface area.

H.2 Standard method 2: Obscuration factor

H.2.1 Overview
The obscuration factor (OF) is the ratio of the projected area of all particles to
the total surface area on which they rest.
This OF is in principle independent of the number‐size distribution of the
particles and even independent of the shape and colour of the particles. In
general the levels are expressed in parts per million (mm2/m2) and acceptable
values are roughly between 10 mm2/m2 and 10 000 mm2/m2.
The OF has the advantage that a number of performance loss parameters are
directly related to the particle coverage of the critical item.

H.2.2 Correlation for particles on surfaces

A correlation for particles on surface between levels of IEST STD 1246D and the
obscuration factor is given in Table H‐1.
NOTE This correlation is theoretically based on ideal
distribution of IEST‐ STD‐CC1246D (i.e. the slope
factor of 0,926) and considering only particles
between 1 μm and 10 μm.

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Table H‐1: Correlation between ideal class of IEST‐STD‐CC1246D and

obscuration factor
IEST‐STD‐CC1246D (class) Obscuration factor (mm2/m2)
50 0,3
100 3,3
200 54
300 329
400 1 274
500 3 814
600 9 619
700 21 469
800 43 707
900 82 799
1 000 148 025

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Annex I (informative)
Compatibility of various solvents with
listed materials
Table I‐1 shows examples of compatibility of various solvents with listed
materials.

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Table I‐1: Examples of compatibility of various solvents with listed materials

Type of material methanol ethanol IPA acetone MEK dichloromethane chloroform
polymer abbreviation
Acétal (polyoxymethylene) ACL A A A A C A
epoxy B A A B C C
Ethylene‐chlorotrifluoroethylene
E‐CTFE A A A B A C A
copolymer (HALAR®)
Ethylene‐tetrafluoroethylene
ETFE A A A B A B A
(TEFZEL®)
TEFLON® (Fluoroethylene
FEP A A A A A A A
propylene)
TEFLON® tetrafluoroethylene TFE A A A A A A A
®
TEFLON perfluoroalkoxy PFA A A A A A A A
®
Polyamide (NYLON ) D D D A A B C
polycarbonates PC B A A D D D D
Low density Polyethylene LDPE A B A D D D C
High density Polyethylene HDPE A A A D D C C
®
Polyimide (Kapton ) B B B B B B B
Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA D D D D D D D
polyketone PK (PEEK) A A A A C
Polystyrene PS B A A D D D D
polysulfone PSF A A B D D D D
Polyethylene terephthalate
PET A A A C A D D
(MYLAR®)
polypropylene PP A A A B B C D
polyurethane PUR C C C D D D D
Polyvinylidene fluoride
PVDF A A A D D A A
(KYNAR®)
silicone A C A D D D D
Vinylidene fluoride –
hexafluoropropylene C A A D D A
(VITON A®)
metal
aluminum A B B A B B
Copper B A B A A A
316 Stainless steel A A B A A A
Titanium B A B A A A
miscellaneous
Carbon graphite (e.g. CFRP) A A A A A A
Al2O3 A A A A A A
SiC A A A A A A
Ratings on chemical effects @ 20°C:
A: excellent ‐ no damage after 30 days of constant exposure
B: resistant ‐ little or no damage after 30 days of constant exposure
C: fair to poor ‐ some effect after 7 days of constant exposure
D: not recommended ‐ immediate damage can occur
Blank: No data available
Sources: http://www.nalgenelabware.com
http://www.coleparmer.com/techinfo/chemcomp.asp

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Annex J (informative)
evaporation residue of commercially
available solvents

Table J‐1: Commercially available solvents evaporation residue

Evaporation residue (%)
Solvent* Purity ACS spectrophotometric
ACS reagent grade
grade
acetone ≥99,5 % ≤0,001 % <0,001 %
chloroform
(with ethanol as ≥99,8 % ≤0,001 % <0,001 %
stabilizer)
dichloromethane ≥99,5 % ≤0,002 % ≤0,002 %
absolute ≤0,001 % ‐
ethanol
denatured ‐ ≤0,0005 %
isopropyl alcohol ≥99,5 % ≤0,001 % ≤0,001 %
methanol ≥99,8 % ≤0,001 % ≤0,001 %
methyl ethyl ketone ≥99 % ≤0,0025 % <0,0005 %
*Source : Sigma Aldrich

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Annex K (informative)
Molecular contaminant content of some
wipe materials

Table K‐1: Molecular contaminant content of some wipe materials

NVR (g/m²)
Wipe material Cleanroom class
IPA DIW
Vectra alpha 10 ISO class 3‐4 0,05 0,02
absorbond ISO class 6‐7 0,01 0,005
Kimtech pure CL5 ISO class 5 0,01 0,03
Kimtech pure CL6 ISO class 6 0,01 0,03

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Annex L (informative)
Effects of humidity on materials and
components

Table L‐1: Effect of humidity on materials and components

% RH
Range Effect
0 ‐ 30 Serious static charge problems

30 ‐ 50 Safe for highly polished metal surfaces or closed components

50 ‐ 65 Marginally safe for humidity sensitive products Contaminated metal

surfaces start to corrode
65 ‐ 80 Corrosion rate increases largely
Some plastics swell
80 ‐ 100 Rapid corrosion
Reduced electrical resistivity
NOTE For some materials, humidity has an effect on the material dimensional stability

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Annex M (informative)
Cleaning methods

M.1 Removal of particulate contamination

M.1.1 Overview
The removal of particulate contamination can be performed with, but not
limited to, the methods described in M.1.2 to M.1.4

M.1.2 Vacuum cleaning and wiping

• Dust can be removed with the aid of an ordinary vacuum cleaner,
combined with a good brush. Having the exhaust of the vacuum cleaner
outside the cleanroom is preferred to avoid recontamination. Clean air
supply to the item to be cleaned is used, otherwise the contamination of
items to be cleaned can be increased by the relative dirty air which is
extracted from the environment (e.g. when electrostatic attraction can
occur). Only vacuum cleaners equipped with HEPA filters are used in a
cleanroom and checked with a UV lamp while working.
• Wiping is performed with extreme care, otherwise surfaces can be
scratched and “dust” can simply be wiped onto other clean items in the
vicinity.
Since, in any case, solvent leads particles to the bottom of cleaned part, those
particles should be recovered with a vacuum cleaner at the end.
• An effective form of wiping can be used of tissues dipped in methanol.

M.1.3 Gas jet cleaning

• Another method of removal of particles is the very careful use of a jet of
compressed gas, since contamination of the other clean items in the
vicinity can result. Cleaning agents, such as brushes, wipe tissues or
compressed gas, can themselves contaminate the item to be cleaned and
can lead to dust scratching the surface during cleaning. Ionized air is a
good approach in the removal of particles by air blowing.
• Cleaning with dry ice (e.g. CO2 jet spray) can be very effective.

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M.1.4 Tapes and films trapping

• Larger particles can be removed by means of polyimide adhesive tape,
eventually rolled around a metal or other appropriate tool (e.g. swabs).
• The hardware to be cleaned can be coated with shrinkable polymer film
and, after drying, the film can be removed with the contaminants. Use of
this type of cleaning method needs to be carefully evaluated as it is
known to have detrimental effects on some materials (e.g. gold coatings).

M.2 Removal of molecular contamination

M.2.1 Overview
The removal of molecular contamination can be performed with, but not
limited to, the methods described in M.2.2 to M.2.8.

M.2.2 Mechanical cleaning

• Dry wiping: clean lint‐free cloth or lens paper is used, however, it has the
disadvantage that it can scratch the surfaces.
• Wet wiping: a clean cloth or paper is used in conjunction with organic
solvents.
• Other mechanical cleaning are grinding, brushing and blasting.

M.2.3 Solvent and detergent cleaning

• Solvent cleaning: examples are washing, dipping, spraying, vapour
cleaning and ultrasonic cleaning.
• Detergent cleaning or soap cleaning: Detergent cleaning (or soap
cleaning) for, for example, glass, rubbers, plastics, polyamides, PTFE,
polypropylene and acrylates and all ferrous metals, including stainless
steel. Such detergents also clean non‐ferrous metals, such as aluminium
and brass, but have an oxidizing effect on their surface. A detergent or
soap cleaning is followed up by a final cleaning with solvent to remove
all traces of detergent.
• Chemical or electrochemical cleaning with, for example, acids, alkalines
and salts for smoothing metal surfaces

M.2.4 Films trapping

• Use of shrinkable polymer film, peeled after drying, can also be very
effective for the removal of molecules (not for optical surfaces).

M.2.5 Gas jet cleaning

• Cleaning with dry ice (CO2 jet spray): this is very effective for the
removal of molecular layers.

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M.2.6 Plasma cleaning

• Cleaning with ionized inert low pressure gas: This is very effective for
the removal of polymerized products.

M.2.7 Bakeout
• Volatilizing under vacuum is especially successful for cleaning
assembled units, or when solvent cleaning is too delicate an operation.

M.2.8 Ultra-violet-ozone cleaning

• Molecules of an organic nature are activated by ultra‐violet light,
resulting in dissociation, after which they react with the ozone produced
in the air by ultra‐violet light.

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Bibliography

ECSS‐S‐ST‐00 ECSS system – Description, implementation and

general requirements
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐10 Space product assurance – Product assurance
management
ECSS‐Q‐ST‐70‐05 Space product assurance – Detection of organic
contamination of surfaces by infrared spectroscopy
ECSS‐E‐ST‐10‐04 Space engineering – Space environment
ASTM E1216 87(1992) Standard Practice for Sampling for Surface Particulate
Contamination by Tape Lift
ASTM E1235M 95 Standard Test Method for Gravimetric Determination
of Nonvolatile Residue (NVR) in Environmentally
Controlled Areas for Spacecraft
ASTM E1559 93 Standard Test Method for Contamination Outgassing
Characteristics of Spacecraft Materials
ISO 15388 Contamination and Cleanliness Control
NASA SP 5076 Contamination control handbook
MIL HDBK 406 Contamination control technology cleaning materials
for precision precleaning and use in cleanrooms and
clean work

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