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COURSE MATERIAL

SUBJECT CONTROL SYSTEMS (EE20APC301)

UNIT 4

COURSE B.TECH

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT ENGINEERING

SEMESTER 2-1

PREPARED BY Mr. V V SUPURA

(Faculty Name/s) Assistant Professor

Version V-1

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 25-09-2022

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 1

S. NO CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1
2 PREREQUISITES 1
3 SYLLABUS 1
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 1
6 LESSON PLAN 2
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 2
8 LECTURE NOTES 2
3.1 INTRODUCTION 2
3.2 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ANALYSIS 4
3.3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS 7
3.4 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS 10
3.5 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION: FUNDAMENTALS 16
3.6 RELATIVE STABILITY: GAIN MARGIN AND PHASE MARGIN 18
3.7 STABILITY ANALYSIS WITH THE BODE PLOT 28
3.8 POLAR PLOT 29
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 32
10 ASSIGNMENTS 35
11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 35
12 PART B QUESTIONS 37
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 37
14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 38
15 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 38
16 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 38
17 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 39

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1. Course Objectives
The objectives of the course are to make the student learn about
1. Merits and demerits of open loop and closed loop systems; the effect of
feedback
2. The use of block diagram algebra and Mason‟s gain formula to find the
overall transfer function
3. Transient and steady state response, time domain specifications and the
concept of Root loci
4. Frequency domain specifications, Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots State
space modelling of Control system
2. Prerequisites
Students should have knowledge on
1. Mathematics
2. Basic Electrical circuits
3. Syllabus
UNIT–IV
CONTROL SYSTEMS CONCEPTS
Closed loop frequency response-Performance specification in frequency
domain-Frequency response of standard second order system- Bode Plot – Polar
Plot- Nyquist plots-Design of compensators using Bode plots-Cascade lead
compensation-Cascade lag compensation-Cascade lag-lead compensation
Course outcomes
1. Understand the concepts of control systems classification, feedback effect,
mathematical modelling, time response and frequency response
characteristics, state space analysis
2. Apply the concepts of Block diagram reduction, Signal flow graph method
and state space formulation for obtaining mathematical and Root locus,
Bode, Nyquist, Polar plots for stability calculations, controllability and
observability and demonstrate the use of these techniques.
3. Analyse time response analysis, error constants, and stability characteristics
of a given mathematical model using different methods.
4. Design and develop different compensators, controllers and their
performance
evaluation for various conditions. Implement them in solving various
engineering
applications

4. Co-PO / PSO Mapping

Machine
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
Tools
CO1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1

CO2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 0 2 1 2 1 1 1

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CO3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 2

CO4 1 2 3 3 3 2 2 0 3 1 2 3 3 3

5. Lesson Plan

Lecture No. Weeks Topics to be covered References

1 INTRODUCTION T1, R1

2 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ANALYSIS T1, R1

1
3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS T1, R1

4 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS T1, R1

Mr, ωr, AND BANDWIDTH OF THE PROTOTYPE SECOND-
5 T1, R2
ORDER SYSTEM
6 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION: FUNDAMENTALS T1, R1

7 Stability Conditions T1, R1

2
8 Definition of Encircled and Enclosed T1, R1

9 NUMBER OF ENCIRCLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURE T1, R1

10 RELATIVE STABILITY: GAIN MARGIN AND PHASE MARGIN T1, R1

11 ADVANTAGES OF THE NYQUIST PLOT T1, R1

12 DISADVANTAGE OF THE NYQUIST PLOT T1, R1

13 3 STABILITY ANALYSIS WITH THE BODE PLOT T1, R1

14 POLAR PLOT T1, R1

15 CONSTRUCTION OF POLAR PLOT T1, R1

7. Activity Based Learning

8. Lecture Notes

INTRODUCTION

In practice, the performance of a control system is more realistically

measured by its time-domain characteristics. The reason is that the
performance of most control systems is judged based on the time
responses due to certain test signals. This is in contrast to the analysis
and design of communication systems for which the frequency
response is of more importance, since most of the signals to be

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processed are either sinusoidal or composed of sinusoidal
components.

the time response of a control system is usually more difficult to

determine analytically, especially for high-order systems. in the
frequency domain, there is a wealth of graphical methods available
that are not limited to low-order systems. It is important to realize that
there are correlating relations between the frequency-domain and
the time-domain performances in a linear system, so the time-domain
properties of the system can be predicted based on the frequency-
domain characteristics.

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ANALYSIS

To conduct a frequency-domain analysis of a linear control system

does not imply that the system will only be subject to a sinusoidal
input. The starting point for frequency-domain analysis of a linear
system is its transfer function. It is well known from linear system theory
that when the input to a linear time invariant system is sinusoidal with
amplitude R and frequency wo,

the steady-state output of the system, y(t), will be a sinusoid with the
same frequency w0 but possibly with different amplitude and phase;
that is,

Let the transfer function of a linear SlSO system be M(s); then the
Laplace transforms of the input and the output are related through

By writing the function Y(jw) as

the magnitude relation between the input and the output:

Thus, for the input and output signals described by Eqs respectively,
the amplitude of the output sinusoid is

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and the phase of the output is

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

For the single-loop control-system configuration studied in the

preceding chapters, the closed-loop transfer function is

Under the sinusoidal steady state, s = jw,

The sinusoidal steady-state transfer function M(jw) may be expressed

in terms of its magnitude and phase; that is,

Or M(jw) can be expressed in terms of its real and imaginary pats:

The magnitude of M(jw) is

and the phase of M(jw) is

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Typical gain-phase characteristics of a feedback control system.

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

it is necessary to define a set of specifications so that the

performance of the system can be identified. Specifications such as
the maximum overshoot, damping ratio, and the like used in the time
domain can no longer be used directly in the frequency domain. The
following frequencydomain specifications are often used in practice.

RESONANT PEAK Mr The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of

JM(jw)I.

In general, the magnitude of M, gives indication on the relative

stability of a stable closed-loop system. Normally, a large M,
corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the step response. For
most control systems, it is generally accepted in practice that the
desirable value of M, should be between 1.1 and 1.5.

RESONANT FREQUENCY ωr

The resonant frequency ωr is the frequency at which the peak

resonance Mr occurs.

BANDWIDTH BW

The bandwidth BW is the frequency at which IM(ir.,)I drops to 70.7% of,

or 3 dB down from, its zero-frequency value.In general, the bandwidth
of a control system gives indication on the transientresponse
properties in the time domain. A large bandwidth corresponds to a
faster rise time,

CUTOFF RATE

Often, bandwidth alone is inadequate to indicate the ability of a

system in distinguishing signals from noise. Sometimes it may be
necessary to look at the slope of IM(jw)I, which is called the cutoff
rate of the frequency response, at high frequencies. Apparently, two

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systems can have the same bandwidth, but the cutoff rates may be
different.

Mr, ωr, AND BANDWIDTH OF THE PROTOTYPE SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM

1 Resonant Peak and Resonant frequency

For the prototype second-order system, the resonant peak M,., the
resonant frequency w,., and the bandwidth BW are all uniquely
related to the damping ratio ζ and the natural undamped frequency
ωn of the system. Consider the closed-loop transfer function of the
prototype second-order system

At sinusoidal steady state. s = jω

by letting u = w/ωn

The magnitude and phase of M(ju) are

respectively. The resonant frequency is determined by setting the

derivative of IM(ju)J
with respect to u to zero. Thus,

from which we get

In normalized frequency, the roots of Eq. are Ur= 0 and

The solution of u, = 0 merely indicates that the slope of the IM( ju) J-
versus-w curve is zero
at w = 0; it is not a true maximum if { is less than 0.707. Eq. gives the
resonant frequency
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NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION: FUNDAMENTALS

Thus far we have presented two methods of determining the stability
of linear SISO systems: the Routh-Hurwitz criterion and the root-locus
method of determining stability by locating the roots of the
characteristic equation in the s-plane
The Nyquist criterion is a semigraphical method that determines the
stability of a closed loop system by investigating the properties of the
frequency-domain plot, the Nyquist plot, of the loop transfer function
G(s)H(s).
This is another example of using the properties of the loop transfer
function to find the performance of the closed-loop system. The
Nyquist criterion has the following features that make it an alternative
method that is attractive for the analysis and design of control
systems.

1. In addition to providing the absolute stability, like the Routh-Hurwitz

criterion, the Nyquist criterion also gives information on the relative
stability of a stable system and the degree of instability of an unstable
system. It also gives an indication of how the system stability may be
improved, if needed
2. The Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) or of L(s) is very easy to obtain,
especially with the aid of a computer.
3. The Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) gives information on the frequency-
domain characteristics such as M,., Wn BW. and others with ease.
4. The Nyquist plot is useful for systems with pure time delay that
cannot be treated with the Routh-Hurwitz criterion and are difficult to
analyze with the root locus method.

Stability Problem
The Nyquist criterion represents a method of determining the location
of the characteristic
equation roots with respect to the left half and the right half of the s-
plane. Unlike the rootlocus
method, the Nyquist criterion does not give the exact location of the
characteristic
equation roots
Let us consider that the closed-loop transfer function of a SISO system
is

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where G(s)H(s) can assume the following form:

the roots of the characteristic equation are also the zeros of 1 +
G(s)H(s). Or, the characteristic equation roots must satisfy

Identification of Poles and Zeros

Loop transfer function zeros: zeros of L(s)
Loop transfer function poles: poles of L(s)
Closed-loop transfer function poles: zeros of I + L(s) = roots of the
characteristic
equation poles of 1 + L(s) = poles of L(s).
Stability Conditions
We define two types of stability with respect to the system
configuration.
• Open Loop Stability: A system is said to be open-loop stable if the
poles of the loop transfer function L(s) are all in the left-half s-plane.
For a single-loop system, this is equivalent to the system being stable
when the loop is opened at any point.
• Closed-Loop Stability: A system is said to be closed-loop stable, or
simply stable, if the poles of the closed-loop transfer function or the
zeros of 1 + L(s) are all in the left-half s-plane. Exceptions to the above
definitions are systems with poles or zeros intentionally placed at s = 0.

Definition of Encircled and Enclosed

Encircled
A point or region in a complex function plane is said to be encircled
by a closed path if it is found inside the path.
Enclosed
A point or region is said to be enclosed by a closed path if it is
encircled in the direction or the point or region lies to the left of the
path when the path is traversed in the prescribed direction.

Definition of encirclement
Jhgbvfcqckijujhgbvfcqckiju21q

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Definition of enclosed points and regions. (a) PointA is enclosed by r .
(b) PointA is not enclosed, but B is
enclosed by the locus r.
NUMBER OF ENCIRCLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES
When a point is encircled by a closed path r, a number N can be
assigned to the number of times it is encircled. The magnitude of N
can be determined by drawing an arrow from the point to any
arbitrary point s1 on the closed path f and then letting s1 follow the
path in the prescribed direction until it returns to the starting point. The
total net number of revolutions traversed by this arrow is N, or the net
angle is 2,rN radians. For example, point A in Fig. is encircled once or
2rr radians by r, and point Bis encircled twice or 4Jr radians, all in the
CW irection. In Fig. point A is enclosed once, and point Bis enclosed
twice by r. By definition, N is positive for CCW encirclement and
negative for CW encirclement

NUMBER OF ENCIRCLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES

When a point is encircled by a closed path r, a number N can be
assigned to the number oftimes it is encircled
Let A(s) be a single-valued function that has a finite llumber of poles
in the s-plane. Suppose that an arbitrary closed path rs is chosen in
the s-p/ane so that the path does not go through any one of the
poles or zeros of A(s); the co"esponding r A locus mapped the A(s )-
plane will encircle the origi.n as many times as the difference
between the number of zeros and poles of A(s) that are encircled by
the s-plane locus

In equation form, the principle of the argument is stated as

where
N = number of encirclements of the origin made by the A(s)-plane
locus r .
Z = number of zeros of (s) encircled by the plane locus rs in the s-
plane.
P = number of poles of (s) encircled by the -plane locus r in the s-
plane.

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EXAMPLE
Consider that a single-loop feedback control system has the loop
transfer function

1. Substitute s = jw in L(s).

2. Substituting w = 0 in the last equation, we get the zero-frequency

property
of L(jw),

3. Substituting CtJ = cc in Eq. (8-59). the property of the Nyquist plot at

infinite frequency is established.

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4. To find the intersed(s) of the Nyquist plot with the real axis, if any, we
rationalize L(jw )/ Kby multiplying the numerator and the
denominator of
the equation by the complex conjugate of the denominator. Thus,
Eq.
becomes

5. To find the possible intersects on the real ax.is, we set the imaginary
part of L(jw)/ K to zero.The result is

Because w is positive, the correct answer is uJ = v'20 rad/sec.

Substituting this frequency into Eq. , we have the intersect on the real
axis of the L(jw)-plane at

RELATIVE STABILITY: GAIN MARGIN AND PHASE MARGIN

To demonstrate the concept of relative stability in the frequency

domain, the Nyquist plots and the corresponding step responses and
frequency responses of a typical third-order system are shown in Fig.
for four different values of loop gain K. It is assumed that the function
L(j(J)) is of minimum-phase type, so that the enclosure of the (.-1, jO)
point is sufficient for stability analysis. The four cases are evaluated as
follows.

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1. Fig.; the loop gain K is low: The Nyquist plot of L(jw) intersects the
negative real axis at a point that is quite far to the right of the ( -1, jO)
point.
The corresponding step response is quite well damped~ and the
value of Mr of
the frequency response is low.
2. Fig (b); K is increased: The intersect is moved closer to the (-1, jO)
point;
the system is still stable, because the critical point is not enclosed, but
the step
response has a larger maximum overshoot. and Mr is also larger
3. Fig. (c); K is increased further: The Nyquist plot now passes through
the
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(-1, jO) point, and the system is marginally stable. The step response
becomes
oscillatory with constant amplitude, and M,. becomes infinite.
4. Fig. ( d); K is relatively very large: The Nyquist plot now encloses the
( -1, jO) point, and the system is unstable. The step response becomes
unbounded.The magnitude curve of IM(jw) 1-versus-w ceases to have
any significance. In fact, forthe unstable system, the value of Mr is still
finite! In all the above analysis, the phasecurve r/J( jw) of the closed-
loop frequency response also gives qualitative infonnation about
stability. Notice that the negative slope of the phase curve becomes
steeper as the relative stability decreases. When the system is
unstable, the slope beyond the resonant frequency becomes
positive. In practice, the phase characteristics of the closed-loop
system are seldom used for analysis and design pw-poses.

Gain Margin (GM)

Gain Margin (GM) is one of the most frequently used criteria for
measuring relative stability of control systems. In the frequency
domain, gain margin is used to indicate the closeness of the
intersection of the negative real axis made by the Nyquist plot of L(jw)
to the (-11 jO) point. Before giving the definition of gain margin, let us
first define the phase crossover on the Nyquist plot and the phase-
crossover frequency.

Phase Crossover: A phase-crossover on the L(jw) plot is a point at

which the plot intersects the negative real axis

Phase-Crossover Frequency: The phase-crossover frequency w P is the

frequency at the phase crossover, or where

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Definition of the gain margin in

the polar coordinates.

On the basis of this definition, we can draw the following conclusions

about the gain margin of the system shown in Fig., depending on the
properties of the Nyquist plot.

1. The L(jw) plot does not intersect the negative real axis (no finite
nonzero phase crossover).

2. The L(jw) plot intersects the negative real axis between (phase
crossover lies between) 0 and the -1 point.

3. The L(jw) plot passes through (phase crossover is at) the (-1, jO)
point

4. The L(jw) plot encloses (phase crossover is to the left of) the ( -1, jO)
point.

Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can be

added to the loop before the closed-loop system becomes unstable.

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• When the Nyquist plot does not intersect the negative real axis at
any finite nonzero frequency, the gain margin is infinite in dB; this
means that, heoretically,
the value of the loop gain can be increased to infinity before
instability occurs.

• When the Nyquist plot of L(jw) passes through the (-1, jO) point, the
gain margin is O dB. which implies that the loop gain can no longer
be increased, as the system is at the margin of instability.

• When the phase-crossover is to the left of the {-1, jO) point, the
phase margin is
negative in dB, and the loop gain must be reduced by the gain
margin to achieve stability.

PHASE MARGIN (PM)

Phase margin (PM) is defined as the angle in degrees through which
the L(j{J)) plot must be rotated about the origin so that the gain
crossover passes through the ( -1, jO) point.

EXAMPLE
As an illustrative example on gain and phase margins. consider that
the loop transfer function of a control system is

The Nyquist plot of L(jw) is shown in Fig. The following results are
obtained from the Nyquist plot:

Gain crossover wg = 6.22 rad/sec

Phase crossoverwp = 15.88 md/sec

The gain margin is measured at the phase crossover. The

magnitude of
L(jw11) is 0.182. Thus, the gain margin is obtained from Eq.

The phase margin is measured at the gain crossover. The phase of

L(jwg) is 211. 72°. Thus, the phase margin is obtained from Eq.

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ADVANTAGES OF THE NYQUIST PLOT

I. The Nyquist plot can be used for the study of stability of systems with
nonminimum-phase transfer functions.
2. The stability analysis of a closed-loop system can be easily
investigated by examining the Nyquist plot of the loop transfer
function with reference to the ( -1, jO) point once the plot is made.

DISADVANTAGE OF THE NYQUIST PLOT

Ifs not so easy to cany out the design of the controller by referring
to the
Nyquist plot.

STABILITY ANALYSIS WITH THE BODE PLOT

The Bode plot of a transfer function described in Chapter 2 is a very
useful graphical tool for the analysis and design of linear control
systems in the frequency domain. Before the inception of computers,
Bode plots were often called the .. asymptotic plots," because the
magnitude and phase curves can be sketched from their asymptotic
properties without detailed plotting. Modern applications of the Bode
plot for control systems should be identified with the following
advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of the Bode Plot

1. In the absence of a computer, a Bode diagram can be sketched
by approximating the magnitude and phase with straight line
segments.
2. Gain crossover. phase crossover, gain margin, and phase margin
are more easily determined on the Bode plot than from the Nyquist
plot.
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3. For design purposes, the effects of adding controllers and their
parameters are more easily visualized on the Bode plot than on the
Nyquist plot.

Disadvantage of the Bode Plot

1. Absolute and relative stability of only minimum-phase systems can
be determined from the Bode plot. For instance, there is no way of
telling what the stability criterion is on the Bode plot.
With reference to the definitions of gain margin and phase margin
given in Figs. and, respectively, the interpretation of these parameters
from the Bode diagram is
illustrated in Figfor a typical minimum-phase loop transfer function.

Determination of gain margin and phase margin on the Bode plot.

EXAMPLE
Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form.

Make both the lowest order term in the numerator and denominator unity.
The numerator is an order 0 polynomial, the denominator is order 1.
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Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts. The transfer
function has 2 components:
A constant of 3.3
 A pole at s=-30

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part. This is done in the diagram
below. The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 3.3 is equal to 10.4 dB).
The phase is
 constant at 0 degrees. The pole at 30 rad/sec is the blue line. It is 0 dB
up to the break frequency, then drops off
 with a slope of -20 dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break
frequency (3 rad/sec) then drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times
the break frequency (300 rad/sec).

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step
3. The overall asymptotic plot is the translucent pink line, the exact
response is the black line.

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Example 2
Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form. Make both the lowest
order term in the numerator and denominator unity. The numerator is an
order 1 polynomial, the denominator is order 2.

Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts. The transfer
function has 4 components:
A constant of 0.1
 A pole at s=-10
 A pole at s=-100
 A zero at s=-1

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part. This is done in the diagram
below. The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 0.1 is equal to -20 dB).
The phase is constant at 0 degrees.

The pole at 10 rad/sec is the green line. It is 0 dB up to the break

frequency, then drops off with a slope of -20 dB/dec.

The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (1 rad/sec) then

drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (100
rad/sec).

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The pole at 100 rad/sec is the blue line. It is 0 dB up to the break
frequency, then drops off witha slope of -20 dB/dec.
The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (10 rad/sec) then
drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (1000
rad/sec).
The zero at 1 rad/sec is the red line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency,
then rises at 20 dB/dec.

The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (0.1 rad/sec) then
rises linearly to 90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (10 rad/sec).

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step
3. The overall asymptotic plot is the translucent pink line, the exact
response is the black line.

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EXAMPLE 3
Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form. Make both the lowest
order term in the numerator and denominator unity. The numerator is an
order 1 polynomial, the denominator is order 2

Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts. The transfer
function has 4 components:
A constant of 33.3
 A pole at s=-3
 A pole at s=0
 A zero at s=-10

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part. This is done in the diagram
below. The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 33.3 is equal to 30 dB).
The phase is constant at 0degrees.

The pole at 3 rad/sec is the green line. It is 0 dB up to the break

frequency, then drops off with a slope of -20 dB/dec.

The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (0.3 rad/sec) then
drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (30
rad/sec). The pole at the origin.

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It is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/dec.

It goes through 0 dB at 1rad/sec.

The phase is -90 degrees. The zero at 10 rad/sec is the red line.

It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then rises at 20 dB/dec.

The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (1 rad/sec) then

rises linearly to 90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (100 rad/sec)

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step
3. The overall asymptotic plot is the translucent pink line, the exact
response is the black line

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POLAR PLOT
Definition: The plot that represents the of the system G(jω) on a complex
plane, constructed in polar coordinates is known as Polar Plot.
The polar plot representation shows the plot of magnitude versus phase
angle on polar coordinates with variation in ω from 0 to ∞. It is used for
stability analysis.
CONSTRUCTION OF POLAR PLOT
It is known to us that plotting frequency response signifies sketching the
variations in the magnitude and phase angle with respect to the input
frequency. These plots are known as magnitude plot (gain plot) and
phase plot respectively.
In the Bode plot, the frequency response is sketched using a logarithmic
scale.

So, in a polar plot, a sketch between the magnitude and phase angle of
the transfer function G(jω) is formed for different values of ω.
Suppose M represents the magnitude and φ denotes the phase angle,
then for the transfer function of a system it is given as:

So, with the variation in ω from 0 to ∞, the values of M and φ can be

determined.

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As we have already discussed in the beginning that polar plot is
magnitude versus phase angle graph plotted for various values of ω.
So, to construct a polar plot, the different values of magnitude and phase
angle is tabulated and further, the sketch is formed. The table is given
below:

Basically, here each point on the polar plot is significantly plotted for each
specific value of magnitude and phase angle for particular frequency ω
Like from the above table, for ω = ω1, M = M1 and φ = φ1 a point in the
polar coordinate system is decided that represents M1∠φ1, hence, the
point on the plot corresponds to the tip of the phasor of magnitude
M1 plotted at an angle φ1.
So, by using the tabulated data, the polar plot can be formed. Thus, in this
way, the magnitude vs phase angle plot is can be constructed for various
values of frequency.
It is to be noted here that conversion of magnitude into dB or logarithm
values is not necessary. Also, the anticlockwise direction represents
positive phase angles, while the clockwise direction shows the negative
phase angles.
The figure below represents the polar plot for ω between 0 to ∞:

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EXAMPLE OF POLAR PLOT

Till now, we have discussed what basically a polar plot is and how it is
constructed let us now consider an example to understand the
construction of polar plot in a better way.

Suppose we have a Type 0 system whose transfer function is given as:

We have to sketch the polar plot for it.

The first step is to convert the given transfer function into the frequency
domain. Thus, it will be written as:

Now, further calculating the magnitude,

Also, the phase angle condition

Now, we have to calculate magnitude and angle by substituting different

values of ω between 0 and ∞.

Thus, the tabular representation will be:

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Hence, the tabulated data shows that the starting point is 1 ∠0° and
terminating point is 0 ∠-90°. Thus, the plot will terminate at the origin,
tangential to the axis of angle -90°.

Thus, the plot is represented as

Now, let us apply the alternative method to sketch the polar plot.

As we have discussed earlier that in this method only the starting and
terminating points are of major significance. Thus, frequency is needed for
0 and ∞.

Now, let us apply the alternative method to sketch the polar plot.

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9. Practice Quiz
1. The polar plot of a transfer function passes through the critical point (-1,0).
Gain margin is
a) Zero
b) -1dB
c) 1dB
d) Infinity
2. Routh Hurwitz criterion cannot be applied when the characteristic equation
of the system containing coefficient’s which is/are
a) Exponential function of s
b) Sinusoidal function of s
c) Complex
d) Exponential and sinusoidal function of s and complex
3. Consider the following statement regarding Routh Hurwitz criterion:
a) It gives absolute stability
b) It gives gain and phase margin
c) It gives the number of roots lying in RHS of the s-plane
d) It gives gain, phase margin and number of roots lying in RHS of the s-plane
4. The open loop transfer function of a system is G(s) H(s)= K / (1+s)(1+2s)(1+3s)
The phase cross over frequency ωc is
a) V2
b) 1
c) Zero
d) V3
5. If the gain of the open-loop system is doubled, the gain margin
a) Is not affected
b) Gets doubled
c) Becomes half
d) Becomes one-fourth
6. The unit circle of the Nyquist plot transforms into 0dB line of the amplitude
plot of the Bode diagram at

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a) 0 frequency
b) Low frequency
c) High frequency
d) Any frequency
Consider the following statements:
7.The gain margin and phase margin of an unstable system may respectively
be 1. Positive, positive 2. Positive, negative 3. Negative, positive 4. Negative,
negative Of these statements
a) 1 and 4 are correct
b) 1 and 2 are correct
c) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
d) 2,3 and 4 are correct
8 If a system has an open loop transfer function
1-s / 1+s, then the gain of the system at frequency of 1 rad/s will be
a) 1
b) 1/2
c) Zero
d) -1
9.The polar plot of the open loop transfer function of a feedback control system
intersects the real axis at -2. The gain margin of the system is
a) -5dB
b) 0dB
c) -6dB
d) 40dB
10. The corner frequencies are
a) 0 and 1
b) 0 and 2
c) 0 and 1
d) 1 and 2
11. For the transfer function
G(s) H(s) = 1 / s(s+1) (s+0.5), the phase cross-over frequency is
a) 0.5 rad/sec
b) 0.707 rad/sec
c) 1.732 rad/sec
d) 2 rad/sec
12.The gain margin (in dB) of a system having the loop transfer function
G(s) H(s) = 2 / s(s+1) is
a) 0
b) 3
c) 6
d) 8
13The gain margin for the system with open loop transfer function
G(s) H(s) = G(s) =2(1+s) / s2 is
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a) 8
b) 0
c) 1
d) -8
14. Statement 1: In constant M circles, as M increases from 1 to 8 radius of
circle increases from 0 to 8 and Centre shifts from (-1,0) to (-8,0)
Statement 2: The circle intersects real axis at point (-1/2, 0)
a) Statement 1 is TRUE, 2 is FALSE
b) Statement 1 is FALSE, 2 is TRUE
c) Statement 1 & 2 TRUE
d) Statement 1 & 2 FALSE
15The phase margin (in degrees) of a system having the loop transfer function
G(s) H(s)=2√3/s(s+1) is:
a) 45°
b) -30°
c) 60°
d) 30°
16. The system with the open loop transfer function G(s) H(s) =1/s(s^2+s+1) has
the gain margin of :
a) -6 dB
b) 0 dB
c) 3.5 dB
d) 6 dB
17. If the gain of the system is reduced to a zero value, the roots of the system
in the s-plane,
a) Coincide with zero
b) Move away from zero
c) Move away from poles
d) Coincide with the poles
18. The addition of open loop zero pulls the root loci towards:
a) The left and therefore system becomes more stable
b) The right and therefore system becomes unstable
c) Imaginary axis and therefore system becomes marginally stable
d) The left and therefore system becomes unstable
19The polar plot of the transfer function G(s) = 10(s+1)/s+10 will be in the :
a) First quadrant
b) Second quadrant
c) Third quadrant
d) Fourth quadrant
20. As the polar plot moves toward the point (-1, 0) then the system becomes :
a) Stable
b) Marginally stable

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c) Conditionally stable
d) Unstable

10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO

1 Mention the advantages of Bode plot 5 2

Explain the frequency response specifications

Sketch Bode plot for the transfer function and determine

2 the system gain crossover frequency, phase crossover 5 2
frequency, gain margin and phase margin. Also determine
the value of „k‟ for a phase margin of 450 .

3 Sketch the bode plot and find gain margin & phase margin 2
of the systems represented by: G(s)H(s)= 75(0.2s+1) /𝑠(𝑠 5
2+16𝑠+100)
4 Which one of the following improves the system stability and 5 1
why? (i) Addition of poles. (ii) Addition of zeros
The open lop transfer function of a system is given by
5 G(s)  K 𝑆(1+0.5𝑆)/(1+0.2𝑆) Using bode plot, find the value of 5 1
K so that the gain margin is 6db

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.N Question & Answers B C

o L O

1 Explain the term frequency response analysis. 1 1

2 Define gain margin 1 1

3 Sketch the polar plot for G(S)==k/ 𝑠(𝑆+1)(𝑠+2) . Find the value of 1
1
K for which it is stable.
4 The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is
given by 1
1
G(s)= 1 /s(1+𝑆)(1+2𝑠) Sketch polar plot and determine the gain
and phase margin
5 Draw the polar plot for G(s)=100/s 2 (𝑆 + 30) 1 1

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6 Differentiate between polar plot and nyquist plot 4 1

7 Explain how polar plots are useful in finding the stability of a

1 1
system

8 Sketch the polar plot of G(s) = 10 /s(𝑠+1) 1 1

12. Part B- Questions

Question BL CO
S.No
1 Draw the polar plot ofG(s)= 1/s(1+ST) 5 2

2 Define gain cross-over frequency 5 2

3 The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback

system is

G(s)= s /𝑆(𝑆+1)(𝑆+10) . Draw the Bode plot and determine

the value of K for 40 phase margin.

4 The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback

system is: G(s)= 𝑆(1+0.02𝑠)(1+0.04𝑆) Draw the Bode plot &
find the gain margin and phase margin. Also find the
value of open loop gain so that the system has a phase
margin of450

5 .Sketch the bode plots for the transfer function G(s)=

75(1+0.2s) 𝑆(𝑆 2+16𝑆+100) and determine the following: (i)
Gain cross over frequency. (ii) Phasecross over frequency.
(iii) Gain margin. (iv) Phase margin.

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. control system by Prof. C. S. Shankar Ram | IIT Madras in NPTEL swayam

14. Real Time Applications

S.No Application CO

1 Control Systems are used in domestic applications, general 4

industry, military and virtually every modern vehicle in the
world. Control Systems are very common in SCADA
and Industrial Automation systems. Control Systems are
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used in Industrial Automation to regulate how devices
operate in real time

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. State feedback controller and observer

2. Stability analysis
3. PLC

16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

Text Book
1. Katsuhiko Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, 5th edition, Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
2. 2. I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering”, 5th edition,
New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, 2007.

References:

1. Control Systems Principles & Design 4th Edition, M.Gopal, Mc Graw Hill
Education, 2012.
2. Automatic Control Systems– by B. C. Kuo and Farid Golnaraghi – John wiley
and son‟s, 8th edition, 2003.
3. Control Systems 3rd Edition, Joseph J Distefano III, Allen R Stubberud & Ivan J
Williams, Schaum's Mc Graw Hill Education.
4. John J D‟Azzo and C. H. Houpis , “Linear Control System Analysis and Design
Conventional and Modern”, McGraw - Hill Book Company, 1988.

17. Mini Project Suggestion

a. Speed control of DC Motor – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you
keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand
is dried.
b. Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set
time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
c. Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of
toasting is completed or not.
d. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre-
adjusted time only.
e. Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted
time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
f. Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever the light switch is on irrespective of
light is required or not.
g. Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of
output

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