oor

rlld
d
eer
rnn W
W
MMood
d
nn t
thhe
e
ic
ics
s ii p 3
eem
maat
t ro u
a
atth
h G
MM
1
Chapter 2
SET THEORY

2
Learning Objectives:
1. Define sets and identify the types/kinds of sets.

3
Learning Objectives:
1. Define sets and identify the types/kinds of sets.
2. Demonstrate the operations on sets and relate them to Venn
Diagram.

4
Learning Objectives:
1. Define sets and identify the types/kinds of sets.
2. Demonstrate the operations on sets and relate them to Venn
Diagram.
3. Solve practical problems involving sets and its operations.

5
What is Set Theory?

6
2.0 SET THEORY

The branch of mathematics that studies sets, their

properties, operations, and relationships. It provides
the formal framework for understanding how sets
work, how to combine them (union, intersection),
and how they relate to other mathematical
structures. 7
 Georg Ferdinand Ludwig
Philipp Cantor
A German mathematician who created set
theory in the late 19th century. His work laid
the foundation for modern mathematics and
introduced concepts such as infinite sets and
cardinality.
8
What is a Set?

9
2.0 SET

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct

objects, called elements, which can be similar or
related, or dissimilar and non-related. It is
denoted by capital letters of the English
alphabet.
10
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

11
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Even Numbers

12
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}

13
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …} Natural Numbers

14
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow}

15
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow} {red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo,
and violet}.
16
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow}
D = {l, o, v, e}

17
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow}
D = {l, o, v, e} LOVE

18
2.0 SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow}
D = {l, o, v, e}
E = {x ∈ R │x ≥10 }
19
2.0 SET

Members/Element of a set are objects that

composed a set.

It is represented by the symbol ∈.

Can read as: “is an element of” or simply “in”

20
2.0 SET A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
From sets A, B and C C = {colors of the rainbow}

8∈A 8 is an element of set A

100 ∈ B 100 is a member of set B
0∉B 0 is not an element of set B
Amber ∉ C Amber is not an element of set C
21
2.0 SET
The elements of sets A, B, and C are well-defined because we can easily
identify what belongs to each set. Each set has distinct objects, meaning
no element is repeated. Each member of a set is unique and cannot written
more than once in a given set.

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
C = {colors of the rainbow}
D = {l, o, v, e}
E = {x ∈ R │x ≥10 }
22
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET
1. The Tabular or roster form is a method of writing a set by
enumerating its elements within a pair of braces and each element
is separated by a comma.

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3, …}
23
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

2. The Rule form is a method of writing a set by describing the

elements of a set.

A = {set of all even numbers less than 11}

B = {set of positive integers}

24
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

SET-BUILDER NOTATION is a method of writing the rule form into

symbolic form. It uses the following symbols:

25
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

Sometimes it shows the type of number the variable x represents

26
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET
The following are commonly used symbols to express some type of numbers:

1. Whole numbers are numbers 0, 1,2,3 …

2. N- Counting numbers/Natural numbers are whole numbers without the zero, such as 1,2, 3,…

3. Z - Integers are whole numbers but includes the negative numbers, such as …, -2, -1, 0, 1, …

4. Q – Rational numbers are numbers which can be expressed as ratio of integers such as ½,
5/3, 100/23… 27
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET
The following are commonly used symbols to express some type of numbers:

5. P – Irrational numbers are numbers which can’t be expressed as ration of integers such as
√2, 𝜋, e,…

6. R – Real numbers are composed of both rational and irrational numbers, such 2/3, 3.5, 10,
√2, 𝜋, …

7. I – Imaginary numbers such as 2i, 2-3i, √−10,…

28
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

Rule Form: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

29
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

Set-Builder Form:
A = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 11}
or
A = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 11}
30
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

Rule Form: B = {1, 2, 3, …}

31
2.1 WAYS OF WRITING A SET

Set-Builder Form:

B = {x / x ∈ N}
32
2.2 CARDINALITY OF A SET

It is the total number of elements in each set. It

may be denoted by symbols C(S) = N, where S
represent the name of the set and N is the total
number of elements in the given set.

33
2.2 CARDINALITY OF A SET

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B=𝜙

C(A) = 5 C(B) =0
34
2.3 TYPES OF SETS

1. Equal Sets: Sets A and B are equal denoted by A = B if A and B have the same elements

A = {a, l, g, e, b, r}
B = {r, b, a, e, g, l}
A=B

2. Equivalent Sets: Sets A and B are equivalent, denoted by A ∼ B, if A and B have the same
number of elements.

M = {red, blue, yellow}

N = {blue, yellow, red}
M∼N
35
2.3 TYPES OF SETS

3. Finite Sets are sets having finite or countable number of members.

A = {a, l, g, e, b, r} M = {red, blue, yellow}

B = {r, b, a, e, g, l} N = {blue, yellow, red}
Finite Sets

4. Infinite Sets: A set which contains an infinite number of elements.

C = { 0,1,2,3,…}
D = {stars in the sky}
E = {Fibonacci numbers} 36
2.3 TYPES OF SETS

5. A universal set is all the elements, or members, of any group under consideration, denoted
by capital letter U.

U = {set of natural numbers}

U = {set of basic geometric shapes

6. Joint Sets are that have common elements

F = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25}

G = {10, 20, 30 ,40, 50} 37
2.3 TYPES OF SETS
7. Disjoint Sets are sets that have no common element

U = {set of natural numbers}

U = {set of basic geometric shapes

8. Null Set/Empty Set: It is a set with no element, denoted by { } or the symbol 𝜙.

9. Singleton Set is a set which contains a single element

H = { moon}
38
2.4 RELATIONS BETWEEN SETS

1. Subsets: Set A is a subset of B, “A⊆B” if every element of A belongs to B.

M={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} & K={1,3,5,7,9}

K⊆M K⊆K M⊆M

∅⊆M ∅⊆K

39
2.4 RELATIONS BETWEEN SETS

1. Proper Subsets: Set A is a proper subset, B “A⊂B” if every element of A

belongs to B and B has at least one element not found in A.

M={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} & K={1,3,5,7,9}

K⊂M M⊄ M K⊄K
∅⊂ K ∅⊂ M
40
2.4 RELATIONS BETWEEN SETS

Power set, P(A) – is the set of all subsets of a given set and can be found by the formula:
2 where n is the number of elements in the given set.
n

Set A = {1,2,3} has 8 subsets, because 23 = 8 subsets

The subsets are as follows: {1, 2, 3}; {1, 2}; {1, 3};
{2, 3}; {1}; {2;} {3}; { }
41
What is a Venn Diagram?

42
2.5 VENN DIAGRAM

A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of the relationships between sets.

It may also refer to as primary diagram, logic diagram or set diagram

It was popularized by English

Logician John Venn in 1880.
It was invented for use in Set Theory,
another branch of Mathematics
43
2.5 VENN DIAGRAM

Geometric shapes such rectangles and circles may represent universal set and
subsets of universal set, respectively.

A B

44
2.5 VENN DIAGRAM
COMPONENTS OF VENN DIAGRAMS

45
ACTIVITY BY PAIR
COMPONENTS OF VENN DIAGRAMS
Instructions:
List 5 Hobbies you love doing in your free time.
On a clean sheet of paper, draw overlapping circles to create a diagram.
Label each circle with the pair’s name.
On the diagram, compare all your hobbies and present all the difference and
similarities between your partner.

46
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets, 𝐴∪𝐵, is the set of all elements found in A or B or both.

47
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets

·Example:
Set A: {1, 2, 3}
Set B: {3, 4, 5}
Union:
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

48
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets, 𝐴∪𝐵, is the set of all elements found in A or B or both.

2. Intersection of Sets, 𝐴∩𝐵, is the set of all elements common to both A and B.

49
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
2. Intersection of Sets

·Example:
Set A: {1, 2, 3}
Set B: {3, 4, 5}
Intersection:
A ∩ B = {3}

50
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets: 𝐴∪𝐵, is the set of all elements found in A or B or both.

2. Intersection of Sets: 𝐴∩𝐵, is the set of all elements common to both A and B.

3. Complement of A: A’ is the set of all element in the universal set but not found in A.

51
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
3. Complement of A

·Example:
Universal Set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {6,7,8}
A = {1, 2, 3}
Complement of A
A' = {4, 5,6,7,8}

52
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets: 𝐴∪𝐵, is the set of all elements found in A or B or both.

2. Intersection of Sets: 𝐴∩𝐵, is the set of all elements common to both A and B.

3. Complement of A: A’ is the set of all element in the universal set but not found in A.

4. Difference of sets A and B (Relative complement)

A – B, is the set of all elements found in A but not in B.

B – A, is the set of all elements found in B but not in A.

53
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
Example 1
4.Relative complement
Set A: {1, 2, 3}
·Example: Set B: {3, 4, 5}
Set A: {1, 2, 3} A - B = {1,2}
Set B: {3, 4, 5}
Example 2
Difference:
Set A: {1, 2, 3}
A – B = {1, 2}
Set B: {3, 4, 5}
B – A = {4, 5}
B - A = {4,5}
54
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of Sets: 𝐴∪𝐵, is the set of all elements found in A or B or both.

2. Intersection of Sets: 𝐴∩𝐵, is the set of all elements common to both A and B.

3. Complement of A: A’ is the set of all element in the universal set but not found in A.

4. Difference of sets A and B (Relative complement) A – B, is the set of all elements found in A but not in B.
B – A, is the set of all elements found in B but not in A.

5. Symmetric difference of two sets also known as the disjunctive union, is the set of
elements which are in either of the sets, but not in their intersection.
It is denoted by the symbol Δ.

55
2.6 OPERATIONS ON SETS
5. Symmetric difference Step 1: Intersection
Set A: {1, 2, 3}
Set B: {3, 4, 5}
Thus, the Symmetric
A ∩ B = {3} Difference is
A ∆ B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
Step 2: (A∪B) - (A∩B) A ⊖ B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5}
A ∩ B = {3}
(A∪B) - (A∩B) = {1,2,4,5} 56
2.7 LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. COMMUTATIVE LAWS: The order in which the sets are taken does not affect the result.

A U B = B U A; A U B = B U A;

57
2.7 LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. COMMUTATIVE LAWS: The order in which the sets are taken does not affect the result.

2. ASSOCIATIVE LAWS: The grouping in which three or more sets are taken does not affect the result.

A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C; A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

58
2.7 LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. COMMUTATIVE LAWS: The order in which the sets are taken does not affect the result.

2. ASSOCIATIVE LAWS: The grouping in which three or more sets are taken does not affect the result.

3. IDENTITY LAWS: For any subset A of the universal set U the following identities hold:

A∪∅=A A∩∅=∅
A∩U=A A∪U=U

59
2.7 LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. COMMUTATIVE LAWS: The order in which the sets are taken does not affect the result.

2. ASSOCIATIVE LAWS: The grouping in which three or more sets are taken does not affect the result.

3. IDENTITY LAWS: For any subset A of the universal set U the following identities hold:

4. INVERSE OR COMPLEMENT LAWS: For any subset A of the universal set U the following identities hold:

A U A’ = U; A ∩ A’ = ∅

60
2.7 LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. COMMUTATIVE LAWS: The order in which the sets are taken does not affect the result.

2. ASSOCIATIVE LAWS: The grouping in which three or more sets are taken does not affect the result.

3. IDENTITY LAWS: For any subset A of the universal set U the following identities hold:

4. INVERSE OR COMPLEMENT LAWS: For any subset A of the universal set U the following identities hold:

5. DE MORGAN’S LAWS: This relate the intersection and union of sets through complements

1. (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
2. (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’
61
SYMBOLS TO WORDS EXPRESSIONS

A⋂B A and B A’ ⋃ B’ = (A ⋂ B)’ Not A and B

A⋃B A or B A’ ⋂ B’ = (A ⋃ B)’ Not A or B

A-B A only and not B A’ ⋃ B Not A, or B

Δ or ⊖ A or B, but not A and B A’ ⋂ B Not A, and B

A’ Not A

62
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

{}
A collection of A = {3,7,9,14},
Set
elements B = {9,14,28}

| such that so that A = {x | x∈R, x<0}

A⋂B
objects that belong
Intersection A ⋂ B = {9,14}
to set A and set B

63
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A⋃B
Objects that belong
Union A ⋃ B = {3,7,9,14,28}
to set A or set B

A is a subset of B.
A⊆B subset set A is included in
set B.
{9,14,28} ⊆ {9,14,28}

A is a subset of B,
A⊂B
proper subset /
but A is not equal to {9,14} ⊂ {9,14,28}
strict subset
B.

64
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A⊄B
Objects that belong
Union A ⋃ B = {3,7,9,14,28}
to set A or set B

A is a subset of B.
A⊆B subset set A is included in
set B.
{9,14,28} ⊆ {9,14,28}

A is a subset of B,
A⊂B
proper subset /
but A is not equal to {9,14} ⊂ {9,14,28}
strict subset
B.

65
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A⊄B
set A is not a subset
not subset {9,66} ⊄ {9,14,28}
of set B

A⊇B
A is a superset of B.
superset {9,14,28} ⊇ {9,14,28}
set A includes set B

A is a superset of B,
A⊃B
proper superset /
but B is not equal to {9,14,28} ⊃ {9,14}
strict superset
A.

66
CONCLUSION
SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A⊅B
set A is not a
not a superset {9,14,28} ⊅ {9,66}
superset of set B

Number of subset in
2n
# of subsets
power set a set; n= # of
in B = 8
elements

P(A) power set all subsets of A

67
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A = {3,9,14},
A=B
both sets have the
equality B = {3,9,14},
same members
A=B

all the objects that

c
A complement do not belong to set
A

all the objects that

A‘ complement do not belong to set
A
A’= {28}

68
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A = {3,9,14},
A\B
relative objects that belong
B = {1,2,3},
complement to A and not to B
A \ B = {9,14}

A = {3,9,14},
A-B
relative objects that belong
B = {1,2,3},
complement to A and not to B
A - B = {9,14}

objects that belong

AΔB
symmetric A={1,2,3} and B={2,3,4}
to A or B but not to
difference AΔB={1,4}
their intersection

69
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

objects that belong A = {3,9,14},

A⊖B
symmetric
to A or B but not to B = {1,2,3},
difference
their intersection A ⊖ B = {1,2,9,14}

a∈A
element of, A={3,9,14},
set membership
belongs to 3∈A

x∉A
A={3,9,14},
not element of no set membership
1∉A

70
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

(a,b)
collection of 2
ordered pair
elements

A = {1,2},
A×B
set of all ordered
Cartesian product B = {x,y},
pairs from A and B
A×B={(1,x),(1,y),(2,x),(2,y)}

|A|
the number of A={3,9,14},
cardinality
elements of set A |A| =3

71
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

#A
the number of A={3,9,14},
cardinality
elements of set A #A=3

set of all natural

ℵ0
infinite cardinality of numbers (N={1,2,3,…}),
aleph-null
natural numbers set The number of integers
(Z)

cardinality of
ℵ1
set of all real numbers
aleph-one countable ordinal
(R)
numbers set

72
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Ø empty set Ø = {} A=Ø

set of all natural

u
set of all possible numbers (N={1,2,3,…}),
universal set
values The number of integers
(Z)

natural numbers /
N0 whole numbers
set (with zero)
N0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0 ∈ N0

73
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

natural numbers /
n1 whole numbers
set (without zero)
n 1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6∈n
1

Z
integer numbers set of all possible
-6 ∈ Z
set values

Q
rational numbers Q = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈
2/6 ∈ Q
set Z and b≠0}

74
CONCLUSION

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

R real numbers set R = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈ R

C
complex numbers C = {z | z=a+bi, -
6+2i ∈ C
set ∞<a<∞, -∞<b<∞}

75