UNIT-I

DC CIRCUITS AND AC CIRCUITS

DC CIRCUITS
Charge:

A body is said to be charged positively, if it has deficit of electrons. It is said to be charged

negatively if it has excess of electrons. The charge is measured in Coulombs and denoted by Q
(or) q.

1 Coulomb = Charge on 6.28×1018 electrons.

Atom:

To understand the basic concepts of electric current, we should know the Modern Electron
Theory. Consider the matter which is in the form of solid, liquid (or) gas. Smallest particle of
matter is molecule. Minute Particles are called molecules, which are themselves made up of still
minute particles known as Atoms.

Atom: Minute tiny Particles with the central Part Nucleus.

These are the types of tiny Particles in an Atom.

Protons: It is charged with positive charge.

Neutron: It is uncharged and hence it is neural.

Electron: It is revolving around nucleus. It is charged with small and

constant amount of negative charge. In an Atom, No of electrons = No

of Protons

Electric Potential:

1
When a body is charged, either electrons are supplied on it (or)
removed from it. In both cases the work is done. The ability of
the charged body to do work is called electric potential. The
charged body has the capacity to do, by moving the other
charges by either attraction (or) repulsion.

The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the

greater is its electric potential. And the work done, to charge a
body to 1 Colomb is the measure of electric potential.
Work done W
Electric potential, V= =
Charge Q
W = Work done per unit charge.

Q = Charge measured in Coulombs.

Unit of electric potential is Joules / Coulomb (or) Volt. If W =

1 joule; Q = 1 Coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 Volt.

A body is said to have an electric potential of 1 Volt, if one

Joule of work is done to charge a body to one Coulomb. Hence
greater the Joules / Coulomb on a charged body, greater is
electric potential.

Potential Difference:

The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is

called potential difference.

Consider two charged bodies A and B having Potentials of 5

Volts and 3 Volts respectively.

A=+5V B=+3V
2
 Potential Difference is +2v.

Unit of potential difference is Volts.

Potential difference is sometimes called Voltage.

 Electric Current:
Flow of free electrons through a conductor is called electric
current. Its unit is Ampere (or) Coulomb / sec.
Charge(q) q
Current,I = = Coulombs /
Sec Time(t) t
dq
In differential form, i = Coulombs / Sec
dt
Consider a conducting material like metal, say Copper. A
large number of free electrons are available. They move from
one Atom to the other at random, before an electric force is
applied. When an electric potential difference is applied across
the metallic conductors, free electrons start moving towards the
positive terminal of the cell. This continuous flow of electrons
forms electric current. According to modern electronic theory,
the direction of conventional current is form positive terminal to
negative terminal through the external circuit.

Flow of
conventional
Current

3
 Thus, a wire is said to carry a current of 1 Ampere when charge
flows through it at the rate of one Coulomb per second.

 Resistance:
Consider a conductor which is provided some potential
difference. The free electrons start moving in a particular
direction. While moving, the free electrons may collide with
some Atoms (or) Molecules. They oppose the flow of electrons.
Resistance is defined as the property of the substance due to
which restricts the flow of electrons through the conductor.
Resistance may, also be defined as the physical property of the
substance due to which it opposes (or) restricts the flow of
electricity (i.e. electrons) through it. Its unit is Ohms.

A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a potential

difference of 1V across the ends causes current of 1 Amp to flow
through it (or) a wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if it
releases 1 Joule, when a current of 1A flows through it.

 Laws of Resistance:
The electrical resistance (R) of a metallic conductor depends upon the various
Factors as given below,

(i) It is directly proportional to length l, ie, R α l

(ii) It is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the
l
Conductor, ie, R α
A

(iii) It depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.

(iv) It depends upon the temperature of the conductor.
From the First three points and assuming the temperature to remain cos1nstant,we
get,

4
 l
Rα
A
1
R= ρ

ρ (‘Rho’) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity (or) Specific

Resistance of the material of the conductor. The value of ρ depend upon the

nature of the material of the conductor.

 Specific Resistance (or) Resistivity:

1
Resistance of a wire is given by R= ρ

If l = 1metre, A =1m2 then, R = ρ . The resistance offered by a wire of length

1 metre and across sectional area of Cross-section of 1m2 is called the

Resistivity of the material of the wire.

Current

l =1m A = l m2

Figure 1.3

If a cube of one meter side is taken instead of wire, ρ is defined as below.,

Let l = 1 metre, A = 1 m2, then R = ρ. “Hence, the resistance between
the opposite faces of 1 metre cube of the given material is called
the resistivity of that material”. The unit of resistivity is ohm-metre

lm
5
 Current

Conductance (or) Specific Conductance:

Conductance is the inducement to the flow of current. Hence, Conductance is

the reciprocal of resistance. It is denoted by symbol G.
1 A A
G= = =σ
R ρl l

G is measured in mho Symbol for its unit is ( U )

1
σ=

Here, σ is called the Conductivity (or) Specific Conductance of the material

 Conductivity (or ) Specific Conductance:

Conductivity is the property (or) nature of the material due to which it allows
flow of current through it.

A l
G= σ (or) σ =G

l A

Substituting the units of various quantities we get

mho*m
σ= =mho/metre
m2
The S.I unit of Conductivity is mho/metre.

 Electric Power:
The rate at which the work is done in an electric circuit is called electric
power.
6
 Work done in an electric circuit
Electric Power =
Time

When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current to flow through it. The
work done inmoving the electrons in a unit time is called Electric Power. The
unit of Electric Power is Joules/sec (or) Watt. P VI I 2 R V 2 / R

 Electrical Energy:
The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy.

ie, Electrical Energy = (Electrical Power)*(Time)

V2
Electrical Energy = I2Rt = t
R

Electrical Energy is measured in Kilowatt hour (kwh)

Problem 1.1 The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross section and 20 m

long is 0.346 Ω. Determine the specific resistance of the conducting material.

Given Data

Area of cross-section A = 1 mm2

Length, l = 20 m

Resistance, R = 0.346 Ω

l
Formula used: Specific resistance of the Conducting Material, R

A
RA

l
Solution: Area of Cross-section,

Specific Resistance of the conducting Material, 1.738*10 8 Ωm.

Problem 1.2 A Coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 1 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and resistivity of
7
 copper is 0.02 μΩm at normal working temperature. Calculate the resistance
of the coil.

Given data:

No of turns = 2000

Length / turn = 80 cm =0.8 m

Resistivity, = 0.02 µΩm = 0.02*10-6 Ωm = 2*10-8 Ωm

Cross sectional area of the wire, A= 1mm2 = 1*10-6m2

Solution:

Mean length of the wire, l = 2000*0.8 =1600 m.

l
We know that, R

A
2 *10 8 *1600
Substituting the Values, R 32Ω
6
1*10

Resistance of the coil 32

OHM’S LAW AND ITS LIMITATIONS

The relationship between DC potential difference (V) current (I) and
Resistance (R) in a DC circuit was first discovered by the scientist George
Simon Ohm, is called Ohm’s law.

 Statement:
The ratio of potential difference between any two points of a conductor to the
current following between them is constant, provided the physical condition
(eg. Temperature, etc.) do not change.

8
 V
RI
V I*R

Where, R is the resistance between the two points of the conductor.

It can also be stated as, provided Resistance is kept constant, current is

directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the
conductor.

Power, P V*I I

Let the potential difference between points A and B be V volts and current flowing be I Amp. Then,
V
Constant ,
I
V
R (say)

I R
A B
V

Figure 1.7

We know that, if the voltage is doubled (2V), the current flowing will also be
V
doubled (2I). So, the ratio remains the same (ie, R). Also when voltage is
I

measured in volts, current in ampere, then resistance will be in ohms.

 Graphical representation of Ohm’s law

10
 [Slope line of the graph represents the resistance]

Voltage
(volts)

Slope = Resistance

I (amps)
Figure 1.8

 Limitations in ohm’s law:

(i) Ohm’s law does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. For eg.
Silico Carbide.
(ii) It also does not apply to non-linear devices such as Zener diode, etc.
(iii) Ohm’s law is true for metal conductor at constant temperature. If the
temperature changes the law is not applicable.

 Problems based on ohm’s law:

Problem 1.6. An electric heater draws 8A from 250V supply. What is the
power rating? Also find the resistance of the heater element.

Given data:

8A
Current, I
250V
Voltage, V

11
 Solution:

Power rating, P VI 8* 250 2000Watt

V 250
Resistance (R) 31.25 Ω

I 8

Problem 1.7 What will be the current drawn by a lamp rated at 250V, 40W,
connected to a 230 V supply.

Given Data:

Rated Power = 40 W
Rated Voltage = 250 V
Supply Voltage = 230 V

Solution:

Resistance,
V2 2502
R 1562.5 Ω

P 40
V 230 0.1472 A
Current, I
1562.5

Problem 1.8 A Battery has an emf of 12.8 volts and supplies a current of 3.24

A. What is the resistance of the circuit? How many Coulombs leave the
battery in 5 minutes?

Solution:

12
V 12.8
=
Circuit Resistance, R =
=
4Ω I
3.24

Charge flowing in 5 minutes = Current × time in seconds

Charge flowing in 5 minutes = 3.24×5×60 = 960 Coulomb

13
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
 Introduction:

The closed path followed by direct Current (DC) is called a DC Circuit A d.c
circuit essentially consist of a source of DC power (eg. Battery, DC
generator, etc.) the conductors used to carry current and the load. The load for
a DC circuit is usually a resistance. In a DC circuit, loads (i.e, resistances)
may be connected in series, parallel, series – parallel. Hence the resistor has
to be connected in the desired way for getting the desired resistance.

Resistances in series (or) series combination

The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is one
path for the current flow is called series circuit. The voltage source is
connected across the free ends. [A and B]

A I R1 R2 R3 RT
B A I B

V2 V3
V1

Figure 1.10

In the above circuit, there is only one closed path, so only one current flows
through all the elements. In other words, if the Current is same through all the
resistors, the combination is called series combination.

 To find equivalent Resistance:

Let, V = Applied voltage

I = Source current = Current through each element

V1, V2, V3 are the voltage across R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

By Ohms law, V1 V2

13
IR1 IR2 and V3 IR3

But V V1 V2 V3 IR1 IR2 IR3 I R1 R2 R3

V I R1 R2
R3 V IRT

V
R
T
I

The ratio of V is the total resistance between points A and B and is

I
calledthe total (or) equivalent resistance of the three resistances

RT R1 R2 R3

1 1 1
Also,
1 (In terms of conductance)
GT G1 G2 G3

14
 Equivalent resistance (RT) is the sum of all individual resistances.

 Concepts of series circuit:

i. The current is same through all elements.
ii. The voltage is distributed. The voltage across the resistor is directly
proportional to the current and resistance.
iii. The equivalent resistance (RT) is greater than the greatest individual
resistance of that combination.
iv. Voltage drops are additive.
v. Powers are additive.
vi. The applied voltage is equals to the sum of different voltage drops.

Voltage Division Technique: (or) To find V1, V2, V3 interms of V and R1,
R2, R3:

Equivalent Resistance, RT = R1 + R2 +R3

V V
By ohm’s low, I

RT R1 R2 R3
V VR1
V IR R

1 1 1
R R R R
T 1 2 3

R
T

Note: If there are n resistors each value of R ohms in series, then the total
Resistance is given by,

RT n*R

 Applications:
 When variable voltage is given to the load, a variable resistance
(Rheostat) is connected in series with the load. Example: Fan
regulator is connected in series with the fan.
 The series combination is used where many lamp of low voltages are
to be operated on the main supply. Example: Decoration lights.
15
  When a load of low voltage is to be operated on a high voltage supply, a
fixed value of resistance is connected in series with the load.
 Disadvantage of Series Circuit:
 If a break occurs at any point in the circuit, no current will flow and
the entire circuit becomes useless.
 If 5 numbers of lamps, each rated 230 volts are to be connected in
series circuit, then the supply voltage should be 5 x 230 = 1150
volts. But voltage available for lighting circuit in each and every
house is only 230 V. Hence, series circuit is not practicable for
lighting circuits.
 Since electrical devices have different current ratings, they cannot be
connected in series for efficient operation.
 Problems based on series combination:
Problem 1.11 Three resistors 30 Ω, 25 Ω, 45 Ω are connected in series across
200V. Calculate (i) Total resistance (ii) Current (iii) Potential difference

across each element.

(i) Total Resistance (RT)

RT R1 R2 R3

RT 30 25 45 100 Ω

V 200
(ii) Current, I 2A
RT
100

(iii) Potential difference across each element,

V1 IR1 2 * 30 60 V

V2 IR2 2 * 25 50 V

V3 IR3 90 V
2 * 45

Problem 1.12 Find the value of ‘R’ in the circuit diagram, given below.
16
 50 Ω 10 Ω R

100 V

200 V Figure 1.12

We know that, V1 IR1

I = V1 / R1 = 100/50 = 2 A

Similarly, V2 IR2 2 * 10 20 V

Total voltage drop, V V1 V2 V3

V3 V – V1 V2 200 – 100
20 V3 = 80 V

V3 = IR3 , R3 = V3 /I = 80/2 = 40 Ω

R3 40 Ω

Problem 1.13 A 100W, 200V bulb is put in series with a 60W bulb across a
supply. What will be the current drawn? What will be the voltage across the
60W bulb? What will be the supply voltage?

100W 60W

200V

Figure 1.13

17
Power dissipated in the first bulb, P1 V1 I

Current, I = P1 / V1 = 100/200 = 0.5 A

Power dissipated in the second bulb, P2 = V2I

Voltage across the 60 W bulb,

P2 60
V 120V
2
I 0.5

The supply voltage, V V1 V2 200 120

V = 320V

The supply voltage, V = 320 V.

Problem 1.14 An incandescent lamp is rated for 110V, 100W. Using suitable
resistor how can you operate this lamp on 220V mains.

100W, 110V R

+ –
220 V

Figure 1.14

Power
Rated current of the lamp, I 100 = 0.909A, I = 0.909A
Voltage 110

For satisfactory operation of the lamp, Current of 0.909A should flow.

When the voltage across the lamp is 110V, then the remaining voltage must
be across R

Supply voltage V 220 Volts

Voltage across R V 110 Volts

ie, VR
18
 By ohm’s law, VR 220 110V
110

IR

110 0.909 R

R 121 Ω

Problem 1.16 The field coil of a d.c generator has a resistance of 250Ω and is
supplied from a 220 V source. If the current in the field coil is to be limited to

0.44 A. Calculate the resistance to be connected in series with the coil.

Given Data: Source voltage, V 220 volts, I 0.44 A

Field coil resistance, Rf 250 Ω

Solution: Let the resistance in series with Rf be R in Ohms.

Total resistance, RT Rf R 250 R

Current, I 0.44 A
V 220
By ohm’s law, R 500 Ω

T
I 0.44

250 R 500 Ω

R 500 – 250 250 Ω

R 250 Ω

RT

19
 Resistance in Parallel (or) Parallel Combination

If one end of all the resistors are joined to a common point and the other ends
are joined to another common point, the combination is said to be parallel
combination. When the voltage source is applied to the common points, the
voltage across each resistor will be same. Current in the each resistor is
different and is given by ohm’s law.

Let R1, R2, R3 be three resistors connected between the two common
terminals A and B, as shown in the Figure 1.15(a)..

20
 I1 R1

I2 R2
RT = R
A B

I3 R3
I
I
+ –

V
+ –
V I = V/R

Figure 1.15

V
I (1)
R

Let I1, I2, I3 are the currents through R1, R2, R3 reVspectively. By ohm’s law,

,I
V R2 (2)
I  V
1
R , I3
R

21
 V
1 2 3

Total current is the sum of three individual currents,

IT I I1 I2 I3 (3)

Substituting the above expression for the current in equation (3),

V V V
V R R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1

R R1 R2 R3

Referring to Figure (1.15(b)), RT R

1 1 1 1 1 (4)

R RT R1 R2 R3

Hence, in the case of parallel combination the reciprocal of the equivalent

resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by V2, we get

V2 V2 V2 V3

R R1 R2 R3

ie, Power dissipated by R = Power dissipated by R1 + Power dissipated by R2

+ Power dissipated by R3

We know that reciprocal of Resistance is called as conductance.

Conductance = 1 / Resistance

G = 1/R]

Equation (4) can be written as,

G G1 G2 G3

 Concepts of Parallel Circuit:

22
  Voltage is same across all the elements.
 All elements will have individual currents, depends upon the
resistance of element.
 The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lesser than the
smallest of the resistance.
 If n resistance each of R are connected in parallel then,

1 n

RT R

(or)

R
R
T n

 Powers are additive.

 Conductance are additive.
 Branch currents are additive.
Comparison of series and parallel circuits:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

The current is same through all the The current is divided, inversely
elements. proportional to resistance.
The voltage is distributed. It is The voltage is the same across each
proportional to resistance. element in the parallel combination.
The total (or) equivalent resistance Reciprocal of the equivalent
is equal to sum of individual resistance is equal to sum of
resistance, ie. RT R1 R2 R3 reciprocals of individual
Hence, the total resistance is greater 1 1 1
resistances, ie,
than the greatest resistance in the 1
circuit.
RT R1 R2 R3
Total resistance is lesser than the
smallest resistances in the circuit.
There is only one path for the flow There are more than one path for
of current. the flow of current.


Current Division Rule

23
A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as it divides the total circuit current in its all
branches. Figure1 shows a current divider circuit in which the total circuit current I has
been divided into currents I1 and I2 in two parallel branches with resistances R1 and R2.
Although, we can notice that the voltage drop across both resistances is same, i.e., V.

24
25
Equations (4) and (5) give the expressions of current division rule. From these
equations, we may state that the current in any of the parallel branches is equal to the
ratio of opposite branch resistance to the sum of all resistances, multiplied by the total
circuit current.

Voltage Division Rule

A series circuit acts as a voltage divider as it divides the total supply voltage into
different voltages across the circuit elements. Figure2 shows a voltage divider circuit in
which the total supply voltage V has been divided into voltages V1 and V2 across two
resistances R1 and R2. Although, the current through both resistances is same, i.e., I.

26
Hence, from equations of voltage division rule, it may be said that the voltage across a
resistor in a series circuit is equal to the product of the value of that resistor and the
total supply voltage, divided by the total resistance of the series resistors.

27
 Numerical Example (1)

Find the currents I1 and I2 in the parallel circuit shown in Figure3

Find the voltage across resistors R1 and R2 in the circuit shown in Figure-4.

28
 Solution

Inductors in Series

Let us observe what happens, when few inductors are connected in Series.
Let us consider three resistors with different values, as shown in the figure
below.

29
 Inductance
The total inductance of a circuit having series inductors is equal to the
sum of the individual inductances. Total inductance value of the network
given above is

LT=L1+L2+L3

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st resistor, L2 is the inductance of

2nd resistor and L3 is the inductance of 3rd resistor in the above network.

Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a series inductors network is the
addition of voltage drops at each individual inductances.

Total voltage that appears across the circuit

V=V1+V2+V3

Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop
across 2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the
above network.
30
 Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of inductors
connected in series is the same at all the points throughout the network.

The Current through the network

I=I1=I2=I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through
the 2nd inductor and I3 is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above
network.

Inductors in Parallel

Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel.
Let us consider three resistors with different values, as shown in the figure
below.

Inductance
31
The total inductance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated
differently from the series inductor network method. Here, the
reciprocal 1/R1

value of individual inductances are added with the inverse of algebraic

sum to get the total inductance value.

Total inductance value of the network is

1/LT=1/L1+1/L2+1/L3

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st inductor, L2 is the inductance of

2nd inductor and L3 is the inductance of 3rd inductor in the above network.

From the method we have for calculating parallel inductance, we can

derive a simple equation for two-inductor parallel network. It is

LT=(L1×L2)/(L1+L2)
Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a Parallel inductors network is same
as the voltage drops at each individual inductances.

The Voltage that appears across the circuit

V=V1=V2=V3

Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop
across 2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the
above network. Hence the voltage is same at all the points of a parallel
inductor network.

32
 Current
The total amount of current entering a Parallel inductive network is the
sum of all individual currents flowing in all the Parallel branches. The
inductance value of each branch determines the value of current that flows
through it.

The total Current through the network is

I=I1+I2+I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through
the

2nd inductor and I3 is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above
network.

Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtain the total
current in a parallel network.

Capacitors in Series

Let us observe what happens, when few Capacitors are connected in

Series. Let us consider three capacitors with different values, as shown in
the figure below.

33
 Capacitance
When the capacitance of a network whose capacitors are in series is
considered, the reciprocal of the capacitances of all capacitors, is added to
get the reciprocal of the total capacitance. To get this more clearly,

1/CT=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3

Following the same formula, if simply two capacitors are connected in

series, then

CT=(C1×C2)/(C1+C2)

Where C1 is the capacitance across the 1st capacitor, C2 is the capacitance

across the 2nd capacitor and C3 is the capacitance across the 3rd capacitor
in the above network.

Voltage
The voltage across each capacitor depends upon the value of individual
capacitances. Which means

VC1=QTC1VC2=QTC2VC3=QTC3
34
The total voltage across the series capacitors circuit,

VT=VC1+VC2+VC3

Where Vc1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, Vc2 is the voltage across
the 2nd capacitor and Vc3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the
above network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of Capacitors
connected in series is the same at all the points. Therefore the capacitors
will store the same amount of charge regardless of their capacitance value.

Current through the network,

I=I1=I2=I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through
the 2nd capacitor and I3 is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above
network.

As the current is same, the storage of charge is same because any plate of
a capacitor gets its charge from the adjacent capacitor and hence
capacitors in series will have the same charge.

QT=Q1=Q2=Q3

Capacitors in Parallel

Let us observe what happens, when few capacitors are connected in

Parallel. Let us consider three capacitors with different values, as shown
in the figure below.

35
 Capacitance
The total Capacitance of the circuit is the equivalent to the sum of the
individual capacitances of the capacitors in the network.

CT=C1+C2+C3

Where C1 is the capacitance across the 1st capacitor, C2 is the capacitance

across the 2nd capacitor and C3 is the capacitance across the 3rd capacitor
in the above network.

Voltage
The voltage measured at the end of the circuit is same as the voltage
across all the capacitors that are connected in a parallel circuit.

VT=V1=V2=V3

Where Vc1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, Vc2 is the voltage across
the 2nd capacitor and Vc3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the
above network.
36
 Current
The total current flowing is equal to the sum of the currents flowing
through each capacitor connected in the parallel network.

IT=I1+I2+I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through
the 2nd capacitor and I3 is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above
network.

Series — Parallel Combination

As the name suggests, this circuit is a combination of series and parallel

circuits. A simple example of such a circuit is illustrated in Figure 1 30. R3

and R2 are resistors connected in parallel with each other and both together
are connected in series with R1.

I1 R2
R1
R3 I

I I2

Figure 1.30

37
Equivalent Resistance: RT for parallel combination.

R2 R3
Rp 
R R
2 3

Total equivalent resistance of the circuit is given by,

RT R1 RP

TR R1 R2 R3

R R
2 3

R2 R3
.
Voltage across parallel combination = I *
R2 R3

 Problems based on Series – Parallel Combination:

Problem 1.24 In the circuit, find the current in all the resistors. Also
calculate the supply voltage.

Figure 1.31

Voltage across 15 , V15 I15 R 8 15 120V

Resistors 2 Ω, 5 Ω, 10 Ω are connected in parallel, it equivalent resistance is

given by,

2 *5*10
R 1.25 Ω
P
2 5 5 10 10 2
38
Voltage across the parallel Combination is given by

Vp V2 V5 V10 I RP 8 1.25 10V

Total supply Voltage, V = V15+Vp

V 120 10 130V

V 130V

39
 Hence, the Current through the parallel combination of the resistors are givenby,

V2 10
Current through 2 Ω resistor, I 5A

2
R 2
V5 10
Current through 5 Ω Resistor, I 2A

5
R 5

V10 10
Current through 10 Ω Resistor, I 1A

10
R 10

The Current of 8A across the parallel combination is divided as 5A, 2A, and1A.

Series-Parallel Circuit
A series-parallel circuitis a combination of series and parallel circuits. In this circuit some of
the elements are connected in series fashion and some are in parallel.

In the circuit shown below, we can see that resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel with
each other and that both are connected in series with R1.

40
41
 Numerical Example

In the circuit shown below, find the value of unknown resistance R, also determine the total
resistance of the circuit and total power dissipated. It is given that voltmeter shows a reading
of 10 V.

42
Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the
response and excitation of an electrical circuit. It states that the response in a
particular branch of a linear circuit when multiple independent sources are
acting at the same time is equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each
independent source acting at a time.

In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So,
we have to eliminate the remaining independent sources from the circuit. We

43
can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting their two terminals and similarly,
the current sources by opening their two terminals.

Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if there
are ‘n’ independent sources. The response in a particular branch could be either
current flowing through that branch or voltage across that branch.

Procedure of Superposition Theorem

Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch using
superposition theorem.

Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one

independent source and eliminating the remaining independent sources present
in the network.

Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.

Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a
particular branch when all independent sources are present in the network.

Example
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit
using superposition theorem.

44
Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering
only 20 V voltage source. In this case, we can eliminate the 4 A current source
by making open circuit of it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the
following figure.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can
use nodal analysis method. The node voltage V1 is labelled in the following
figure. Here, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground.

45
Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 0.4 A, when only 20 V
voltage source is considered.

Step 2 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering

only 4 A current source. In this case, we can eliminate the 20 V voltage
source by making short-circuit of it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in
the following figure.

46
In the above circuit, there are three resistors to the left of terminals A & B. We
can replace these resistors with a single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω & 10 Ω
resistors are connected in parallel and the entire combination is in series with
10 Ω resistor.

The equivalent resistance to the left of terminals A & B will be

RAB=⟮5×105+10⟯+10=103+10=403Ω

The simplified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

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Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 1.6 A, when only 4 A
current source is considered.

AC CIRCUITS
1. Wave form
A wave form is a graph in which the instantaneous value of any
quantity is plotted against time.

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 Fig 2.1(a-c)

2. Alternating Waveform
This is wave which reverses its direction at regularly recurring
interval.

3. Cycle

Figure 2.2

It is a set of positive and negative portion of waveforms.

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4. Time Period
The time required for an alternating quantity, to complete one cycle
is called the time period and is denoted by T.

5. Frequency
The number of cycles per second is called frequency and is denoted
by f. It is measured in cycles/second (cps) (or) Hertz

f 1/ T

6. Amplitude
The maximum value of an alternating quantity in a cycle is called
amplitude. It is also known as peak value.

7. R.M.S value [Root Mean Square]

The steady current when flowing through a given resistor for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as produced by an alternating
current when flowing through the same resistor for the same time is
called R.M.S value of the alternating current.

RMS Value

8. Average Value of AC
The average value of an alternating current is defined as the DC
current which transfers across any circuit the same change as is
transferred by that alternating current during the same time.

Average Value = Area Under one complete cycle/Period.

9. Form Factor (Kf)

It is the ratio of RMS value to average value

Form Factor = RMS value/Average Value

10. Peak Factor (Ka)

It is the ratio of Peak (or) maximum value to RMS value.

Peak Factor Ka=Peak Value/RMS value

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Analytical method to obtain the RMS, Average value, Form Factor and
Peak factor for sinusoidal current (or) voltage

Figure 2.3

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PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF SINUSOIDAL
VARYING ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
The Phasor representation is more convenient in handling sinusoidal quantities
rather than by using equations and waveforms. This vector or Phasor
representation of alternating quantity simplifies the complexity of the problems
in the AC circuit.

Figure 2.5

Any alternating sinusoidal quantity (Voltage or Current) can be represented by

a rotating Phasor, if it satisfies the following conditions.

1. The magnitude of rotating phasor should be equal to the maximum

value of the quantity.
2. The rotating phasor should start initially at zero and then move in
anticlockwise direction. (Positive direction)
3. The speed of the rotating phasor should be in such a way that during
its one revolution the alternating quantity completes one cycle.

Phase

The phase is nothing but a fraction of time period that has elapsed from
reference or zero position.

In Phase

Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase, if they reach their zero
value and maximum value at the same time.

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Consider two alternating quantities represented by theequation

i1=Im1sin

i2=Im2sin

can be represented graphically as shown in Fig 2.6(a).

Figure 2.6(a) Graphical representation of sinusoidal current

From Fig 2.6(a), it is clear that both i1 and i2 reaches their zero and their
maximum value at the same time even though both have different maximum
values. It is referred as both currents are in phase meaning that no phase
difference is between the two quantities. It can also be represented as vector as
shown in Fig 2.6(b).

Figure 2.6(b) Vector diagram

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Out of Phase

Two alternating quantities are said to be out of phase if they do not reach their zero and maximum
value at the same time. The Phase differences between these two quantities are represented in terms of
‘lag’ and ‘lead’ and it is measured inradians or in electrical degrees.

Lag

Lagging alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum value andzero value later than
that of the other alternating quantity.

Consider two alternating quantities represented by the equation:i1 = Im1sin ( t - )

i2 = Im2sin ( t)

These equations can be represented graphically and in vector form as shownin Fig 2.7(a) and Fig
2.7(b) respectively.

Figure 2.7a

Figure 2.7b

It is clear from the Fig 2.7(a), the current i1 reaches its maximum value and its zero value with a
phase difference of ‘ ’ electrical degrees or radians after current i2. (ie) i1 lags i2 and it is represented
by a minus sign in the equation.

Lead
54

Leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum value and zero value earlier than that
of the other alternating quantity.

Consider two alternating quantities represented by the equation: i1 = Im1sin ( t + )

i2 = Im2sin ( t)
 These equations can be represented graphically and in vector form as shown in Fig 2.8(a) and Fig
2.8(b) respectively.

Figure 2.8(a)

Figure 2.8(b)

The Fig 2.8(a) clearly illustrates that current i1 has started already and reaches its maximum value
before the current i2. (ie) i1 leads i2 and it is represented by a positive sign in the equation.

Note:

1. Two vectors are said to be in quadrature, if the Phase differencebetween them is 90 .

2. Two vectors are said to be in anti phase, if the phase differencebetween them is 180 .

Power in AC Circuit – Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent

Power
In electrical and electronic circuits, the power is one of the most significant quantities used to analyze the circuits
for practical applications. The electrical power defined as the time

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This article is meant for explaining power relations in AC circuits. Where, an AC circuit is one which is excited
from a source alternating voltage.

Instantaneous Power in an AC Circuit

The value of electric power in an AC circuit measured at a certain instant of time is known as instantaneous
power. It is generally expressed by a small case letter p. In general, the instantaneous power in an AC circuit is
obtained by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current, i.e.,

Instantaneouspower,p=υ.i....(2)

Consider any AC circuit, if the instantaneous voltage and current in the circuit are given by,

Where, ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and current at any
instant. Where, ϕ is negative when current lags the voltage, positive when current leads the voltage and zero
when current and voltage are in same phase.

Hence, by the definition, the instantaneous power is given by,

Here, the second term on RHS of equation

(5) contains a double frequency term and the magnitude of the average value of this term is zero it is because the
average of a sinusoidal quantity over a complete cycle is zero. Thus, the instantaneous power consists only the
first term of the equation (5), that is

P=12VmImcosϕ......(6)
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This term is the average power in the AC circuit. Also, the average power in AC circuit may be expressed in
terms of RMS values of voltage and current as,

P=Vm√ 2 Im√ 2 cosϕP=Vm2Im2cos⁡�

∴P=VIcosϕ.....(7)

Where, cosϕ is known as power factor of the circuit.

There are following three types of electric powers in an AC electric circuit −

 Active power
 Reactive power
 Apparent Power
Active Power

The active power is that amount of the total electric power in an AC electric circuit which actually consumed or
utilized. It is also called as true power or real power. The active power is measured in Watts (W). The larger
units of active power are kilowatt (kW), mega-watt (MW), gigawatt (GW) and so on.

Technically, when in an AC electric circuit the phase angle becomes zero, i.e. the power factor becomes unity,
then the power consumed in the circuit is called active power. This happens in case of the resistive load. Thus,
the active power is given by,

P=VIcosϕ=VIcos0

∴ActivePower,P=VI∴ActivePower,P=VI

In practice, the active power is used to specify ratings of electrical loads such motors, bulbs, irons, etc.

Reactive Power

The reactive power is that amount of total electrical power which remains unused in the AC electric circuit and
flows back and forth in the electrical system from load to source and viceversa. It is denoted by letter Q and is
measured in Volt Ampere Reactive (VAR).

The reactive power in AC circuit may also be defined as the product of RMS values of voltage and current with
the sine of the phase angle, i.e.,

Q=VIsinϕQ

The reactive power is also known as wattles power or quadrature power. For an inductive load, the reactive
57
power consumed is the lagging reactive power and that consumed by the capacitor is the leading reactive
power. Therefore, there are two AC circuit elements namely inductor and capacitor that responsible for the flow
of reactive power in the circuit.

The reactive power is responsible for operating of all electromagnetic machines such as motors, generators, etc.,
because it produces required magnetic excitation in these machines.

Apparent Power
The total power produced by a source of alternating current is the apparent power. It is measured as the product
of RMS values of voltage and current. The apparent power is denoted by letter S and is measured in Volt-
Ampere (VA).

Apparentpower,S=VI

Also, the apparent power is given by phasor sum of active power and reactive power, i.e.

S=P+jQ

In practice, the apparent power is used to specify the ratings of those electrical devices that act as sources and
transmitters of power like generators, alternators, transformers, etc.

Numerical Example

If the RMS values of current and voltage in an AC circuit are 220 V and 5 A. If there is phase difference of 60°
between voltage and current. Determine active power, reactive power and apparent power in the circuit.

Solution

Given data,

 Voltage, V = 220V
 Current, I = 5 A
 Phase angle, \phi = 60°

Therefore, the active power in the given circuit is,

P=VIcosϕ

⇒P=220×5×cos60

∴P=550W∴P=550W 58

The reactive power flowing in the circuit is,

Q=VIsinϕQ=

Q=220×5×sin60Q=220×5×sin⁡60

∴Q=952.63VAR∴Q=952.63VAR
The apparent power supplied to the circuit is,

S=VI=220×5S=VI=220×5

∴S=1100VA

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