Network Theorems
Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Reciprocity Theorem
Tellegen’s Theorem
Substitution Theorem
Compensation Theorem
Millman’s Theorem
INTRODUCTION:
Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the
single element response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can
be termed as network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of
solving network. Let us see some important theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed
procedures.
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving
Network problems having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks
can be reduced to simple equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit
analysis many a times the current through a branch is required to be found when it’s value is
changed with all other element values remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the
branch current using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods is quite awkward and
time consuming. But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and one
element) obtained using these two theorems the calculations become very simple. Thevenin’s
and Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.
(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows
the Thevenin equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .
Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :
1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
marked as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional
network mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the
network contains dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or)
load resistance across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig.
Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL resistor
as shown in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?
Fig.(a)
Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as
shown in the fig. (1)
Fig.(1)
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (V TH). We have
already removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in
fig (1). Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both
12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor
as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that
current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in
parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as
4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So,VTH = 12V
Fig(2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources
short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)
Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)We have
Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in
figure (3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and
12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ
Fig(4)
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the
load terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This is the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
RTH
VTH
Fig(5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the total load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Norton’s Theorem Statement :
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in
parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across
the load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking
through the open circuited load terminals.
(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows
the Norton equivalent circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .
3. Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
4. Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance
across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig
Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the
figure (a) below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.?
Fig(a)
Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc.
Short the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit
Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).
Fig(2)
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, IN. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then
in parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total
Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
IT = V / R T
IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.
Fig(3)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources
short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in
fig.(4)
Fig(4)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (R N) We have
Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in
fig(4), We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω
resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
Fig(5)
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in fig (6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.
Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the
terminals A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)
IL = 1.5A IL = 1. 5A
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load.
While for electric utilities, minimizing power losses in the process of transmission and
distribution is critical for Efficiency and economic reasons, there are other applications in areas
such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
electrical applications with electrical loads such as Loud speakers, antennas, motors etc. it would
be required to find out the condition under which maximum power would be transferred from the
circuit to the load.
According to Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, for maximum power transfer from the
network to the load resistance , RL must be equal to the source resistance i.e. Network’s
Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh . i.e. RL = RTh
The load current I in the circuit shown above is given by,
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the
value of RL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as :
𝜕𝑃 𝑉2𝑇𝐻 2𝑉2𝑇𝐻
𝜕𝑅𝐿
=0= 2− 3 𝑅𝐿 = 0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 ) (𝑅𝑇𝐻+𝑅𝐿 )
Under the condition of maximum power transfer, the efficiency 𝜼 of the network is then given
by:
2 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆 = 2
× 𝑅𝑇𝐻 =
(𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝐿 ) 4𝑅𝐿
𝑉2𝑇𝐻
output 4𝑅𝐿
𝜼= = 2 2 = 0.50
input 𝑉 𝑉
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻
4𝑅𝐿 + 4𝑅𝐿 )
(
For maximum power transfer the load resistance should be equal to the Thevenin equivalent
resistance ( or Norton equivalent resistance) of the network to which it is connected . Under the
condition of maximum power transfer the efficiency of the system is 50 %.
Example: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig. Find the
maximum power.?
Solution:We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the
terminals a-b. To get RTh, we use the circuit in Fig. (a)
6×12
RTh= 2 + 3 + (6 // 12 )=5+(6+12)=5+4=9Ω
i2 = −2 A,
Solving for i1, we get i1= −2/3.
Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across terminals a-b, we obtain,
VTh= 22 V
For maximum power transfer, RL= RTh= 9Ω and the maximum power is,
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 22×22
𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 = = =13.44W
4𝑅𝐿 4×9
Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than
one current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a
branch of the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other
sources with their ideal internal resistances.
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources,
The total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
or voltages in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are
replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current
sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?
Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the
voltage source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1
below ] is given by :
Fig1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with
voltage source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :
Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in
fig.(a).Then we get :
𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
Reciprocity theorem:
Under Basic Electrical Engineering In many electrical networks it is found that if
the positions of voltage source and ammeter are interchanged, the reading of ammeter remains
the same. Suppose a voltage source is connected to a passive network and an ammeter is
connected to other part of the network to indicate the response. Now any one interchanges the
positions of ammeter and voltage source that means he or she connects the voltage source at the
part of the network where the ammeter was connected and connects ammeter to that part of the
network where the voltage source was connected. The response of the ammeter means current
through the ammeter would be the same in both the cases. This is where the property of
reciprocity comes in the circuit. The particular circuit that has this reciprocal property, is called
reciprocal circuit.
Example: Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in the figure (1).?
Fig.(1)
Solution: Total resistance in the circuit across the applied voltage of 20 V is
RTH=2 + [3||(2 +( 2||2))]
=2 +[3||3]
=3.5 Ω
𝑽
The total current drawn by the circuit IT =𝑹 = 20/3.5 = 5.71 A
𝑻𝑯
The current I in the branch ‘cd’ with 2 Ω resistance is find by using current division rule. For
that first find I1 current.
3
I1=5.71× =2.855A
3+3
.
Fig.(2)
Total resistance in the circuit across the applied voltage of 20 V is
RTH=2 + [2||(2 +( 2||3))]
=2 +[2||3.2]
=3.23Ω
𝑽
The total current drawn by the circuit IT =𝑹 =20/3.23=6.19A
𝑻𝑯
The current I in the branch ‘ab’ with 2 Ω resistance is find by using current division rule. For
that first find I1 current.
2
I1=6.19× =2.38A
3.2+2
The current in the branch ‘ab’ = 1.427 A which is same as the current we got in branch ‘cd’
when the voltage was given from branch ‘ab’ . Thus the reciprocity theorem is verified.
Tellegen’s Theorem:
This theorem is the one of the most general theorems in network analysis
regardless to the type and nature, Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to any network made up of
lumped two terminal elements.
Tellegen’s Theorem Statement:
In any linear, non-linear, passive, active, time variant or time invariant network the
algebraic sum of power at any given instant is zero. Thus for Kth branch, this theorem states that
𝑛
∑ 𝑣𝐾 𝑖𝐾 = 0
𝐾=1
The voltage across and the current through a Branch in a bilateral network is
known, the branch can be replaced by any combination of elements in such a way that the same
voltage will appear across and same current will pass through the chosen terminals. In other
words for branch equivalence the terminal voltage and the current must be same .
In this circuit the load resistance RL is the branch being considered for equivalence. The current
I through the load resistance RL = 24/(3+5) = 3 A.
Example: Using substitution theorem, draw equivalent branches for the branch ‘a-b’ of the
network of Fig.(a)?
Fig.(a)
Solution: As per voltage division rule voltage across 3Ω and 2Ω resistance are
10 × 3
𝑉3Ω = = 6𝑉
2+3
10 × 2
𝑉2Ω = = 4𝑉
2+3
10
Current through the circuit is, I= =2A
2+3
If we replace the 3Ω resistance with a voltage source of 6 V as shown in fig (1), then
Fig.(1)
Then according to Ohm’s Law the voltage across 2Ω resistance and current through the circuit is,
𝑉2Ω = 10 − 6 = 4𝑉
10 − 6
𝐼= = 2𝐴
2
Alternately if we replace 3Ω resistance with a current source of 2A as shown in Fig(2),then
Fig.(2)
Voltage across 2Ω is V2Ω = 10 – (3× 2) = 4 V and
Voltage across 2A current source is V2A = 10 - 4 = 6 V.
The voltage across 2Ω resistance and current through the circuit is unaltered i.e.
all initial condition of the circuit is intact.
Compensation Theorem:
It is one of the important theorems in Network Analysis , which finds its
application mostly in calculating the sensitivity of electrical networks & bridges and solving
electrical networks. In many circuits, after the circuit is analyzed, it is realized that only a small
change need to be made to a component to get a desired result. In such a case we would normally
have to recalculate. The compensation theorem allows us to compensate properly for such
changes without sacrificing accuracy.
In Compensation Theorem, the source voltage (VC) opposes the original current.
In simple words compensation theorem can be stated as – the resistance of any network can be
replaced by a voltage source, having the same voltage as the voltage drop across the resistance
which is replaced.
Let us assume a load RL be connected to a DC source network whose Thevenin’s equivalent
gives V0 as the Thevenin’s voltage and RTH as the Thevenin’s resistance as shown in the figure
below.
Here,
V0
I= … … … … … . . (1)
RTH +RL
Let the load resistance RL be changed to (RL + ΔRL). Since the rest of the circuit remains
unchanged, the Thevenin’s equivalent network remains the same as shown in the circuit diagram
below
Here,
V0
I′ = … … … … … … … . . (2)
R TH + (R L + ΔR L )
ΔI = I ′ − I … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
Putting the value of I’ and I from the equation (1) and (2) in the equation (3) we will get the
following equation.
V0 V0
ΔI = −
RTH + (RL + ΔRL ) RTH + RL
V0 {(RTH +RL )−(RTH +(RL +ΔRL )}
ΔI =
(RTH +(RL +ΔRL ))×(RTH +RL )
V0 RTH
ΔI = − [ ] ……..(4)
RTH +RL RTH +(RL +ΔRL )
Now, putting the value of I from the equation (1) in the equation (4), we will get the following
equation.
IRTH
I=− … … … … . (5)
RTH +(RL +ΔRL )
−VC
ΔI =
R TH + (R L + ΔR L )
Hence, Compensation Theorem tells that with the change of branch resistance, branch currents
changes and the change is equivalent to an ideal compensating voltage source in series with the
branch opposing the original current, all other sources in the network being replaced by their
internal resistances.
Example: Determine the current flowing through the ammeter having an internal
resistance of 1 Ω connected in series with a 3 Ω resistor as shown in the fig (a).?
Fig.(a)
Solution:
i=It [6/(6+3)]
10
It =
(4+(6∥3))
10
It =
(4+2)
It =1.67A
i=1.67[6/(6+3)]
i=1.11A
Now when we connect the ammeter with an internal resistance of 1 Ω in the 3 Ω branch ,there is
a change in resistance . This change in resistance causes currents in other branches as if a voltage
source of voltage v is
V= i. R = 1.11x1 = 1.11v
Fig.(1)
Current due to this additional source of 1.11 V in the 3 Ω branch ia is,
1.11
ia=
(1+3+(6∥4))
1.11
ia=
(1+3+2.4)
ia=0.17A
This current flows in the opposite direction to that of the original current i through the 3 Ω
branch(i.e. ia is opposite to i)
Millman’s Theorem:
Millman’s Theorem is a theorem which helps in simplifying electrical networks
with a bunch of parallel branches. The utility of this theorem that, any number of parallel voltage
sources can be reduced to one equivalent one.
Let I represent the resultant current of the parallel current sources while G the equivalent
conductance as shown in the figure below.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 … … … … … ;
G = G1 + G2 + G3 … … … … …(or)
±I1 R1 ±I2 R2 ±⋯………±In Rn
I= ;
R1 +R2 +⋯………+Rn
1 1
𝐺= =
𝑅 R1 + R 2 + ⋯ … … … + R n
The resulting current source is converted to an equivalent voltage source as shown in the fig.
𝐼 ±I1 ± I2 ± ⋯ … … … ± In
𝑉= =
𝐺 G1 + G2 + ⋯ … … … + Gn
1 1
𝑅= =
𝐺 G1 + G2 + ⋯ … … … + Gn
And as we know,I = V/R, and we can also write R = 1/G as G = 1/R So the equation can be
written as,
V V V
± R1 ± R2 ± ⋯ … … … ± Rn
1 2 n
𝑉=
1 1 1
R1 + R 2 + ⋯ … … … + R n
Solution:
Given R1 = R2 = R3 = 4
G = G1 + G2 + G3
1 1 1 3
G= + + =
4 4 4 4
1 4
∴R= = Ω
G 3
V1 G1 + V2 G2 + V3 G3
V=
G1 + G2 + G3
1 1 1
(−4) + (−2) + (10)
V= 4 4 4
3
4
−4 − 2 + 10
V=
3
4
V=
3
So given circuit becomes,
4
V 3 4
∴IL = = 4 = =117.64mA
R+RL +10 34
3