Anthony 1928 Field Book of North American Mammals

\
to
PUTNAM'S
NATURE FIELD BOOKS
Companion books to this one
Mathews American Wild Flowers
American Trees and Shrubs
Wild Birds and their Music
Durand Wild Flowers in Homes and Gardens
My Wild Flower Garden
Common Ferns
Lutz Insects
Loomis Rocks and Minerals
Eliot Birds of the Pacific Coast
Armstrong Western Wild Flowers
Alexander Birds of the Ocean
Anthony North American Mammals
Thomas Common Mushrooms
Sturgis Birds of the Panama Canal Zone
Miner Seashore Life
Breader Marine Fishes of Atlantic Coast
Morgan Ponds and Streams
Longyear Rocky Mountain Trees and Shrubs
Each in One Volume

fully illustrated
including many
Colored
Plates
Plate I
FIELD BOOK OF
nDescriptions of every mammal krwwn

north of the îo Qrande, together
with brief accounts of habits,
geographical ranges, etc.
H. E. ANTHONY, MA.
Curator, Dept. of Mammals, American
Museum of Natural History
l£)ith 32 coloured plates and 175 p

pen-and-ink sketches and
G, P.PUTNAM^S
NEW YORK — LONDON
1928
FIELD BOOK OF
NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS
Copyright, 1928
by
H. E. Anthony
First Edition
yi^<^
Made in the United States of America

INTRODUCTION
Need for a Field Book
Many books and papers have been written about North
American mammals. Some of these have been written for
the layman; by far the greater number have been penned for
a very limited circle of readers, the mammalogists or scientific
students of mammalogy. While the study of mammals has
been going on for centuries, the field has been by no means
worked out there are many mammals today of which we know
;
almost nothing, aside from their physical appearance. In

common with all sciences, the intensive study of mammals has
made great progress in recent years. We go to the older
works, such as Audubon and Bachman, because they are
classics, but in the light of present-day knowledge they fall
short of our requirements. We have discovered so many new

species which were unknown at that time, or we have so altered
the system of classification in the attempt to improve the
science, that the earlier writings do not bridge the gaps. It
may be stated that there is no single publication today which
attempts to give a full and adequate synopsis, with geographi-
ical distribution and notes on habits, of every North American
mammal. The United States National Museum has published
a very excellent check-list of North American mammals,
written by Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., of which more will be said
later, which is invaluable to students of rnammals, but this
volume by itself will not carry the layman far because it
contains no descriptions and but few common names. There
are complete descriptions, names, habits, etc., for the mam-
mals of certain favored districts, and several very useful and
valuable publications on the mammals of the country at large,
the outstanding example of which is the recent four- volume
work by Seton, the very finest book on mammals ever written
for the layman. This latter is a limited, de luxe edition of a
size to be used only in the library and, complete as it is, it
does not deal with all of the smaller mammals^ O /I A
INTRODUCTION
From the foregoing it can be seen that there is a real and

definiteneed for a work of field book size which will give some
space, brief though it may be, to each and every recognized
species and subspecies of North American mammal. No
single volume can be expected to contain all the data required
by scientist and layman, and in this field book the layman is
considered first. Early in planning the scope of the work I
encountered obvious difficulties. These should be briefly
explained to justify the plan which has been followed.
Scope of this Field Book
There are 1,445 species and subspecies treated in the follow-

ing pages. In dealing with this large number so much space
has been used that the individual treatments have been con-
densed to the limit. The intention has been to give at least
one full and detailed description in each group, and then by
comparison or reference to this data hold the synopses of the
other forms of the group to the minimum of space. Often the
basis for separation of one species from another is of such a
technical nature or so subtle in character that it is most
difficult to describe for a lay reader. To omit completely all
of the forms which fall into this category would create unde-
sirable gaps in the field book. However, by using the geograph-
ical distribution as a key, one frequently is able to identify
these troublesome, closely related forms, because we have had
the distributions of the various groups worked out from large
series of specimens and it is fairly well known where most of
these animals belong. For the sake of providing a compre-
hensive catalogue, every North American mammal is therefore
listed,^ using the term North America to include all of the
continent north of the Rio Grande and following Miller's List
of North American Recent Mammals as authority. Maps to
show the geographical distribution of many of the species are
given as an aid in identification.
Unless he be a specialist, the reader will only be confused
by discussions of the skull characters of mammals, and they
are omitted, although the greater part of the classification of
mammals is based upon skull characters. Frequently the
"^
With the exception of certain of the Bears of the genus Ursus, as
explained on page 78.
INTRODUCTION
superficial characters given in this field book are not exclusively

diagnostic, but under the circumstances they must suffice, and
they be found serviceable when taken in conjunction with
will
the known geographical range. Apart from making the book
too technical, the inclusion of skull characters for every form
would require a work of not one but several volumes. Upon
rare occasions, when a species has been so dependent upon
cranial characters that superficial characters were too obvi-
ously inadequate, it has become necessary to employ these
internal data. Many lovers of mammals see their specimens
in the flesh and a description of external features is what is
wanted. The more technical reader is referred to the con-
stantly cited revisions which are given in the text and most of
which are to be found in well-stocked libraries throughout
the country. For anyone wishing to go beyond the handbook
stage in his study of mammals, these revisions are not only
helpful but an absolute essential.
Standard List of Species and Subspecies
Descriptions of new speciesand subspecies are continually

being published. Since work on this field book began,- quite
a few such papers have appeared and it has become necessary
to revise manuscript to include changes. For the purposes
of the field book it has seemed advisable to draw a dividing
line somewhere; otherwise the manuscript would have been
unduly delayed by going back over copy to bring it up to
date. Miller's List of North American Recent Mammals offered
a satisfactory solution for this problem and the 1923 edition
was chosen as the basis for this field book. However, I have
used all subsequent papers for data other than new names and
have attempted to consult every source up to the time of going
to press; also the new names and changes of nomenclature in
important revisions since 1923 have been used.
Sources of Data Used
Wherever possible, I have compiled the data for the synopses

from the different revisions or monographs which have been
written on North American mammals. These monographs
are the published results of years of study and are based upon
INTRODUCTION
the accumulated collections of all the large museums. The

reviser has borrowed all the available material he could find,
and the insight he has secured makes his conclusions of much
greater value than those of one who works with only a few
specimens. I have cited these monographs throughout the
book, and it may be stated that in many cases I have quoted

or paraphrased directly from these works. The reviser, with
his wealth of material, has chosen the most typical specimens
as the basis for each description, and this is an aid in avoiding
extreme examples. The description may be regarded more
or less as a norm which is as often exceeded as not reached in
the development of any character. Incidentally, I have had
access to the fairly large and complete collection of North
American mammals in the American Museum and have taken
much data directly from the skins.
Common Names
mammal known to science has a scientific name,

While every
itdoes not follow that it has a vernacular or common name.
On the contrary, only a small percentage of our mammals have
good, distinctive,common names that serve to identify the
and subspecies in large groups which may be
different species
represented by half a hundred species and subspecies. For
example, consider the Chipmunks. Even a casual observer
will recognize, in visiting different parts of the country, that
there are many Chipmunks. Yet he will
distinct varieties of
find that in most sections the people know only the one name
for the creature —'Chipmunk. Popular interest in precise,
common names for mammals
has not reached the stage where
qualifying adjectives have been applied to the group names.
Wherever common names exist and can be used to clearly
designate mammals, they have been taken for this volume.
Some mammalogists, when they describe a species new to
science and properly label it with a Latin name, have given
at the same time an English common name. But most mam-
mals either have not received convenient popular names or
have been christened with stilted or poorly chosen names such
as are little likely to come into general usage. A common
name, to come into popular favor, must be sufficiently apt
and descriptive to make recollection an easy matter; it must
vi
INTRODUCTION
not be too long, and if there is something catchy about it so

much the better. "Chipmunk" illustrates this point for it
has become a fixed term all over North America, whereas a
name such as "Little Striped Ground Squirrel" not only does
not live long, but is confusing because there are "Little
Striped Ground Squirrels" of several different genera, quite
distinct mammals. It is no easy matter to create diagnostic
common names which mean anything and yet find popular
approval. In fact, there are very good arguments against
giving each and every scientific form a vernacular or trivial
name, and I have done so in the full knowledge that my action
will be open to criticism. My answer will be that this field
book is primarily for the layman and he will want common
names; for others there are Latin names, and the common
names may be ignored. Indian names are useful and from
them we have taken "Woodchuck," "Sewellel," "Cacomistl,"
and "Jaguar," and so forth. Where it has been necessary to
create a common name or select one from names already
created, the attempt has been made to get a name as nearly
as possible conforming to the requirements of brevity, signifi-
cance and everyday usage.
Mammalogy as a Science
And now, having called attention to the difficulties of

classification inpopular terms and the lack of common names,
it should be stated that the study of mammals as carried on by
specialists is by no means inexact or unscientific, but is

precise and regulated to the last degree. Naturalists have
formulated regular rules for the basis of classification and the
creation of scientific names, and taking the tenth edition of
Linnaeus' Systema Natures, 1758, as the starting point, they
have developed the study of mammals along definitely pre-
scribed and universally (more or less) accepted laws. The
classification of mammals is not just a game with highly
artificial rules; wherever possible arbitrary assumptions and
the personal equation have been eliminated, although these
factors can never be completely eliminated. And this brings
us to the methods employed to standardize results and to
enable us to compare the data gathered by one worker with
that brought together by all other workers.
INTRODUCTION
Measurements
Measurements are habitually made in millimeters by mam-

malogists because of the widespread acceptance of the metric
system in the fields of science. These measurements have
been converted to inches in the field book, since most of the
readers are accustomed to think in terms of inches. The basis
of conversion from millimeters to inches is twenty-five that is, ;
twenty-five millimeters equal one inch (this is approximate,

but so nearly exact that it serves our purpose) The measure-
.
ments of mammals usually taken are total length, length of

tail vertebrae, and length of hind foot.
The total length is the distance in a straight line from the

tip of the nose to the tip of the tail, not including the hair on
the end of the tail. This length is taken by a steel tape or
ruler along the back of the mammal, with the body in a
straight line, head, neck, and tail extended to give the exact
length.
The length of the tail vertebras is taken from the dorsal root
of the tail to the fleshy tip of the tail, the hair on the end of the
tailnot being included. A common method of securing this
dimension is to extend the tail upward at right angles from
the back and measure from the rump, at the base of the tail,
to the last bit of skin on the tail, the tail vertebrae to be kept
perfectly straight. This measurement may also be taken by
dividers which are applied to the specimen and then laid on a
tape.
The length of the hind foot is taken from the edge of the heel
to the tip of the longest claw, the foot extended and kept fiat
so that the curvature of the toes is straightened out.
These three measurements usually afford a very good index
to the size of the mammal. Another useful measurement in
some species is the height of the ear, measured either from the
crown of the head or from the notch in the lowest part of the
basal external margin. The method of taking the ear measure-
ment is always stated "from crown" or "from notch." The
length of head and body is often important and, of course, can
be obtained from the basic measurements always taken, by
subtracting the length of the tail vertebras from the total
length.
Weights of mammals are important. This data has not
INTRODUCTION
been very consistently gathered and is especially desirable in

the case of large mammals. very inconvenient and,
It is often
because of the lack of the proper equipment, even impossible
to take the weights of Deer, Bear, Mountain Lion, etc., but if
sportsmen could secure the weights of their game it would not
only help to fill in gaps in our knowledge of North American
mammals, but it would also serve to correct the prevalent ideas
of fabulous weights for our larger game mammals. It has been
truthfully stated that, for some reason or another, the geo-
graphical ranges of the exceptionally large mammals never
seem to coincide with the range of the Fairbanks scales.
Description of Color
The description of the color of amammal presents several

the most obvious being the determination of the
difficulties,
actual color by the describer himself and the definition of the
color in terms which will convey the correct color perception
to the reader. Most mammals have color patterns made up
of a blending of several colors or shades. The individual hairs
may have two or three distinct color bands and the pelage
may be made up of two or more types of hairs differently
colored. The eye receives a general color impression from the
blending of all of these, or upon closer inspection the general
impression may be resolved into its components. In some
cases the color descriptions in this field book apply to the tones
and shades of the individual hairs, but when a pattern is
plainly predominated by a single color, the description refers
to the general impression.
Precise color nomenclature calls for a terminology which
would often be troublesome for the average reader. Most
mammalogists use color terms as set forth in Ridgway's
Color Standards and Nomenclature, comparing directly with the
charts given in that book. Wherever Ridgway's terms are
more or less self-explanatory they have been used in this
field book. Occasionally I have drawn upon more general and
less restricted terms, either because the nomenclature of the
precise shadeis too technical or because the color pattern of
the animal in question was so variable that the looser term

best suited it.
INTRODUCTION
Acknowledgments
To almost everyone who has written upon North American

mammals I owe acknowledgment, for I have helped myself
liberally wherever I found data. To the authorities of the
American Museum of Natural History I am profoundly grate-
without their permission to use collections, library, and
ful, for
other could not have undertaken this field book.

facilities I
To my colleagues. Dr. Frank M. Chapman and Dr. Frank E.

Lutz, I am greatly indebted for advice on various matters
which their experience with popular handbooks has quahfied
them to give. The members of my own department in the
Museum have been of assistance in helping with some of the
details which pile up in the work of this sort. The artists
whose illustrations appear, Miss Olive Otis for color plates,
Mr. Francis B. vShields for line cuts, and Mr. Frank Vitolo for
maps, have worked under my direction and done much to
relieve a lengthy text. In answer to my appeal for photo-
graphs, the naturalists whose work is shown have responded
most generously and I am greatly obligated to them for their
cooperation. In conclusion, I tender my sincerest thanks to
my Miss Ida Grobe, whose unfailing interest,
secretary,
patience, and diligence have been of the greatest value to me
and without whose help the long-suffering publishers would
still be calling for copy.
I know that errors will be discovered in this book. I hope
they will not be many. I have striven to keep the number

as low as possible and when they do appear I take full credit,
or discredit, for them. I shall be glad to have my attention
drawn to such errors, not because I shall be pleased to learn

of their existence, but because with this knowledge I shall be
warned against their repetition.
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates possessing twelve
pairs of cranial nerves, a four-chambered heart, double circu-
latory system, thoracic cavity separated from abdominal cavity
by a muscular diaphragm, skull articulating with atlas at two
occipital condyles, lower jaw (a single bone on each side)
articulating directly with skull, bodies covered by hair (if not
in the adult stage at least during some part of the embryonic
development) and two pairs of limbs (hind limbs lost or
vestigial in Cetacea and Sirenia); they bear the young alive
and nurse them at the breast. The name mammal is derived
from this method of feeding the young at the mammas or
breasts. The chief distinctions between mammals and birds
are the hairy covering, non-nucleate red blood corpuscles, and
the bearing of live young nursed at the breast.
Early Mammals
The earliest known mammal has been found as a fossil in the

depositsof the Triassic epoch, about 150,000,000 to 180,000,000
years ago.^ Although comparatively few specimens of mam-
mals have been discovered as far back as the Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous, a large number are known from the Eocene,
the following geological epoch, some 50,000,000 to 60,000,000
years ago, and scientists are able to trace the major develop-
ment of most of our present-day mammals from these ancient
ancestors.
Most of these ancestral forms seem to have been quite well-
developed mammals and already very distinct from other
quadrupeds. The mammals are believed to have been derived
from reptile-like ancestors and the very first mammals are
thought to have evolved from Cynodont reptiles early in the
Triassic epoch. This places the birth of the class Mammalia
so far back, roughly 200,000,000 years, that the time element
^ Figures taken from Arthur Holmes, The Age of the Earth,

1927; and
Joseph Barrel, Rhythms and the Measurements of Geologic Time, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., 1917.
xi
is
WHAT IS
beyond our complete comprehension.

A MAMMAL?
We may be certain
I
that if typical mammals lived in early
well-specialized
Tertiary times we must look very much deeper into the past to
find the very first mammal-like quadrupeds. Palaeontology
has a remarkable record of mammal history from the Eocene
to the Recent, by no means complete, but full enough to reveal
much data bearing on the appearance and development of the
orders, families, and genera of present-day mammals.
Classification of Mammals
Our modem system of the classification of mammals is based

upon the external and internal structure, anatomy, of living
mammals, and the internal structure of the fossil mammals of
bygone epochs. As a rule, only the hard parts of mammals
are preserved as fossils, and we have no certain knowledge of
the external appearance of these mammals, drawing conclu-
sions as to what they looked like alive only by analogy. For
purposes of classification, most external data are of importance
only in separating species and subspecies, since the truly
fundamental characters of relationship are to be found under
the hair and skin. The general scheme of this classification
is to start with the large groups of mammals all possessing
certain important characters. These large groups are in turn

split up into smaller groups on the basis of common characters
within each smaller group and certain differences in structure
which distinguish one group from all the other groups. By a
series of such reductions of the larger groups, eventually the
scheme arrives at a very small group, which includes only one
unit, the species or subspecies, as the case may be, which
differs in some character or characters from all the other unit
groups, but is related through the larger groupings to many
other mammals.
We have then the largest group within the Animal Kingdom,
which includes all the mammals and excludes all other quad-
rupeds, and this is called the Class Mammalia. For the sake
of example, let us start down through the lesser groups toward
some particular species, the Star-nosed Mole, and we encounter
successively the Subclass Eutheria (all the mammals except
the Monotremes or egg-laying mammals), the Order Insec-
tivora (mammals of small size, primitive structure, and special-
— ,
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
ization foran insect diet) the Family Talpidce (all the Moles)
,
the Genus Condylura (Moles with highly-developed, fleshy

fringe about end of muzzle), and the Species cristata (the Star-
nosed Mole). Thus, step by step, the system has ruled out
the mammals which bear a remote relationship to the Star-
nosed Mole, while preserving at the same time the ties of close
relationship, and a definite position has been created for the
one species of Mole which differs from all the other Moles and
yet is a true Mole, an insectivore, a viviparous mammal, and
a mammal in the largest and most inclusive sense. When we
write the scientific name for the Star-nosed Mole we use only
the genus and species name, thus Condylura cristata and —
all of the rest of it is understood, if we follow the generally
accepted classification.
If there were several creatures, all obviously Star-nosed
Moles, but differing from one another by some comparatively
trivial character such as color of pelage or difference in size,
then in order to indicate just which one of these particular
varieties we had in mind it would be necessary to add some
thing to our two-word name, Condylura cristata, and split up
the species into subspecies, forming a name such as Condylura
cristata alpha or Condylura cristata beta, or what-not, depend-
ing upon what name the describer of the subspecies selects.
At the end of the scientific name of the mammal the name
of the describer or author of the name is written. If the
author's name is placed within parentheses it indicates a
change from the original form in which the scientific name was
written.
The old criterion of a species was its inability to cross or
hybridize successfully with other closely related members of
the same large group. Proof of successful mating indicated
that the parents were of the same species. This test is still
accepted as one of the best checks against the naming of too

many species. On the other hand, the recognition of sub-
species implies that the particular variety designated
by the
third term in the name
does successfully cross with other
individuals which have the common characters indicated by
the second term of the name. To illustrate the Eastern —
Chipmunk is Tamias striatus which is recognized to occur as
five different subspecies. The typical form is Tamias striatus
striatus, the term striatus being repeated in the name to show
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
that this particular subspecies or variety served as the type

for the species. Tamias striatus fisheri is a variety which
differs sHghtly from typical striatus but is so closely related
to it that it and we find examples where the
interbreeds with it
ranges of the two forms meet which are just as much typical
striatus asthey are fisheri. This intergrading may extend
through a chain of several subspecies where subspecies A inter-
grades with B, B with C, C with D, et cetera. Although the
geographical range of subspecies A may not touch that of
subspecies D, so that A and D never actually intergrade
directly, nevertheless the subspecific relationship is well shown
by the intermediate members of the series and A, B, C, and
D are all to be considered as subspecies of the same species.
Variability of Mammals
Mammals vary in size, coloration, and proportion of parts.
This variation is usually within close limits, but sometimes
variation in color may cover a wide range. The descriptions
in this field book are intended to apply, as far as possible, to
the average individual of any given species and the measure-
ments, colors, etc., must not be regarded as narrowly restrictive.
Individuals may vary as much as ten per cent or more in size,
from the figures given, and when identifying a mammal due
consideration must be made for individual variation. Atten-
tion is generally directed to the most variable characters, in
the synopsis.
Life-Histories of Mammals
The study of the life-histories of mammals is a fascinating
subject and one that is by no means exhausted. While we
know many interesting facts about the behavior of mammals,
there are many details which we can only suspect, and
probably as many more of which we do not even have a
suspicion. Nor does one need to go to a far frontier to look
for these facts; some of our commonest mammals are today
only superficially known. The Mole, secreted in its subter-
ranean fortress, the Shrew, favored by small size and under-
cover activity, the Flying Squirrel, coming forth only at night,
and many other nocturnal wanderers have successfully con-
cealed many intimate details of behavior. Bats are an enigma
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
well worth the solving, with their mastery of flight, their

possession (?) and their super-organization of
of a sixth sense,
the nervous system. The great waves of rodent increase which
come in cycles in Rabbits and Meadow Mice or Lemmings
present unusual opportunities for observation.
Hunters and sportsmen learn many facts of life-history in
looking for game and because of this we know more today
about some of the large mammals than we do of the much more
abundant, small mammals. It can not be too strongly recom-
mended that persons who are out-of-doors, with opportunities
for observation, keep a journal or record of what they see of
mammal behavior. Not only will this practice give direction
and purpose to what may otherwise be random study, but it
will make natural history all the more fascinating and may
supj)ly some new and valuable data.
Life Zones
It will be noted that there are frequent references to "Life

Zones" in the geographical ranges in this field book. These
are the "Zones" used so extensively by the U. S. Biological
Survey. They are based upon the studies of Dr. C. H.
Merriam and others of the Survey and were set forth in their
earliest form by Dr. J. A. Allen, in 1871. Lack of space
prevents more than a passing reference to this scheme, but a
colored map is bound into the inner cover of this book and
several titles are mentioned in the bibliography at the close
of the book for the readers who are unfamiliar with these
useful terms.
The attention of the reader is directed to the legend under
the colored map which points out that the "Zones" which are
known as Alleghenian, Carolinian, and Austroriparian in the
east become the Transition, Upper Sonoran, and Lower
Sonoran west of the looth meridian.
^;^^
XV
HOW TO USE THIS FIELD BOOK
How may mammals and what is the best way to
one study
use this field book? Assuming that the observer is within a
short distance of wild land or areas where dwellings are far
enough apart to permit wild creatures to live in the meadows,
brushy areas, or forests in between, the only requisites are
good eyes and ears and a fair amount of patience. Even about
our large cities there are many tracts of land where mammals
live in their wild and unmolested state, and practically every-
where away from the cities a fairly extensive mammal popula-
tion may be found if one knows how and where to seek it.
The average person may not wish to capture or disturb the
mammals he is observing and in that event he must depend
upon what long range observation will give him. In the case
ofsome mammals, such as the Squirrels and most of the larger
mammals which he may be fortunate enough to see, there
should be little difficulty in identification. The markings,
size, and form of these mammals are so distinctive that usually
there will be little doubt as to which large, general group the
mammal belongs. That is to say, one will recognize that he is
looking at some species of Squirrel, Weasel, Rabbit, Fox, Deer,
et cetera, and the additional information to seek will be the
particular one of the group he has noted. Is it a Red Squirrel,
a Gray Squirrel, or a Fox Squirrel; a Varying Hare or a Cotton-
tail;a Red Fox or a Gray Fox? By consulting the field book
and looking over the particular genus involved, the identifi-
cation is carried out still farther, and by noting from the
geographical ranges just what form should be found in
the region in question, the student can then check over the
brief synopsis of that form to learn whether it describes
his mammal or not. If the description does not fit, then try
descriptions of the other forms whose geographical ranges
would be most likely to bring them into the territory.
But for nocturnal mammals or those of secretive habits, it
will be necessary to use traps in order to gain first-hand
acquaintance. These traps may be of the type that takes
mammals alive or, if a study specimen for the collector's

calînet is desired, the traps may be Newhouse
of the ordinary
pattern or the common, we have so
spring mouse- trap. Since
many details yet to learn about the daily habits and home life
of mammals, there is much to commend capturing them alive
and keeping them in comfortable cages under observation.
JMost small mammals tame readily and are easily cared for,
and especially is this true of the rodents.
Although it is not very difficult to find the evidence that
small rodents are present in a given locality, it is not often that
one can catch more than a glimpse of the creatures themselves,
and then they are apt to be alarmed and soon pass from
observation. Meadow Mice, White-footed Mice, Pocket Mice,
Jumping Mice, etc., may be fairly abundant in a region and
yet so seldom seen that trapping is the only recourse. The
best trap for these small mammals is a box-trap, and for bait
many things may be used, —apple, raisin, grain, bread, bacon,
and so forth ; most small mammals are unsuspecting and enter
traps freely.
To gain a complete idea of the mammals of a locality it will
be necessary to set out traps for dead specimens and to skin
and make up the mammals into so-called "study specimens."
These are then studied and identified from descriptions in
books and by direct comparisons with specimens in the large
museums. One soon gains the knack of preparing these study
specimens and the building up and serious study of a
mammal collection is well worth the time devoted to it. The
sentimental reluctance one naturally feels at killing these wild
creatures may be set at rest by the realization that the forces
of the wild environment and the stupendous sacrifice of life
exacted every twenty-four hours by Dame Nature herself make
the activity of the collector a very trivial consideration; and it
is better to devote a few specimens to a serious and lasting
purpose than to forego the capture and surrender the victim

to a Snake, Hawk, Weasel or predatory House-cat. The
collector is usually the least of all the many enemies a mammal
may have.
A small, compact set of instructions on the Capture and
Preservation of Small Mammals for Study is published by the
American Museum of Natural History, Guide Leaflet No. 6i,
and is sold at fifteen cents a copy. The United States
National Museum has published a short account, Directions

for Preparing Specimens of Mammals, by Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.,
which has gone through several editions.
Briefly set forth, the purpose of a study skin is to show the
animal in a compact form which can be easily preserved and
stored. The small species. Mice, Rats, Squirrels, etc., are
skinned, poisoned with arsenic and alum on the flesh side of the
skin and then filled out with tow or cotton to somewhat the
original size. The stuffed skin is dried, with body, legs, and
tail straight, and if the specimen is stored away from moths
and bright sunlight, it will remain as a permanent and faithful
record for a great many years, probably several centuries. It
is well to adopt a standardized procedure in the preparation
of skins, since then comparisons may be made without undue
allowance for such man-made characters as over or under-
stuffing, distorted limbs, etc.
Traps may be set in the places most likely to bs frequented
by the mammals desired in this field book the favorite haunts
;
for each type of mammal are given, as well as the food of that
species, and this data will be of service to the collector.
CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . 111
What is a Mammal? . . . .
xi
How TO Use This Field Book xvi

Opossums (Family Didelphiidse) 4
Moles (Family Talpidas) . 8
Shrews (Family Soricidsej 25
Leaf-nosed Bats (Family Phyllostomidae) 47
Bats (Family Vespertilionidai) .
49
Free-tailed Bats (Family Molossidas) 69
Bears (Family Ursidce) .
74
Raccoons (Family Procyonidae) 86
Cacomistles (Family Bassariscidaj) . 90
Martens, Weasels, and Minks (Subfamily Mustelinaj) 92
Wolverines (Subfamily Gulonince) . . . .111
Otters (Subfamily Lutrinae) . . . . .114
vSea Otters (Subfamily Enhydrinae) . . .118
Skunks (Subfamily Alephitinae) . . . .120
Badgers (Subfamily Taxidiinas) . . .
-134
Foxes, Coyotes, and Wolves (Family Canidae) . 137
Cats (Family Felidse) . . . . .
-157
Eared Seals (Family Otariidae) . . . .170
Hair Seals (Family Phocidag) . . . .173
Walruses (Family Odobenidae) . . . .180
WooDCHUCKs, Ground Squirrels, Prairie-dogs,
Sciurinas) ........
Chipmunks, and Tree Squirrels (Subfamily
Flying Squirrels (Subfamily Pteromyinae) . .

183
260
Pocket Gophers (Family Geomyidae) . . . 269
Pocket Rats and Pocket Mice (Family Heteromyidee) 297
xxi
.
CONTENTS
Beavers (Family .....

Castoridae)
Grasshopper Mice, Harvest Mice, White-footed
327
(Subfamily Cricetince)......
Mice, Rice Rats, Cotton Rats, and Wood Rats
Voles, Lemmings, Lemming Mice, Red-backed

332
.....
Mice, Meadow Mice, and Muskrats (Subfamily
Microtinse)
Introduced Rats and Mice (Family Muridas)
394
448
Mountain Beavers (Family Aplodontiidas) 452
Jumping Mice (Family Zapodida?) .
458
Porcupines (Family Erethizontida) .
464
PiKAS (Family Ochotonidae) 470
Hares and Rabbits (Family Leporidee) 477
Peccaries (Family Tayassuidse)
Deer (Family Cervidae) ....
Pronghorns (Family Antilocapridae)
511
513
533
Goats (Family Bovidas)

Armadillos (Family Dasypodidee)
....
Bisons, Muskoxen, Mountain Sheep, and A-Iou
537
550
Manatees (Family Trichechidae) 554
Right Whales (Family Balaenidae) .
558
Gray Whale (Family Rhachianectidae) 559
Balasnopteridse)
Sperm Whale (Family
.....
Finbacks, Rorquals, and Humpback Whales
Physeteridae)
(Famil
560
563
Pigmy Sperm Whale (Family Kogiidae) 564
Dolphins and Porpoises (Family Delphinidae) 565
Beaked Whales (Family
Bibliography
Index
..... Ziphiid£e) .
572
575
587
.\CAc
>> nOS A/
^^3
I I ^H
M^4Sj .^>
ILLUSTRATIONS ^ I. K
FACING
PLATE PAGE
I. RocKv Mountain Sheep. (/« color)
Frontispiece
For text see page 542
II. Opossum and Armadillo. {In color)
III. Bats, Shrews, and Moles. {In color)
IV. Color Phases of the Black Bear.

{In color) . 76
V. Grizzly Bear and Alaska Brown Bear

{In color) . 80
VI. Ring-tailed
color) ....Cat and Raccoon. (/
86
VII. Marten and Fisher. {In color) 96
VIII. Weasels. {In color) 104
IX. Mink and Otter. {In color) 108
X. Little Spotted Skunk, Hog-nosed

Skunk,
color) .....
and Common Skunk. (/
120
XI. Badger and Wolverine. {In color) 136
XII. Cross Fox, Red Fox, Silver Fox, ani

Kit Fox. {In color) -.
140
XIII.
XIV.
......
Arctic Fox, Blue Fox, and
{In color)
Coyote and Gray Wolf.

Gray Fox
{In color)
144
152
XV. Cougar and Jaguar. {In color) . 160
XVI. Jaguarundi and Ocelot. {In color) 162
XVII. Bay Lynx or Bobcat. (Photo by Wm

Lyman Underwood) 164
ILLUSTRATIONS
ACING
PAGE
XVIII. Immature Eastern Raccoon.
by H. E. Anthony)
For text see
....
page 88
(Photo
166
XIX. Bobcat and Canada Lynx. {In color) 168
XX. Prairie-dogs, Mountain Beaver, Wood-

chuck, AND Hoary Marmot. {In color) I S3
XXI. Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel.

(Photo by H. H. Pittman) 204
XXII. Lyster Chipmunk. (Photo by A. A.

Allen) 236
XXIII. Ground Squirrels. {In color) 238
XXIV. Chipmunks. {In color) 240
XXV. Arboreal Squirrels. {In color) . 248
XXVI. Pocket Mouse, Pocket Rats, and

Pocket Gophers. {In color) 2S8
XXVII.
XXVIII.
Porcupines,
{In color)
Beaver House
......
Muskrat,
in a Lake
and
in
Beaver.
Southern
330
Ontario. (Photo by H. E. Anthony) . 332
XXIX. Baird White-footed Mouse. (Photo

by H. H. Pittman) . . .
-354
XXX. Mice and Rice Rat. {In color) . . 364
XXXI. Prairie Jumping Mouse. (Photo by

H. H. Pittman) . . . .446
XXXII. Two views of Hibernating Jumping

M0.USE. (Photo by A. A. Allen) . 446
,.••< i ""j For text see page 464
•'
,/' \ ^'. "' ^.vy /'";
XXXyij^:- rN^R€>i>ucE:D. .Rats, Wood Rats, and

/%s >'"' Cotton- 'Rat, {In color) . . . 448
X:5®^lA^.vIÂCiFic Mountain Beaver. (Photo by

^"51 H. E. Antlioriy): . . . -456
XXIV
ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING
PLATE PAGE
XXXV. Immature Canada Porcupine. (Photo
by G. Clyde Fisher) . . . .466
XXXVI. PiKA, Hares and Rabbits. {In color) 470
XXXVII. FiGGiNS PiKA. (Photo by E. R. Warren) 472
XXXVIII. "Hay" Pile made by Pika, Sawtooth
XXXIX.
.....
Mountains, Idaho. (Photo by H. E.
Anthony)
Rocky Mountain Snowshoe Rabbit.
476
(Photo by E. R. Warren.) Wash-

ington Jack Rabbit. (Photo by H. E.
Anthony) . . . . . 482
XL. Rocky Mountain Bighorn. (Photo by

E. R, Warren) . . . .510
XLI. Collared Peccary and Pronghorn

Antelope. {In color) . . . 512
XLII. Wapiti and Moose, {In color) . .514
XLIII. White-tailed Deer, Buck, Doe and.
Fawn. {In color) . . . .518
XLIV. Black-tailed Deer and Mule Deer
(the former is the Columbian Black-
tailed Deer.) {In color) . . . 522
XLV. MusKOX AND Bison. {In color) . , 526
For text see pages 538 and 540
XLVI. Rocky Mountain Goat and Woodland

Caribou.
Rocky Mountain
{In color) .... 530
XLVII. Goat. (Photo by
Dan McCowan) . . . .548
XLVIII. Short-finned Blackfish. (Photo by
R. C. Murphy) 570
^^^^^TFlT^;^ '
(uu 1 1 B - '^ R Y j 33)

FIELD BOOK OF
NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS
Class MAMMALIA
See definition of the class, on page xi.
Subclass EUTHERIA
All mammals exclusive of the Monotremes.
Order MARSUPIALIA. MARSUPIALS

Mammals of small to young
which are born
large size, the of
at a very incomplete stage of development and are usually
carried by the mother in an external abdominal pouch. In
some members of the order the pouch is rudimentary or even
absent, but in the species found in the United States it is well
developed. Brain of a low order; a true allantoic placenta
rarely present (never in American forms); clavicle present;
mammas always abdominal teeth numerous and primitive in
;
character; diet varied; habit arboreal, terrestrial, aquatic or

fossorial.
Fig. I. Opossum
;
FIELD BOOK OF MAMMALS
Family Didelphiidae. Opossums

Small to medium-sized marsupials with five toes on fore and
hind feet; tail usually long and prehensile; teeth fifty in
number; diet omnivorous, insectivorous, and carnivorous.
Genus Didelphis
Dentition: Incisors, f; Canines, 1; Premolars, f Molars, | = 50
;
Opossum. — Didelphis virginiana

and related forms
Names. — Opossum; Common Opossum; Eastern Opossum;

Virginia Opossum. Plate II.
General Description.—A marsupial mammal with body

about the a House Cat, long naked tail, large naked
size of
gray in color.
ears, long fur, grizzled
Head long, with slender muzzle; ears prominent; tail pre-
hensile marsupial pouch present forefeet with five toes, each
; ;
toe with a nail; hind feet with five toes, the first toe large,
nailless and opposable; soles naked; pelage composed of very
long external hairs and short, soft underfur; terrestrial and
arboreal in habit.
Color.—Adults: Sexes alike no marked seasonal
in color;
variation.
Upperparts. — Long, outer fur a mixture of coarse black and
white hairs to give a grizzled appearance, the white hairs very
long and exceeding the black in length head whitish to yellow-
;
ish cheeks whitish black or sooty about top of head and eyes
;
;
ears with yellow spot on upper edge, otherwise black.

—
Underparts. A mixture of dark hairs and white hairs, the
black predominating to give dusky appearance; legs and feet
dusky tail with long body hair running down a short distance
;
at base, the naked, scaly portion black at the base, then yellow-
ish white for rest of its length. Marsupial pouch, found on
females, a fur-lined opening along lower abdomen.
—
Young. Colors not as contrasting as in adults, general
appearance lighter.
Measurements. — Total length, 33 inches; tail vertebras,
12.5 inches; hind foot, 3 inches.
Plate II
)Ossu!n
^^^5^fc^
OPOSSUM
Geographical Distribution. —From New York to Florida,

and from Atlantic Coast to the Great Lakes and Texas.
Fig. 2. Feet of Opossum; forefoot above, hind foot below
Food. — Omnivorous, but feeding largely on animal life such

as small birds, mammals, frogs, fish, eggs, and insects, and on
fruit.
—
Enemies. Great Horned Owls; Wildcats; Foxes; Coyotes;
Wolves; Cougars; and Bears.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Didelphis

Virginia Opossum. —Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr.
The animal of the above description, ranging from the
Hudson valley to northern Texas and almost to the Gulf
Coast, west to the Great Lakes.
—
Florida Opossum. Didelphis virginiana pigra Bangs. _
Smaller, darker, and longer tailed. Total length, 31 inches;

tail vertebrae, 14 inches; hind foot, 2.7 inches. Known to
occur in Florida, the lower coast region of Georgia, and
throughout the low Gulf Coast belt to western Louisiana.
—
Texas Opossvun. Didelphis mesamericana texensis (Allen).
A large Opossum occurring in two color phases, a gray phase
quite similar in appearance to the Virginia Opossum, and a
black phase in which the long outer hairs are black instead of
white. Top of head to nose dusky dusky stripe from ear
;
through eye to nose; tail black for basal half, rest flesh color.
Total length, 31 inches; tail vertebrae, 15 inches; hind foot,
*******
2.7 inches. Ranges from coast region of Texas southward,
from Nueces Bay and the Lower Rio Grande Valley.
The Opossum and its relatives, the Texas Opossum

Virginia
and the Florida Opossum, are the only North American repre-
sentatives of a very ancient order, the Marsupialia, most
widely represented today in Australia. The Opossums are a
— —
large family the Didelphiidas and range from eastern North
America south throughout Central and South America, where
the group has become highly differentiated into many genera
and a host of species. The species of the genus Didelphis are
the largest mammals of the family, and the Virginia Opossum
is about as large as any species of the genus. Didelphis is the
only genus of North American mammals the members of which
have abdominal pouches in which the young are carried.
The Opossum is extremely adaptable to the conditions of its
environment. Although the hind feet, with grasping great
toes, and the prehensile tail are arboreal specializations, the
Opossum is perfectly at home on the ground and may wander
considerable distance in search of food without taking to the
trees.
When cornered by an enemy, this mammal appears to die
or to feign death, whence the expression "playing 'possum."
On the basis of careful observation, it would seem that this
apparently lifeless condition is brought about by a nervous
shock beyond the control of the animal, and observers have
noted such a loweringof thevital forces, pulse, heart-beat, etc.,
that they believe the Opossum has "fainted" and is not sham-
ming. On the other hand, the recovery from the lifeless state
is rapid enough to hint that the Opossum knows what is going
on and is ready to take advantage of any opening for escape.

The Opossum does a little damage when it can get to eggs
or poultry, but of recent years has attained a value as a fur-
bearer that much more than offsets this. It is also a game
mammal of prominence in certain sections of the country and
is eagerly hunted for the table.
The young Opossums are very tiny when born and are con-
siderably less developed than the young of other mammals,
6
MURINE OPOSSUM
being still in the embryonic stage. Opossums are very prolific

and have from five to fourteen young at a birth. While very
small they remain attached to the teats in the abdominal
pouch and are carried about by the mother.
Opossums are very hardy and tenacious of life. It is due
to this fact, perhaps, that the animal has been able to hold its
own so successfully, because it is rather slow and stupid in
comparison with most other mammals.
Genus Marmosa
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars, | Molars, f =50.
; ;
Murine Opossum; Mouse Opossum

This genus is not found native in the territory included in
the scope of this volume, but it is not infrequently brought
into seaports on steamers, especially by fruit steamers where

it isbrought aboard hidden in bunches of bananas.
The Murine Opossums are all much smaller than members
of the genus Didelphis, and most of them are truly of mouse
size, hence the name. The species most apt to be encountered
as strays come from Central America and are soft-furred,
yellow or brownish in color, with long, naked prehensile tails,
large eyes, and broad hands and feet. The females have no
external abdominal pouches as in the genus Didelphis. If
the specimen hailed from Panama it is apt to be Marmosa
isthmica, while Marmosa zeledoni is a species in Costa Rica.
Females of isthmica average, total length, 12.5 inches; tail, 7
inches; males, total length, 15 inches; tail, 8 inches. Mar-
mosa zeledoni is a trifle smaller than isthmica.
;
Order INSECTIVORA
Mammals of small size, primitive dental characters, in-
sectivorous diet, and presenting many specializations in the
various families of the Order. Only two families of the
Insectivora are found in North America, the Talpidee and the
Soricidas, widely differing from one another in many respects,
but having the following characters in common: snout long
and mobile; eyes small or hidden; ears minute; head elongate;
feet with five claw-bearing toes plantigrade or subplantigrade
;
in gait; clavicles present; musk glands pfesent; manner active

and nervous.
Family Talpidae. Moles'

Insectivorous mammals of small size, adapted for a sub-
terranean habitat, with highly specialized forelimbs; soft,
velvet-like fur; long, pig-like snout; minute eyes; very short
neck; and strictly insectivorous or carnivorous diet.
Subfamily Scalopinae
Genus Scalopus
Functional dentition: Incisors, f Canines,;
J; Premolars, f
Molars, 1 = 36.
Common Mole. — Scalopus aquaticus

and related forms
Names. —Common Mole; Eastern Mole. Plate III.
General Description. —A small, sturdy mammial with
greatly enlarged forefeet; soft, velvety fur; naked eyes tail;
and ears so minute as to escape superficial observation; seldom

seen above ground, and generally known to be present only
through the raised ridges and mounds of earth pushed up
from below. Males somewhat larger than females.
Color. — Sexes indistinguishable as to color.
' For the most recent and complete review of the American Moles,
see H. H. T. Jackson, Norlh American Fauna, No. 38, IQIS-
Plate III
Little Brown Bat
Red Bat
Eastern Mole
5hofl-t/ulud Slircv,^
Biewer Molt
Star-nosGcl Mole
MOLE
Upperparts. —
The soft, close fur, resembling velvet in that
ithas no "set" and may be brushed either backward or for-
ward, is blackish brown in color, varying in different lights
from brownish to silvery gray; muzzle naked; feet and tail
Fig. 3. Common Mole
whitish; tail thick and practically naked; fur neutral gray at

base,
—
Underparts. Slightly paler than above, and usually tinged
with brown on chest.
Young. —The
young, which are very seldom seen in the
early stages, soon take on the appearance of the adults, but
while real small are grayer than adults.
In summer, specimens are somewhat paler than in winter.
The molt follows a definite sequence, the fresh pelage coming
in first on the breast and abdomen, and gradually replaces
the worn pelage below. Above, the new fur appears first
posteriorly and works forward. The chin and throat usually
retain the old pelage longest. As a rule the line of demar-
cation between fresh and worn pelage is quite obvious.
—
Measurements. Total length, males, 7.2 inches, females.
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6
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—
MOLE
6.5 inches; length of tail, males, 1.2 inches, females, .9 inch;

length of hind foot, males, .8 inch, females, .8 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Eastern North America.
—
Food. Strictly animal in nature, insects of various kinds,
beetles, larv£e, angle-worms. Meadow Mice.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Scalopus

Eastern Mole. — Scalopus aquaticus aquaticus (Linnaeus).
As described above; the darkest form of the genus (in full
winter pelage). Found in "Eastern United States from
eastern and southern Massachusetts, southeastern New
York, and southeastern Pennsylvania, south through
Virginia, and in the Appalachian ^fountains south through
western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee.
'
(Jackson)
—
Howell Mole. Scalopus aquaticus Iwwelli Jackson.
'
Paler than typical aquaticus and smaller; total length, males,

6 inches. Found in "North Carolina (except in Appalach-
ian Mountains), South Carolina, northern Georgia, thence
southwest across central Alabama and southern Mississippi
to Pensacola Bay and the Mississippi River.
'
(Jackson)
—
Florida Mole. Scalopus aquaticus australis Chapman.
'
Smaller than howelli, with relatively short, broad, high

skull; upperparts (winter) clove-brown to dark fuscous;
total length, males, 5.8-6 inches, females, 5.6 inches.
Found in "Southeastern Georgia and the eastern portion
of peninsular Florida south to Lemon City." (Jackson)
—
Anastasia Island Mole. Scalopus aquaticus anastasce (Bangs),
Size of australis but above golden sepia in winter pelage,
with bright orange coloration on face, chin, and wrists.
Found only on Anastasia Island, Florida.
Little Mole. — Scalopus aquaticus parvus (Rhoads).
Smallest form of the genus, colored like australis, with
shorter tail; total length, males, 5.4 inches. Found in
"Region north of Tampa Bay, in Hillsboro and Pasco
Counties, Florida." (Jackson)
—
Prairie Mole.^ Scalopus aquaticus machrinus (Rafinesque).
The largest form of the genus (total length of males, 8
inches) ;
paler than typical aquaticus and usually more
reddish brown. Found in "Eastern Iowa, and east of the
Mississippi River west of the Appalachian Mountains from
western Wisconsin, northern Illinois, southern Michigan,
southwestern Ontario (Point Pelee), and northern Ohio,
south to central Tennessee." (Jackson)
—
Missouri Valley Mole. Scalopus aquaticus machrinoides
Jackson.
Size large, exceeded only by machrinus; total length, males,
7 inches; color grayer than machrinus, in winter clove-brown
above, in summer light drab. Found "West of the
Mississippi River, except eastern Iowa, from central
II
Minnesota, southeastern South Dakota, and the eastern

border of Nebraska, south through northeastern Kansas
to extreme northern Arkansas." (Jackson)
—
Arkansas Mole. Scalopus aquaticus pulcher Jackson.
Size of typical aquaticus but with larger hind foot and larger
skull; winter pelage dark fuscous above, with gray-tipped
hairs. Found in "Humid lowland region of southern and
eastern Arkansas, southeastern Oklahoma, northwestern
and central Louisiana, and eastern Texas." (Jackson)
—
Northern Plains Mole. Scalopus aquaticus caryi Jackson.
In color, the palest form of the genus, size medium; total
length, males, 6.4 inches. Color, autumn pelage, above,
light drab, paler on head. Found in "Arid and semiarid
plains region of central and western Nebraska, northeastern
Colorado, and northwestern Kansas." (Jackson)
—
Southern Plains Mole. Scalopus aquaticus intermedius
(Elliot).
Most like caryi but darker and more ochraceous; color, in
winter, above, light drab tinged with buff pink; nose and
wrists ochraceous-buff to zinc-orange; total length, males,
6.6 inches. Found in "Central and western Oklahoma
and adjacent parts of northern Texas." (Jackson)
—
Texas Mole. Scalopus aquaticus texanus (Allen).
Small in size, total length, males, 5.6 inches; color, winter,
brownish with bronze tinge. Found in "Coast region of
Texas from Matagorda Bay to Cameron County, north in
the interior to central and east-central Texas." (Jackson)
Coppery Mole. —
Scalopus cereus (Bangs).
Distinguished by rich coppery brown pelage; total length,
females, 6.1 inches. Very rare, known only from the type
specimen. Found only at Stilwell, Adair County,
Oklahoma.
The Eastern Mole has habits very similar to those of the

Western Mole (see pagebut does not throw out such
17),
large mounds of earth. very seldom seen out of the
It is
burrow and is most commonly encountered in loose loam or

easily moved soil where food is plentiful. It makes a nest
about six inches in diameter, lined with small roots, grass, or
leaves, and from a foot to a foot and a half below the surface
of the ground. The young, from two to five, are born in
March or April.
Genus Scapanus
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines,
; {; Premolars, t; Molars, § = 44.
12
MOLE
Western Mole. — Scapanus townsendi

and related forms
General Description. —General form much like that of

Common Mole, genus Scalopus, but tail thicker, and with more
teeth (compare dental formulee) ; fore toes and hind toes not
webbed as in Scalopus, hands as broad as long, (in Scalopus
broader than long).
Fig. 5. Forefoot of Eastern Mole {Scalopus) above, com-

pared with forefoot of Western Mole (Scapanus)
Color.— Sexes indistinguishable as to some seasonal

color;
variation.
Winter. —Upperparts dark, varying from blackish brown to
almost black, generally showing purplish high-lights; under-
parts only slightly paler than above and generally tinged with
brown.
13
—
Summer.' Slightly paler than winter, with more pro-
nounced purplish sheen.
—
Young. Paler and more silvery than adults.
—
Measurements. Total length, males, 9 inches, females,
8,2 inches; tail vertebras, males, 1.6 inches, females, 1.8 inches;
hind foot, males, 1.08 mches, females, 1.07 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Western California, Oregon,
and Washington.
—
Food. Insect and animal food, angle-worms, larvae of
beetles, and occasionally Mice,
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Scapanus

Oregon Mole; Townsend Mole. — Scapanus townsendi (Bach-
man), Plate III.
As just described; the largest species of the genus. Found
in "Extreme northwestern California, Oregon, and Wash-
ington west of the Cascade Mountains." (Jackson)
—
Coast Mole. Scapanus orarius orarius True,
Noticeably smaller than townsendi (total length, males, 6.8
inches) dark and similar in color to townsendi, with relatively
;
smaller feet and claws, Founfl in "Humid coast region

of northern California (north of Mendocino), Oregon, and
Washington." (Jackson)
Schefifer —
Mole. Scapanus orarius schefferi Jackson.
Similar to typical orarius but paler; total length, males, 6.8
inches; slightly larger feet and claws; color, autumn pelage
glossy, deep mouse-gray above. Found in "Extreme
southwestern British Columbia, northwestern Washington
(east of Puget Sound and north of latitude 48° N.), central
and southern Washington from the west slopes of the
Cascade Mountains east to Walla Walla, and both slopes
of the Cascade Mountains in northern and east-central
Oregon." (Jackson)
California Mole. —
Scapanus latimanus latimanus (Bachman).
Size medium; total length, males, 6.8 to 7.2 inches; color,
winter, above, fuscous black. Distinguished from town-
sendi by smaller size, and from orarius by its wider, heavier
skull, larger teeth, and other cranial details. Found in
"Western California west of the San Jacinto and Sacra-
mento Valleys, from Santa Maria River north to Cape
Mendocino, thence northeasterly to Klamath Canyon,
Siskiyou County." (Jackson)
San Joaquin Mole. — Scapanus latimanus campi Grinnell and
Storer.
Resembling typical latimanus "but smaller, pelage much
paler and browner, feet and claws smaller," like occultus
"in color, but decidedly larger in size, especially as regards
14
MOLE
Pig. 6. Distribution of Scapanus townsendi and the more

widely ranging forms of Scapanus latimanus, after Jackson
1. Scapanus townsendi
2. Scapanus latimanus latimanus
3. Scapanus latimanus occuUus
4. Scapanus latimanus dilatus
15
feet and claws." Totallength, males, 6.8 inches; tail verte-

bras, inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found in "river-
1.5
bottom lands of the San Joaquin Valley (California) gener-
ally, at least on the east side." (Grinnell and Storer)
'"1
MOLE
Santa Barbara, in Santa Barbara County., south to the

San Diegan region." (Jackson)
—
Grinnell Mole. Scapanus latimanus grinnelli Jackson.
Darkest in color of the latimanus group, size small, total
length, males, 6.2 inches. Known only from Independence,
Inyo County, California,
—
Mono Mole. Scapanus latimanus monoensis Grinnell.
Resembling grinnelli "but color mouse-gray instead of
fuscous black, and size slightly less." (Grinnell.) Total
length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.3 inches; hind foot, .82
inch. Found in Mono County, California.
—
Yosemite Mole. Scapanus latimanus sericatiis Jackson.
Smaller than typical latimanus, darker and more grayish in
color; total length, females, 6.6 inches. Found in Yosemite
region, Mariposa County, California.
—
Sierra Mole. Scapanus latimanus minusculus (Bangs).
Similar to occultus in size and color, but differing in cranial
characters, skull higher and narrower. Known only from
Fyffe, El Dorado County, California.
—
Klamath Mole. Scapanus latimanus dilatus (True).
Paler and slightly smaller than typical latimanus, with
shorter, higher, and rounder skull. Total length, males,
6.8 inches; color, summer, mouse-gray above. Found in
"South-central Oregon and Upper Sonoran and Transition
Zones of northeastern California and adjacent parts of
Nevada." (Jackson)
Mount Mazama Mole. — Scapanus latimanus alpinus
(Merriam).
Color of dilatus and size of large specimens of typical
latimanus. Total length, males, 7.5 inches; color, worn
*******
summer pelage, above, mouse-gray. Known only from
Crater Lake, Mount Mazama, Klamath County, Oregon.
In spite of the fact that Moles may be quite common in the

regions where they occur, they are very seldom seen. The
average person sees a Mole only when in a trap and knows the
creature best from the visible evidences of its presence, the
long, raised ridges of earth and the piles of loose soil pushed
up from below.
The householder calls down curses upon the Mole whenever
one crosses his lawn and imagines that this animal does far
more damage than is actually the case. It is true that the
ridges and mounds are unsightly objects on a well-kept lawn,
and it is also true that where the sod has been raised and the
grass-roots have dried out that dry, yellow grass may appear,
but it is a mistaken conception to suppose that the Mole
is feeding on the grass or any other plant food in the yard.
17
The Mole is after worms and other

insect food, and starves
to death if Sometimes Meadow Mice
forced to a plant diet.
follow the runways of the Mole to take advantage of any-
exposed roots and then, of course, it is only natural that the
Mole is blamed for the damage.
Moles are active creatures and in favorable soil make an
extensive series of runways. Some of these runways may not
be used more than once and the animal may not traverse
them again after they are made, others may be used several
times in twenty-four hours. If all the ridges are pressed
down with the foot a later visit will show which ones are raised
and in use.
The Mole has a central nest-chamber or retreat, deep under
a stump, stone- wall, or other surface obstacle and from this it
works as a base, pushing out for considerable distances.

Most frequently the runway passes so close to the surface of
the earth that the roof of the tunnel is raised above the
ground-level; but sometimes this not the case and the Mole
is
must get rid of loose earth in another fashion. From deep

tunnels the loosened earth is pushed up a short, vertical
chimney and piles up on the surface as a mound. Moles
are surprisingly strong and literally swim through the soil.
The powerful forefeet thrust out sideways to displace the
earth, and if the soil is mellow the progress is fairly rapid. I
have stood and watched the large Townsend Mole at work
just below the surface of a meadow. The soil heaved and
lifted and the sound of cracking grass-roots was clearly audible
for several feet. Occasionally the shifting of the sod dis-
turbed an angle- worm which began to draw itself up out of the
earth, but presently there would come a subterranean turmoil
and the worm would be jerked back into the ground and I
knew that the IMole had pulled it down. From observations
on Moles in captivity, it has been noted that the snout plays
an important part, being thrust ahead to make the preliminary
opening, when one forefoot follows and sweeps outward
to enlarge the tunnel.
The head of the Mole is set so close to the shoulders that
there almost no neck, and the head and shoulders are capable
is
of a powerful upward thrust. For this reason it is doubtless

easier for the Mole to drive its tunnel just under the surface
where part of the runway can be broken upward into the air.
I8
MOLE
The tail is a sensitive, tactile organ and serves to guide the

animal when it moves backwards along a runway. The fact
that the fur strokes as easily one way as the other would also
favor progression in either direction.
It is not difficult to detect Moles at work. If the observer
treads softly and avoids jarring the earth, it is possible to
approach very close to the heaving sod which shows where this
subterranean hunter is active. Jarring the ground warns the
Mole and it loses no time in retreating. When the animal is
working near the surface it is a fairly easy matter to approach
with a shovel, and after giving the moving area a smart rap, to
thrust the blade down under the Mole and throw out the
Fig. 8. Tail of Common IMole (above) compared with tail of

Hairy-tailed Mole
stunned animal. This is often simpler than trying to trap the

Mole, for it pushes so much earth along that the trap is sprung
before the creature reaches the danger zone.
Apparently young Moles do not leave the deep, under-
ground nest until nearly full grown, because the Moles caught
in traps are never veryyoung animals. About the only way to
get theyoung is to dig out the nest, and it was not until the
American Museum had sent notices all over the country that
they could secure young animals for a group. The farmer's
plow occasionally turns out a nest of young Moles, but it is
an exceptional circumstance to encounter the immature of
this common mammal.
In the spring. Moles sometimes become exceedingly active
and push out runways much longer than usual, even breaking
out onto the surface and wading about for a distance above the
19
ground. This is probably in search of a mate, for Moles are

apparently solitary creatures during most of the year and
seldom more than one in a series of runways.
Moles probably have only one litter of young a year, the
usual number being four, born in April or May.
Genus Parascalops
Dentition: Incisors, f ; Canines, {; Premolars, f Molars,
;
| = 44.
Hairy-tailed Mole. —Parascalops breweri

Names. — Hairy-tailed Mole; Brewer Mole. Plate III.
General Description. — Similar in general appearance to the
eastern Mole, Scalopus aguaticus, but with hairy tail, con-
stricted snout shorter, with median longitudinal
at base;
groove above, and nostrils lateral, crescentic; toes not webbed;
hands as broad as long; fur soft, but coarser than in Scalopus
and Scapanus.
Color. —
Sexes indistinguishable as to color.
Upperparts varying from fuscous-black to blackish, with
browner hairs on nose and tail, which may be white in old
specimens; underparts paler and grayer than above, sometimes
with brownish tinge on throat and underparts.
—
Measurements. Total length, males, 6 inches, females, 6;
tail vertebras, males, 1.2 inches, females, 1.2; hind foot, males,
.8 inch, females, .75 inch.

—
Geographical Distribution. "Southeastern Canada and
northeastern United States from southern New Brunswick,
southern Quebec, and eastern Ontario, south to northeastern
Ohio and southern Pennsylvania, and in the Appalachian
Mountains to western North Carolina." (Jackson)
Food. — Insects of different kinds, earthworms, grubs, etc.
Species of the Genus Parascalops.
Hairy-tailed Mole. —Parascalops breweri (Bachman).

*******
As described above; no other forms
Although the Hairy-tailed Mole

extensive area, it appears to be only
is
of the genus
found over a
locally common and
known.
fairly
less
20
STAR-NOSED MOLE
Fig. 9. Distribution of Parascalops breweri, after Jackson
is known about its habits than those of Scalopus or Scapanus.

In general, the behavior of this Mole is much like that of the
Eastern Mole.
Subfamily Condylurinae
Genus Condylura
; \', Premolars, |; Molars, f = 44-
Star-nosed Mole. — Condylura cristata

General Description. — Form, in general, like that of
Scalopus, the Common Mole, but having a peculiarly deve-
loped snout which terminates in a fringe of twenty-two fleshy

processes forming a wide, naked nasal disk. These processes
are symmetrically arranged eleven on each side of a median
line. Eyes small, but larger than in Scalopus, Scapanus, or
Parascalops; legs short and weaker than in these genera;
forefeet hand-like, palm as broad as long, with first four toes
having three flat, triangular processes on the lower side of
Fig. io. Head of Star-nosed Mole (left) compared with head

of Eastern Mole
their outer edges toes not

; webbed ; tail relatively long, slender
in summer, but greatly enlarged and thickened in winter,
covered with coarse, black hairs; fur dense and silky, but
coarser than that of Scalopus, Scapanus, and Parascalops.
Color. — Sexes colored alike.
Upperparts blackish brown to blackish underparts browner
;
and paler than above, underside of tail sometimes noticeably

lighter than upperside.
Worn pelage paler and browner than pelage just described,
with frequently a buffy or yellowish ring about wrists.
In living animals the nasal disk is rose-colored
Young animals paler and browner than adults.
Measurements. —
Males, total length, 8 inches; tail verte-
hind foot, i.i inches.
bras, 3.2 inches;
—
Geographical Distribution. "Southeastern Canada and
northeastern United States, from southern Labrador, central
Quebec and Ontario, and southeastern Manitoba, south to
northeastern Illinois and northern Indiana and Ohio; in the
Atlantic coast region south to Virginia (Dismal Swamp) and
Georgia (Marlow); and in the Appalachian Mountains to
western North Carolina." (Jackson)
Food. Same as that of other Moles, insectivorous.
22
SHREW MOLE
Species of the Genus Condylura.

— Condylura
*******
Star-nosed Mole. cristata (Linnceus). Plate III.
As described, no other forms of the genus known.
The Star-nosed Mole is the most distinctive in appearance

of the American Moles, the peculiar, fleshy nasal fringe serv-
ing to identify the animal immediately.
Although Mole makes subterranean burrows very
this
similar to those of the Eastern Mole, they aremore irregular
in their course and are more crooked. The surface ridges
appear and disappear more often and the tunnels may open
out to the surface and continue as runways through the grass
or under the leaves. In winter the Star-nosed IVIole may
burrow in the snow or run about on top of it.
This Mole shows a preference for damp meadows or
marshes, but may be found in the same spots with the Eastern
Mole, even in the same series of tunnels. The life-history of
the Star-nosed Mole is very imperfectly known.
Subfamily Uropsilinae
Genus Neiirotrichus
; \; Premolars, f Molars,
;
f =36,
Shrew Mole. —Neiirotrichus gibbsii

and related forms
—
Names. Shrew Mole; Gibbs Mole.
—
General Description. Smallest of the American Moles;
body robust; tail about half as long as head and body, fairly
thick, constricted at base, distinctly annulated, sparsely
Fig. II. Head and forefoot of Shrew Mole

23
haired; snout elongated, with naked muzzle; head mole-like;

forefeet lacking extreme development of the other Moles,
palms longer than broad; toes not webbed; fur short, fine, with
iridescent sheen.
Color. — Sexes alike in color.
Upperparts dark gray to blackish, with purple or greenish
iridescence in fresh specimens; underparts similar to upper-
parts, sometimes lighter in tone.
Measurements. —Total length, males, 4.5 inches, females,
4.6; tail vertebras, males, 1.5 inches, females, 1.5; hind foot,
males and females, .68 inch.
Geographical Distribution. — British Columbia, Washing-
ton, Oregon and California.
—
Food. Insectivorous.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Neiirotrichus.
Gibbs Shrew Mole. — Neiirotrichus gihhsii gihhsii (Baird).

As just described. Found in "Extreme southwestern
British Columbia, western Washington and Oregon west of
the Cascade Mountains, south in the coast region to Eureka,
Humboldt County, Cal., and in the interior, west of the
Sierra Nevada, to South Yolla Bolly Mountain, Cal."
(Jackson.)
Southern Shrew Mole Hyacinthine Shrew Mole. Neiirotri-
;
—
chus gihhsii hyacinthinus Bangs.
Larger and usually darker colored than typical gihhsii.
Total length, males, 4.8 inches. Found in "Coast region
*******
of California from Cuddeback, Humboldt County, south to
Fremont Peak, Monterey County." (Jackson)
The Shrew Mole is the smallest of the American Moles and
has a less-highly specialized forefoot. It is found in a rather

restricted zone along the northwest coastal strip and is local in
distribution. I have trapped specimens on dry hillsides near
Portland, Oregon, in the same general region with Scapanus
townsendi, the large Western Mole, but took only two over a
long period. Jackson states that the Shrew Mole "prefers
a damp habitat and is seldom found far from swamps, marshes,
or streams." It makes a small burrow, but seems to spend
some time on the surface of the ground. Its more generalized
structure would indicate that this species is not such a sub-
terranean creature as the larger Moles. But little is known
of the life-history of the genus Neurotrichus.
24
;
SHREW
Family Soricidae. Shrews

Size very small, including the smallest of mammals; muzzle
elongate; eye small but visible; ear small and often more pr
less concealed in the fur; form mouse-like; skull long and
narrow; anterior teeth highly specialized; zygomatic arches
wanting.
Subfamily Soricinae
Genus Sorex^
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, J-; Premolars, f Molars,
;
| = 32.
Shrew. — Sorex personatus^
' and related forms.
General Characters. —Size very small, except for Microsorex
the smallest of North American mammals; muzzle sharp and
pointed eyes minute ears nearly hidden in fur body slender
; ; ;
hands and feet small and delicate; tail proportionally long,

covered with hair; pelage soft and rather lax; color brownish
above, lighter below habit terrestrial movements quick.
; ;
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; some seasonal change in pelage.
Upperparts practically uniform sepia brown, with very
faint sprinkling of lighter and darker hairs; hands and feet
whitish; upperside of tail like back. Underparts grayish to
buffy and passing gradually into darker color of upperparts;
underside of tail yellowish white. Pelage everywhere slate-
colored at base.
In winter pelage, slightly darker and less brown than in
summer.
Immature pelage very much like that of adults.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, 4
inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .5 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of North America.
—
Food. Insects, adults and larval forms, and such other
animal food as it can capture.
^ For a revisionof the shrews see Merriam, North American Fauna,
No. ID, 1895. This monograph is so old that it can scarcely be con-
sidered as authoritative today.
Âccording to Jackson, Jour. Mammalogy, Feb. 1925, p. 55, Sorex
personatus should be changed to Sorex cinereus, with corresponding
changes in all of the subspecies of personatus.
25
Enemies. — Snakes, Hawks, Owls, and practically all small

carnivorous mammals such as Weasels, Foxes, Skunks,
etcetera.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Sorex.
This is a very large genus distributed throughout the North-

ern Hemisphere, and a large number of species and subspecies
are found in North America. Many of these forms are
separated from one another on cranial characters or dis-
tinctions difficult to set forth in a field book. As advised for
the other large and troublesome genera, the geographic range
will usually give the best clue for a preliminary determination.
Masked Shrew. — Sarex personatus personatus I. Geoffroy.

As just described. Found in "Boreal and Transition
Zones of North America from New England to Alaska,
except the southern Rocky Mountains and the Cascade-
Sierra systems south in the higher Alleghenies to Tennessee
;
and North Carolina." (Merriam) Plate HI.

—
Hayden Shrew.- Sorex personatus haydeni (Baird).
A scarcely distinguishable subspecies of personatus ranging
in the prairie section of North and South Dakota and
adjacent states and provinces. Color above, sepia brown,
below, ashy gray. Total length, 3.9 inches; tail vertebras,
1.4 inches; hind foot, .48 inch.
—
Labrador Shrew. Sorex personatus miscix Bangs.
Larger than typical personatus, color paler and grayer.
Upperparts (summer) near sepia brown; underparts smoke-
gray; winter pelage drab gray above. Total length, 4.1
inches tail vertebras, 1.8 inches hind foot, .55 inch.
; ; Found
in Labrador.
Arctic Shrew. —
Sorex personatus arcticus^ Merriam.
Resembling typical personatus but slightly larger, tail
longer, color paler. Summer pelage pale drab brown above,
ashy below; winter pelage dusky brownish above, silvery
white below. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6
inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in region about St.
Michael, Norton Sound, Alaska.
Streator Shrew. —
Sorex personatus streatori Merriam.
Larger and darker than typical personatus. Above, mixed
sepia brown and dusky; below, ashy gray; tail sharply bi-
color, dusky above, whitish below, tip dusky. Total length,
4.3 inches; tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found
in southeastern Alaska.
^ Sorex personatus arcticus should stand as Sorex cinereus hollisteri,
according to Jackson.
26
SHREW
Maryland Shrew. —
Sorex fontinalis Hollister.
Smaller than typical personatus and with shorter tail, color
as in personatus. Total length, 3.8 inches; tail vertebras,
1.25 inches; hind foot, .40 inch. Found in "Sphagnum
bogs near the District of Columbia." (Miller)
—
Preble Shrew. Sorex preblei Jackson.
Paler and grayer than typical personatus. Upperparts
(summer) light brown (hair-brown to olive-drab) under- ;
parts smoky gray; tail above, olive-buff, below, light brown,

tip dark. Total length, 3.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.5 inches;
hind foot, .44 inch. Found in eastern Oregon, Malheur
County.
—
Big-tailed Shrew.- Sorex dispar Batchelder.
Size large tail long.
; Upperparts dark slate-colored under- ;
parts smoke-gray; tail above somewhat browner than color

of back. Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.4 inches;
hind foot, .6 inch. Found in "Adirondack and Catskill
Mountains, New York; also in the mountains of West
Virginia." (Miller)
—
Gaspe Shrew. Sorex gaspensis Anthony and Goodwin.
Resembling personatus in size and proportions, but much
darker; most nearly related to dispar. Upperparts slaty
gray; feet whitish; tail above dark like back, below, whitish,
tip dark; underparts smoke-gray. Total length, 4.1 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.9 inches; hind foot, ,42 inch. Found on
Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec.
—
Richardson Shrew. Sorex richardsoni^ Bachman.
Size large tail short.
; Upperparts dark brown sides fulvous
;
to ochraceous, contrasting with upperparts; underparts

washed with chestnut; tail above and at tip dusky, below,
pale brownish. Total length, 4.5 inches; tail vertebrse, 1.6
inches; hind foot, .55 inch. Found in "Plains of Saskatche-
wan and boreal parts of Minnesota and Wisconsin; north
to lower Mackenzie Valley." (Miller.)
Sorex sphagnicola = Sorex richardsoni, according to Preble.
—
Tundra Shrew. Sorex tundrensis Merriam.
Size large, tail rather short. Upperparts (summer) brown;
sides abruptly paler, pale buffy brown; underparts soiled
whitish; tail above like back, below buffy, tip dark. Winter
pelage, brown above, sides and underparts silvery whitish.
Total length, 4.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.3 inches; hind foot
.52 inch. Found in region about St. Michael, Norton
Sound, Alaska.
Smoky Shrew. —Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller.
Size large; tail short; ears prominent. Upperparts dark
slate color; underparts slaty washed with grayish; tail above,
dusky, below, yellowish white. A
brown phase occurs,
chestnut-brown above, slightly paler below. Total length,
^ Sorex richardsoni should be known as Sorex arcticus, according to
Jackson.
27
4.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .52 inch.
Found in Canadian and upper part of Transition faunas of
'
'
eastern United States; southward in higher Alleghenies to

mountains of North CaroHna and Tennessee." (Merriam)
—
Northern Smoky Shrew. Sorex fumeus umbrosus Jackson.
Larger than typical fumeus and grayer in color. Upper-
parts (winter) dark gray, with some hairs whitish-tipped;
underparts slightly paler; tail bicolor, above fuscous, below
yellowish. Summer pelage somewhat darker and browner.
Total length, 5.1 inches; tail vertebras, 2.1 inches; hind foot,
.56 inch. Found in "Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, south-
eastern Quebec, and Maine." (Jackson)
—
Wandering Shrew. Sorex vagrans vagrans Baird.
Size small; tail medium. Upperparts dark brown, under-
parts ashy gray; tail above, dusky, below paler. Total
length, 4.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .5
inch. Found in "Southern British Columbia, western
Washington and Oregon, and northern California (south on
the coast to Monterey and in the mountains to old Fort
Crook and Cassel). Restricted to Lower Boreal and Upper
Transition Zones." (Merriam)
Dobson Shrew. —
Sorex vagrans dobsoni (Merriam).
Slightly than typical vagrans. Upperparts sepia
larger
brown; underparts ashy to drab; tail bicolor, dark brown
and drab. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.9
inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in "Rocky Mountain
region in northern Idaho and western Montana; also
isolated mountains in Montana (Big Snowy and Pryor
Mountains), Wyoming (Big Horn Mountains), and Utah
(Wasatch Mountains). Restricted to Lower Boreal and
Upper Transition Zones." (Merriam)
Arizona Mountain Shrew. —Sorex vagrans monticola (Mer-
riam) .
Resembling typical vagrans in size, but grayish brown in

color instead of chestnut-brown. Total length, 4.4 inches;
tail vertebras, 1.9 inches; hind foot, .5 inch. _ Found in
"Arizona (San Francisco Mountain, Springerville, Chiri-
. '
cahua Mountains) (Miller)

Salt Marsh Shrew. — '
Sorex haUcoetes Grinnell.

Resembling typical vagrans, but much darker in color.
Upperparts dark seal-brown, nearly black on rump; ears
Vandyke brown; underparts brownish, chin and throat
paler; tail unicolor, sepia. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail
vertebra, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in salt
marshes of Santa Clara County, California.
—
Olympic Shrew. Sorex setosus Elliot.
Size rather large, resembling obscurus in color. Upperparts
brown with scattering light-tipped hairs; underparts ashy,
washed with buff; tail above, dark brown, below, yellowish
white. Total length, 4.8 inches; tail vertebras, 2.2 inches;
28
SHREW
hind foot, .52 inch. Found in Olympic Mountains,

Washington.
—
Sierra Nevada Shrew. Sorex amcenus Merriam.
Larger than vagrans. Upperparts sooty brown; sides paler
brown; underparts buffy whitish; tail above, blackish,
below, whitish, tip blackish. Total length, 4.1 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in Sierra
Nevada Mountains of California.
—
Vancouver Shrew. Sorex vancouverensis Merriam.
Larger than vagrans, with larger forefeet. Upperparts
mixed dusky and sepia brown; sides lighter than back;
underparts washed with grayish; tail above, dark brown,
below paler, tip dark. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail verte-
brae, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .48 inch. Found on Vancouver
Island, British Columbia.
—
Nevada Shrew. Sorex nevadensis Merriam.
Resembling vagrans but tail shorter. Upperparts mixed
slate-black and hoary; sides lighter, buffy to brownish;
underparts hoary; tail bicolor, dusky and whitish, tip dark.
Total length, 3.86 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6 inches; hind
foot, .5 inch. Found in "Interior of the Great Basin."
(Miller)
Dusky Shrew. —
Sorex ohscurus ohscurus Merriam.
Slightly larger than vagrans; tail longer. Upperparts sepia
brown; underparts ashy; tail bicolor, above like back, below
whitish. Total length, 4.4 inches; tail vertebree, 1.8 inches;
hind foot, .52 inch. Found in "British Columbia' and
mountains of western Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyom-
ing, Utah, and Colorado; south along the High Sierra
Nevada in California to Mount Whitney. Restricted to
Boreal Zone." (Merriam)
—
Wetmore Shrew. Sorex ohscurus isolatus Jackson.
Darker than typical ohscurus. Upperparts (winter) dark
grayish brown; underparts smoke-gray; tail faintly bicolor,
olive-brown above, buffy brown below. Total length, 4.5
inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, .56 inch. Found
on Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
—
Warren Island Shrew. Sorex ohscurus malitiosus Jackson.
Size large, tail long. Upperparts (summer) mummy-
brown, slightly darker on rump; underparts smoke-gray;
sepia above, buffy brown below.
tail bicolor, Winter pelage
darker and grayer. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebrae,
2.2 inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found only on Warren
Island, Alaska.
—
New Mexico Shrew. Sorex ohscurus neomexicanus Bailey.
Larger and slightly darker than typical ohscurus; upperparts
dull sepia brown, with less reddish than in ohscurus; under-
parts with brownish suffusion. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail
vertebras, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found in the
Sacramento Mountains, Otero County, New Mexico.
29
.
San Bernardino Shrew. — Sorex ohscurus parvidens Jackson.

Resembling typical ohscurus in size and color, but differing
in cranial and dental characters. Total length, 4.2 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .52 inch. Found in San
Bernardino Mountains, California.
—
Cascade Shrew.' Sorex ohscurus permiliensis Jackson.
Resembling setosus but redder in summer pelage and with
shorter tail. Upperparts (summer) between snuff-brown
and sepia; sides slightly paler than back; underparts bufify
brown to tawny olive; tail very faintly bicolor, above like
back, below paler. Winter pelage: upperparts light brown.
Total length, 4.7 inches ; tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot,
.56 inch. Found about Mount Jefferson and Mount Hood,
Cascade Range, Oregon.
Glacier —
Bay Shrew. Sorex glacialis Merriam.
Size large; tail long. Upperparts dark dusky brown; under-
parts whitish, clearly differentiated from color of upper-
parts by a distinct line; tail above, dusky, below bufify, tip
dark. Total length, 4.9 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.1 inches;
hind foot, .54 inch. Found in region about Glacier Bay,
Alaska.
Long-tailed Shrew.' — Sorex longicauda longicauda (Merriam).
Size large; tail long; ears prominent. Upperparts dark
chestnut-brown; underparts ashy washed with bufify; tail
bicolor, dark brown above, buffy below. Total length,
5.2 inches; vertebrse, 2.4 inches; hind foot, .6 inch.
tail
Found on "Coast of southeast Alaska, from Wrangel south-
ward; also coast of Washington, including Puget Sound and
Skagit Valley." (Merriam)
Queen Charlotte Shrew. —
Sorex longicauda elassodon Osgood.
Resembling typical longicauda but smaller; color as in
longicauda. Total length, 5.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.2
inches; hind foot, .56 inch. Found on Moresby Island,
Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
Prevost Island —
Shrew. Sorex longicauda prevostensis
Osgood.
Resembling typical longicauda but slightly darker and with
less contrast in color of upper and lower parts. Total length,
5.4 inches; tail vertebras, 2.3 inches, hind foot, .60 inch.
Found on Prevost Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British
Columbia.
—
Yakutat Shrew. Sorex alascensis alascensis (Merriam)
Size large; tail long but not as long as in longicauda. Upper-
parts sepia brown; underparts grayish; tail bicolor, above,
dark brown, below whitish, tip dark. Total length, 4.6
inches; tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, .59 inch. Found
about Yakutat Bay, Alaska.
—
Shumagin Islands Shrew.' Sorex alascensis shumaginensis
Merriam.
Resembling typical alascensis, but slightly smaller and
paler. Upperparts sepia brown mixed with light-tipped
30
SHREW
hairs; underparts whitish. Total length, 4.5 inches: tail

vertebras, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .56 inch. Found on Popof
Island, Shumagin Islands, Alaska.
—
Baird Shrew. Sorex bairdi Merriam.
Size large, tail long. Upperparts dark chestnut-brown;
underparts brownish; tail bicolor, above dark brown, below
flesh color. Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.3
inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found in western Oregon in
region about the mouth of the Columbia River and east as
far as the Willamette Valley.
Trowbridge Shrew. —
Sorex trowhridgii trowhridgii Baird.
Size large, tail long, color dark. Upperparts blackish slate;
underparts slaty; tail bicolor, blackish above, whitish below.
.54 inch. Found in "Western Washington and Oregon,
west of Cascade Range." (Merriam)
—
Humboldt Shrew. Sorex trowhridgii humboldtensis Jackson.
Resembling typical trowhridgii, but slightly larger. Upper-
parts (summer) dark slaty gray; underparts slightly paler;
tail bicolor, blackish above, whitish below. Total length,
5.3 inches; tail vertebras, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .56. Found
in "Coast region of Humboldt and northern Mendocino
Counties, California." (Jackson)
—
Monterey Shrew. Sorex montereyensis montereyensis Mer-
riam.
Size large; tail long; ears prominent; resembling typical
trowhridgii. Upperparts slate-black; underparts slaty to
dark brown; tail bicolor, blackish and whitish. Total
length, 4.8 inches, tail vertebrae, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .56
inch. Found in "Coast strip and Sierra Nevada of Cali-
fornia; south on the coast at least to Morro and San Luis
Obispo; south in the Sierra to Sequoia National Park and
East Fork Kaweah River." (Merriam)
—
Yosemite Shrew. Sorex montereyensis mariposcB Grinnell.
Closely resembling typical montereyensis but paler and
grayer. Summer pelage, upperparts, hair-brown mixed
with drab gray; tail bicolor, above, drab, below, dull white;
underparts drab gray. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2 inches; hind foot, .56 inch. Found in the Yosemite
Valley, in the Transition Zone of the Central Sierra Nevada,
California.
Adorned Shrew. —
Sorex ornatus Merriam.
Upperparts ashy gray, abruptly darker on rump; underparts
whitish; tail faintly bicolor, dark above, paler below, ter-
minal half dark above and below. Total length, 4.3 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.7 inches; hind foot, ,5 inch. Found in
"Mountains of southern California, from head of Ventura
River and Mount Pinos easterly to San Bernardino Peak,
and south through the San Jacinto range to Santa Ysabel."
(Merriam)
31
California Shrew. —
Sorex caUfornicus californicus Merriam.
Size small. Upperparts grizzled dark ashy gray; under-
parts slaty, washed with whitish. Total length, 2)-7 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.4 inches; hind foot, .46 inch. Found in
"Sonoma, Contra Costa, and Alameda Counties, central
California." (Miller)
—
Ashland Shrew. Sorex trigonirostris Jackson.
Resembling californicus but differing in cranial characters.
Upperparts (summer) light grayish brown; sides lighter
than back; underparts pale smoke-gray; tail olive-brown
above, buffy below. Total length, 3.8 inches; tail verte-
hind foot, .48 inch. Found in region about
brae, 1.4 inches;
Ashland, Jackson County, Oregon.
—
Suisun Shrew. Sorex sinuosus Grinnell.
Closely related to californicus but much darker in color.
Upperparts blackish along back, with metallic sheen; sides
and underparts deep clove-brown; tail unicolor, dark seal-
brown. Total length, 4.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.55 inches;
hind foot, .5 inch. Found in "the brackish marshes of
Grizzly Island, bordering Suisun Bay," Solano County,
California.
—(Grinnell)
Shasta Shrew. Sorex shastensis Merriam.
Smaller than typical vagrans. Upperparts dull yellowish
brown in summer; dark slaty gray in winter; underparts
ashy brown tail bicolor, above dusky, below buffy, tip dark.
;
Total length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.4 inches; hind foot,
.48 inch. Found in the Canadian Zone on Mount Shasta,
California.
Inyo Shrew. —Sorex Merriam.
tenellus tenellus
Size small; colors pale. Upperparts pale ash-gray; under-
parts white; tail bicolor, above dark, below white. Total
inch. Found in southeastern California.
Mount —
Lyell Shrew. Sorex tenellus lyelli Merriam.
Resembling typical tenellus but slightly browner above.
foot, .48 inch. Found on Mount Lyell, Tuolumne County,
California.
—
White Mountain Shrew. Sorex tenellus myops Merriam.
Resembling typical tenellus, but slightly smaller, ears larger,
color paler. Total length, 3.9 inches; tail vertebras, 1.64
inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in the White Mountains,
Inyo County, California.
Dwarf Shrew. — Sorex tenellus nanus Merriam.
Siz3 very small, one of the smallest of North American
Shrews. Upperparts sepia brown; sides paler than back;
underparts ashy; tail bicolorj above like back, below whitish,
tip dark. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.7 inches;
hind foot, .40 inch. Found in Estes Park, Larimer County,
Colorado.
32
;
SHREW
—
Carolina Shrew. Sorex longirostris Bachman.
Size small ears conspicuous resembling personatus. Upper-
; ;
parts chestnut-brown; underparts ashy to drab; tail above

dark, below paler. Total length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebrse,
1.3 inches; hind foot, .43 inch. Found in " Austroriparian
fauna of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia west ;
to southern Illinois; north to the District of Columbia."

(Miller)
Fisher Shrew. —
Sorex fisher i Merriam.
Resembling longirostris but larger, coloration duller, ears
larger. Upperparts dull chestnut-brown; underparts drab
brown; tail dark above, pale brown below, tip dark; nose
and ears dark. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.55
inches; hind foot, .48 inch. Found in Dismal Swamp,
Norfolk County, Virginia.
Pacific Shrew. —
Sorex pacificus pacificus Coues.
Largest Shrew of the genus Sorex; ears prominent. Upper-
parts cinnamon-rufous, in winter mixed with dark-tipped
hairs; underparts like upper. Total length, 6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .68 inch. Found in "A
narrow belt along the Pacific Coast from Point Reyes,
California, to Yaquina Bay, Oregon." (Merriam)
Sonoma Shrew. —Sorex pacificus sonomce Jackson.
Smaller and somewhat darker than typical pacificus.
Upperparts (summer) mummy-brown; underparts olive-
brown to buffy brown. Total length, 5.3 inches; tail verte-
bras 2.4 inches; hind foot, .64 inch. Found in "Coast
region of California from Point Arena, Mendocino County,
south to Point Reyes, Marin County." (Jackson)
—
Yaquina Shrew. Sorex yaquince Jackson,
Resembling pacificus but smaller and tail shorter. Upper-
parts fuscous (winter) underparts slightly paler than back
;
tail faintly bicolor, drab above, light drab below. Summer

pelage redder, upperparts near cinnamon-brown. Total
inch. Found in western Oregon in region west of the
Cascades and north of the Umpqua River.
—
Pribilof Shrew.^ Sorex pribilofensis Merriam.
Size small; tail short, thick, hairy; ears prominent. Upper-
parts chocolate-brown; sides ochraceous buff; underparts
soiled whitish; tail bicolor, brown above, white below.
Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.4 inches; hind foot^
.54 inch. Found on St. Paul Island, Pribilof Islands, Alaska.
—
Merriam Shrew. Sorex merriami Dobson.
Size small ears prominent cranial characters very peculiar.
; ;
Upperparts ashy gray; underparts white; tail above, buffy;

below, white. Total length, 3.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.4
inches; hind foot, .44 inch. Very rare and has been found
on Little Bighorn River near Fort Custer, Montana; near
Antelope, Oregon; near Medora, North Dakota; in Elko
County, Nevada; and in Columbia County, Washington.
33
—
White-chinned Shrew. Sorex leucogenys Osgood.
Resembling merriami but larger. Upperparts pale brown-
ish drab; sides slightly paler; underparts creamy white;
chin and sides of face below eye to end of nose pure creamy
white to roots of hair; tail light brownish above, white below,
tip white. Total length, 4.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.5
inches; hind foot, .5 inch. Found in the canyon of Beaver
River, Beaver County, Utah.
* * * * * * *
Shrews are widely distributed and often are quite abundant

in a region, but for all of that are rather infrequently observed.
Their small size, quick movements, and habit of working under
cover do not give one much opportunity to see these least of all
mammals. Although these tiny creatures seem to be most
active at night, they are often abroad in full daylight. A trap
line usually takes a few Shrews between sunrise and sunset,
but many more will be caught after dark. When one does see
a Shrew it is usually but a glimpse as the animal rustles among
fallen leaves or darts from under one log to another. Shrews
of the genus Sorex may be instantly recognized by their small
size, very sharp m.uzzle, tiny eyes, and slender form.
They are such highly organized, nervous creatures that
they give instant response to any stimulation. Live Shrews
which I have trapped have started violently when I have
attempted to give an imitation, rather crudely I fear, of their
fane, high-pitched squeak, and I have actually had one die in
my hand from nervous shock. This does not necessarily

indicate that the Shrew is a timid animal and the records go to
show quite the contrary.
These tiny mammals are highly predatory, courageous
hunters and do not hesitate to attack animals several times
their own weight. Although living largely on insect food,
which can not put up much resistance, Shrews undoubtedly
kill and eat Mice whenever the rodents are encountered under
circumstances which allow the Shrew to close in a rough-and-

tumble fight. Mice put into cages with Shrews are dis-
patched with a celerity that indicates this is by no means a new
experience for the Shrew at least and as a further index to the
;
Shrew character there are accounts to tell us that a cage can

not contain more than one Shrew at a time for one will kill and
eat the other if two are confined.
Shrews require an abundance of food and consume a sur-
34
WATER SHREW
prising amount because of a very rapid rate of digestion.

Deprived even a few hours they starve to death.
of food for
In general, Sorex may be said to favor locaUties where
moisture and soil conditions support an abundance of vege-
tation. Fallen logs, rock piles, rank growths of grass, or the
banks of small streams where shrubbery is thick, all offer suit-
able home sites. Although these Shrews do not seem to make
burrows of their own, they frequently use those made by
Mice or Moles, and the surface runways of Meadow Mice serve
the Shrews as convenient hunting grounds.
Shrews are active throughout the year and do not hibernate.
Cold has no terrors for them and they range north of the
Arctic Circle.
Very little is known about
the home life of Shrews. The
number of probably four or five. The young must
young is
stay in the home nest until they reach nearly adult size, for one
never sees immature Shrews much smaller than their parents.
Genus Neosorex^
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, J; Premolars, f; Molars, | = 32
Water Shrew —^Neosorex palustris

and related forms
—
Names. Water Shrew; Marsh Shrew; Black and White
Shrew. Plate III.
—
General Description. A large, long-tailed Shrew special-
ized for an aquatic life; feet large and broad, hind feet es-
pecially so, fringed with a row of short, stiff hairs; third and
fourth toes united at base and somewhat webbed.
Color. —Sexes colored alike seasonal variation not especially
;
marked.
Upperparts dusky, some of the hairs white-tipped to pro-
duce a frosted appearance tail sharply bicolor, blackish above,
;
white below, tip dark; feet dark on outer side, whitish on

inner; underparts white, sometimes darkened on breast and
inguinal region, sharply differentiated from color of upper-
parts.
Immature very much like adults.
^ See footnote, page 25; also Jackson: Journ. Mamm., Feb., 1926, p.
57.
35
;
Measurements. —Sexes of equal size. Total length, 6.4

—
Geographical Distribution. Colder portions of North
America.
—
Food. Insects and other forms of aquatic life.
Fig. 12. Hind foot of Common Shrew {Sorex), above,

compared with the hind foot of Water Shrew {Neosorex)
which is fringed with stiff hairs
Enemies. —Probably preyed on by Water Snakes and such

small carnivores as the Mink, but I have no personal observ-
ations on this point nor have I seen any actual records.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Neosorex. ^
Subgenus Neosorex
Characterized by light-colored underparts in sharp contrast
to dark- colored upperparts.
Richardson —
Water Shrew. Neosorex palnstris palustris
(Richardson).
As described above. Found in "Parts of the Boreal Zone
from Minnesota to the east base of the Rocky Mountains."
(Merriam)
Nova Scotia Water Shrew. —
Neosorex palustris gloveralleni
(Jackson).'
Resembling typical palustris in size, but color of upperparts
slightly browner. Upperparts very dark blackish brown
sides slightly paler; underparts soiled whitish, lightly
^ Neosorex palustris acadicus, of Miller, North American Recent
Majnmals.
36
. .
WATER SHREW
washed with pale brown on the chest; tail bicolor, upperside

like back, lower side white, tip dark. Total length, 6.4
inches; tail vertebras, 2.6 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found
in Nova Scotia.
White-chinned Water Shrew. — Neosorex palustris albibarhis
(Cope).
Resembling typical palustris in pattern of coloration and in
size,but underparts washed with dusky. Upperparts
blackish slate, with light-tipped hairs; chin whitish; under-
parts suffused with dusky. Total length, 6.2 inches; tail
vertebrse, 2.7 inches; hind foot, ,76 inch. Found in " Boreal
parts of eastern North America from mountains of Penn-
sylvania and New York northward to Labrador." (Merriam)
—
Great Lakes Water Shrew. Neosorex palustris hydrobadistes
(Jackson).
Resembling typical palustris in general color, but slightly
smaller. Coloration more or less intermediate between
palustris palustris and palustris albibarbis. Total length, 6
inches; tail vertebrce, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found
in "Minnesota, Wisconsin, and northern Michigan."
(Jackson)
—
Rocky Mountain Water Shrew. Neosorex palustris navi-
gator (Baird).
Smaller than typical palustris, coloration lighter. Upper-
parts slaty, mixed with hoary; underparts and tail as in
typical palustris. Found in "The Rocky Mountains and
outlying ranges from British Columbia to southern Colorado
and the Sierra Nevada of California south to the Sequoia
National Park." (Merriam)
—
Alaska Water Shrew. Neosorex alaskanus (Merriam).
Smaller than navigator. Upperparts slaty, frosted with
light-tipped hairs; underparts and feet whitish; tail above,
dusky, below, whitish, tip dark. Total length, 6 inches;
tail vertebrce, 2.8 inches; hind foot, .74 inch. Found in
region about Glacier Bay, Alaska.
—
Unalaska Water Shrew. Neosorex hydrodromns (Dobson)
Size very small for a Water Shrew. "Fur reddish brown
above, yellowish brown beneath; chin, throat, and chest
with grayish-tipped hairs; the base of the hairs both above
and beneath dark bluish gray." (Dobson) Total length, 4
inches; tail vertebrse, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .52 inch. Only
one specimen has ever been taken, as far as I can tell from
records, and this came from Unalaska Island, Alaska.
Subgenus Atophyrax
Characterized by coloration of underparts differing only
slightly from that of upperparts; no marked contrasts in color
(except in case of albiventer)
—
Bendire Water Shrew. Neosorex bendirii bendirii (Merriam).
Resembling palustris in general size, but color pattern
37
nearly unicolor. Upperparts dull sooty slate color; tail

dusky above and below underparts only slightly paler than
;
upperparts. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrse, 2.8

inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Klamath Basin,
Oregon and thence northward along east side of Cascade
range to Puget Sound (Port Moody, British Columbia);
westward (probably through Klamath River Valley) to
coast of California, and southward to Sonoma County."
(Merriam)
Palmer Water Shrew. — Neosorex hendirii palmeri (Merriam).
Larger and blacker than typical hendirii. Upperparts
glossy black; underparts sooty slate color; tail dusky above
and below. Total length, 6.6 inches; tail vertebra, 2.9
inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found along "Coast of Oregon
and Willamette Valley; limits of range unknown."
(Merriam)
Olympic Water Shrew. Neosorex— hendirii alhiventer
(Merriam).
Larger than typical hendirii, with longer tail and white
underparts. Upperparts sooty slate color; underparts
white, with dusky wash on pectoral region and on belly;
tail above, blackish, below, slightly paler, no marked color
line between upper and lower sides. Total length, 6.6
inches; tail vertebr£e, 3.1 inches; hind foot, .84 inch.
Found in Olympic Mountains of Washington.
The Water Shrews are the largest members of the Shrew

family found in North America and are beautiful little
creatures. The family characters are readily recognized in
the long, sharp nose, tiny eyes, simple forefeet, and fine, close
fur. From the other Shrews they may be distinguished by
large size, long tail, slaty black upperparts, and broad, fringed,
hind feet. In size of body they may be equalled or exceeded

by the species of Blarina, the Short-tailed Shrews, but the total
length of the Water Shrews is noticeably greater. •
These Shrews frequent small streams or the shores of

marshes and are truly aquatic in habit. They are never
encountered in dry or arid sections and seemingly do not go
very far from water. Probably a large part, if not most, of
their food is caught in the water, and the structure of these
animals indicates that they are well adapted for this type of
existence. The close pelage keeps the Water Shrew from
wetting through to the skin, and the large, partly webbed,
hind feet serve as capable propelling organs.
There is much to be learned of the life-history of the mem-
38
PIGMY SHREW
bers of the genus Neosorex. They are very seldom seen and
because of their habits are not easily observed. Available
records indicate that the young number about six.
Genus Microsorex^
Dentition : Incisors, | Canines, ^ Premolars, f Molars, f
; ; ;
= 32.
Pigmy Shrew. — Microsorex hoyi

and related forms
Names. — Pigmy Shrew; Least Shrew.
General Description. — A very small Shrew, with short tail;
except for resembling small members of the genus Sorex

size,
in superficial appearance, but differing in cranial and dental

characters.
Color. — Sexes colored alike, seasonal variation not very
marked.
Upperparts. — Sepia brown; tail bicolor, above dark brown,
below whitish.
—
Underparts. Ashy with wash of buffy on throat, breast,
and sometimes on belly.
Immature pelage very much like adult.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length 3.3
inches; tail vertebra, 1.3 inches; hind foot, .42 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Eastern North America.
—
Food. Insects,
—
Enemies. Snakes, Owls, Hawks, and small carnivorous
mammals.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Microsorex

Hoy Pigmy Shrew. — Microsorex hoyi hoyi (Baird),
As described above. Found in the northern United States
and adjoining Canadian provinces from Nova Scotia,
Quebec, and New York west to Manitoba and North
Dakota.
Thompson Pigmy Shrew. —
Microsorex hoyi thompsoni (Baird),
Upperparts "dark olive-brown, slightly hoary; paler on
sides. Beneath, ashy white. No tinge of chestnut or
^ Although, this genus is treated by Merriam in his synopsis of the
Shrews, North American Fauna, No. 10, 1895, so little material was avail-
able that only one form was recognized. Jackson, 1925, lists seven
forms, but as yet no satisfactory account of distribution has been
published.
39
.
reddish orown." (Baird) Total length, 3.25 inches; tail

vertebras, 1.25 inches; hind foot, .36 inch. Found in vic-
inity of Burlington, Vermont; also from northern York. New
Virginia Pigmy Shrew. —
Microsorex hoyi winnemana (Preble)
Smaller than typical lioyi. Upperparts (summer) grayish
brown, slightly tinged with ochraceous about head and face;
tail bicolor, above like back, below, silvery gray; under-
parts ashy gray. Total length, 3.12 inches; tail vertebrae,
1. 12 inches; hind foot, .36 inch. Found in the vicinity of
the Potomac River, Fairfax County, Virginia.
Intermediate Pigmy Shrew. — Microsorex hoyi i?itervectus
Jackson.
Resembling typical hoyi but slightly grayer in summer
pelage. Total length, S-7 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.24 inches;
hind foot, .40 inch. Found "From Quebec to northern
Michigan and northern Wisconsin, thence northwest to
northern Alberta, northwest Territories, and northern
British Columbia." (Jackson)
—
Keewatin Pigmy Shrew. Microsorex hoyi alnorum (Preble).
Larger than typical hoyi. Upperparts sepia brown; under-
parts ashy, without any suffusion of buffy. Total length,
3.9 inches; tail vertebrse, 1.4 inches; hind foot, .48 inch.
Found in vicinity of Robinson Portage, Keewatin, Canada.
—
Cook Inlet Pigmy Shrew. Microsorex hoyi eximius (Osgood).
Larger and paler than hoyi. Upperparts uniform grayish
sepia; underparts pale drab; tail bicolor. Total length, 3.9
Found in vicinity of Cook Inlet, Alaska.
—
"Washington Pigmy Shrew. Microsorex hoyi washingtoni
Jackson.
"Color more reddish brown (less grayish) than in any other
• member of the genus." (Jackson) Total_ length, 3.6
inches; tail vertebrae, i.i inches; hind foot, .36 inch. Found
in vicinity of Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington.
In many respects the Pigmy Shrews resemble the small

species of Sorex, the common Shrews, except in the matter of
size. Pigmy Shrews seem to be rare and have never been
found even moderate abundance. As an example of the
in
specimens of this genus, it may be pointed
difficulty in securing
out that only as recently as 19 10 a new Pigmy Shrew, Micro-
sorex hoyi winnemana, was described from Virginia. In
spite of the many years of work and study upon the mammals
of the Atlantic seaboard, this tiniest of mammals had escaped
discovery.
It is to be expected that the life-history of this genus is very
much the same as for Sorex, although very httle has been
40
LITTLE SHREW
written about its habits. Of recent years enough specimens

have been secured to indicate that the genus has a much wider
range than was formerly suspected.
These Shrews are said to prefer dry clearings and not dark
woods, nor damp, marshy localities.
Genus Cryptotis^
;
J ; Premolars, f Molars,;
| =30.
Little Shrew. — Cryptotis parva

and related forms
Names. — Shrew; Little Short-tailed Shrew.
Little
—
General Description. Bearing a close superficial resem-
blance to the Short-tailed Shrew, but differing in cranial and
dental characters; smaller in size, smallest of American
mammals.
Color.— Sexes colored a seasonal variation.
alike,
Upperparts. — Sepia or dark brown, darker in winter than
summer; bicolor, above
tail back, below
like like belly.
Underparts. —Ashy gray.
Measurements. — Sexes of equal Total length, size. 3.1
inches; vertebra, .64 inch; hind
tail .42 inch. foot,
Geographical Distribution. — Eastern United States.
Food. — Insects and such animal food as able to capture. it is
Enemies.'— Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, and other small

carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Cryptotis

Little Short-tailed Shrew. — Cryptotis parva (Say).
As described above. Found in "Austral region of the
eastern United States (including both the Austroriparian
and Carolinian faunas) from Texas and eastern Nebraska
eastward to the Atlantic coast from Staten Island south-
ward." (Miller)
Florida Short-tailed Shrew. — Cryptotis floridana (Merriam).
Larger than parva. Upperparts (winter) iron-gray, with
light-tipped hairs, browner in summer; underparts paler.
Total length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebrae, .88 inch; hind foot,
.48 inch. Found in "Peninsular Florida, south of latitude
29°. Exact limits of range unknown." (Merriam)
I ^ See Foot-note, p. 25.
41
—
Rio Grande Short-tailed Shrew. Cryptotis herlandieri^Qaivd).
Size slightly greater than parva, pelage shorter. Upper-
parts, in winter, chestnut, in summer, ash-brown; under-
parts grayish. Total length, 3.3 inches; tail vertebrae, .76
inch; hind foot, .48 inch. Found in "Lower Rio Grande
Valley, on both sides of the river, and probably the coast
region of southern Texas also. Limits of range unknown."
(Merriam)
Ths species of the genus Cryptotis are not as abundant north

of the Rio Grande as they are southward . The group reaches
its greatest development inMexico and Central America,
and a few have even penetrated into South America.
species
The Little Shrew is easily identified by the combination of'
small size and short tail. In general habits it is much like
other Shrews, showing a fondness for dark, damp localities
where there is an abundance of cover and plenty of insect food.
Genus Blarina'
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, J; Premolars, j; Molars, f = 32.
Short-tailed Shrew. —Blarina brevicauda

and related forms
Names. — Short-tailed Shrew; Short-tailed Blarina; JVIole
Shrew. Plate III.

—
General Description. A short-tailed Shrew with rather
robust form. External ears very much reduced tail less than ;
half the length of head and body ; legs short ;

pelage soft and
velvety.
Color. — Sexes colored alike; some seasonal variation.
Upperparts.' — Dark slate-colored in winter, paler in summer,
glossy in new pelage; tail blackish above, paler below.
Underparts. —
Ashy gray.
Immature much like adult pelage.
—
inches; tail vertebrae, i inch; hind foot, .66 inch.
Geographical Distribution. —Eastern half of North America.
^ For a revision genus see Merriam, North American Fauna,
of this
No. 10, 1895. This monograph is too old to include many of the forms
known today.
42
SHORT-TAILED SHREW
Fig. 13. Short-tailed Shrew
Food.— Insects, Mice, and such animal food as can cap-

it
ture; snails.
Enemies. — Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Skunks, Foxes,
and other small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Blarina

Large —
Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina brevicauda brevicauda
(Say) _
As described above. Found in Nebraska and Manitoba

eastward in Upper Austral and Transition Zones.
Blarina brevicauda talpoides (Gapper) of Ontario, Canada, is
apparently indistinguishable from typical brevicauda.
—
Martha's Vineyard Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina brevicauda
aloga Bangs.
Slightly smaller than typical brevicauda. Upperparts dark
brownish drab; underparts silvery gray; feet white; tail
bicolor, dusky above, grayish below. Total length, 4.8
inches; tail vertebrae, i inch; hind foot, .58 inch. Found
on Island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts.
—
Nantucket Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina brevicauda compacta
Bangs.
Resembling aloga but different in color. Upperparts slate-
gray; underparts very similar to upperparts and no line of
demarcation; feet grayish; tail unicolor, dusky. Total
length, 4.8 inches; tail vertebras, .9 inch; hind foot, .58 inch.
Found on Nantucket Island, Massachusetts.
—
Carolina Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina brevicauda carolinensis
(Bachman).
Much smaller than typical brevicauda. Upperparts dark
slaty, in summer tinged with brownish; underparts slightly
paler. Total length, 4 inches; tail vertebrce, .8 inch; hind
foot, .5 inch. Found in " Austroriparian fauna from the
mouth of Chesapeake Bay to Arkansas." (Merriam)
—
Everglade Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina brevicauda peninsulce
(Merriam).
Resembling carolinensis but hind foot larger and color more
slaty. Upperparts uniform slate-black, duller below.
43
Total length, 3.9 inches; tail vertebras, .8 inch; hind foot, .55
inch. Found on "Peninsula of Florida, south of latitude
28°." (Merriam)
—
Sylvan Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina hrevicauda hulophaga
Elliot.
Resembling carolinensis but lighter colored; tail very short.
Upperparts uniform silvery gray to light brownish; under-
parts slightly paler; tail above brown, below brownish white.
.5 inch. Found in Murray County, Oklahoma.
Dismal Swamp Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina telmalestes—
Merriam.
Resembling typical hrevicauda but hind feet longer and color
different. Upperparts uniform dark slate-gray, slightly
darker on nose and rump feet and tail blackish underparts
; ;
like upperparts. Total length, 4.8 inches; tail vertebrce, i.i

inches; hind foot, .64 inch. Found in Dismal Swamp,
Virginia.
The Short-tailed Shrews, subspecies of Blarina hrevicauda,

may be told by their robust (for a Shrew) bodies, rather
large size (comparatively) and short tails. In addition, the
pelage is very soft and mole-like.
These Shrews are widely distributed in the eastern states

and southern Canada, and display that trait which is quite
characteristic of the family in North America, a preference for
dark, damp localities. Mossy banks, old logs, leaf-covered
forest floors all afford shelterand harbor food for these little
hunters. Although they do not climb above the ground, they
go everywhere else and scout on the surface and under the
surface. They follow the runways and use the burrows of
other mammals and on occasion dig their own subterranean
paths. They are active throughout the year and although
seldom seen are about during daylight hours.
It is a rather peculiar fact that while these Shrews are a
successful group in eastern North America, they have never
become established like their relatives, the Long-tailed Shrews
(Sorex), in western North America.
The Short-tailed Shrew usually has five young in a litter and
the nest is in an underground den or under rocks or stumps.
The female makes a warm nest and lines it with shredded
material such as grass and leaves. The young may be bom
from April to fall or even later.
44
.
CRAWFORD SHREW
Genus Notiosorex
Dentition: Incisors, | ; Canines, J ; Premolars, {; Molars, | =28
Crawford Shrew. —Notiosorex crawfordi crawfordi

—
Names. Crawford Shrew; Gray Shrew.
—
General Description. A small Shrew with conspicuous ex-
ternal ear, relatively short tail, and slender body.
Color.— Sexes colored alike.
Upperparts. — Olive-gray; tail above like back, below like
underparts.
Underparts. — Whitish
Measurements. — Sexes of equal size. Total length, 3.6
—
Geographical Distribution. "Parts of Lower Sonoran
Zone from eastern Texas to southern California, and thence
southward to the cape region of the peninsula of Lower
California." (Merriam)
—
Food. Same as that of Sorex.
—
Enemies. As for Sorex.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Notiosorex
Only the one form is known from the United States. Notio-
sorex crawfordi crawfordi (Coues).
The Gray Shrew is the rarest of the North American
Shrews. Unlike the other members of the family, it lives in

dry regions and not only does it appear to be rather local
in its distribution, but also exceedingly scarce in the regions
where it is known to occur. The capture of one of these
mammals is a noteworthy achievement, and any collector who
secures data on the life-history of this little-known creature
should earn a niche in the mammal Hall of Fame.
45
Order CHIROPTERA.^ BATS
Suborder MICROCHIROPTERA (Bats exclusive
of theOld World Fruit-eating Bats, the
Megachiroptera)
Mammals with highly specialized structures for true flight,
which include modified forelimbs; greatly elongated fingers
which are joined together and to the sides of body and legs
by a continuous membrane; shoulder girdle more specialized
than sternum generally with a keel; knee directed
pelvis, the
backward to allow for rotation of leg. Tragus (a specialized
Fig. 14. Big Brown Bat
membranous process within the ear-conch) present in all
American forms; dentition normally of insectivorous type;

molar teeth of upper jaw quite different from those of lower.
^ For a very full and exhaustive treatment of all the known families
and genera of Bats see G. S. Miller, Jr., The Families and Genera of Bats,
Bull. 57, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1907.
46
BATS
This is a very large suborder containing a great many forms

which in their ranges cover most of the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres. Practically all of the forms are crepuscular or
nocturnal in habit. While the greater number of Bats in this
suborder are strictly insectivorous, there are some which are
frugivorous, and a very small family the members of which
are sanguivorous and highly specialized for a blood diet.
Only the insectivorous forms range as far north as the United
States.
From many observations, it would appear that all of our
Bats which have a summer range in a region of cold winters
either hibernate or migrate to a warmer region during the
period when insect life is scarce. The fact that these Bats
take on a layer of fat at the close of summer also points to an
approaching drain upon the constitution, such as a dormant
season or an extended flight.
Under the heading of enemies of Bats, the Owl is listed for
each species. For only a few of the species are there definite,
authentic records of Bat skulls taken from Owl pellets, notably
Eptesicus and Lasionycteris, but after a rather extensive
examination of Owl pellets collected in tropical America, in
which I have found the remains of many Bats, covering the
range from fruit-eating species to the most active insectivorous
forms, I have reached the conclusion that Owls are quite capa-
ble of preying on Bats and are real, potential enemies.
Family Phyllostomidae. American

Leaf-nosed Bats
"Tragus present, variously thickened and notched; a simple

though occasionally rudimentary
nose-leaf generally present,
or absent,
"The members of the family Phyllostomidas are recogniz-
able by the presence of three completely bony phalanges in the
third finger, the entire premaxillary, the slender, incomplete
fibula, and the well-developed molar teeth. Though some of
the genera lack cutaneous nasal outgrowths, those which have
nose-leaves are the only American leaf-nosed bats, and these
structures are never as highly developed as in some of the
Old World families." (Miller)
47
Subfamily Phyllostominae
Genus Macrotus
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, J-;
Premolars, f; Molars, f =34.
California Leaf-nosed Bat. — Macrotus californicus

Baird
—
General Description. A medium-sized Bat with tall,
upright leaf on nose; very large, papery ears which are con-
nected at their bases by a band which crosses the forehead;
tragus long, slender, pointed; interfemoral membrane not
very extensive.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal vari-
ation.
Upperparts.— Pelage light-colored, almost white, at base;
hairs tipped with brown; membranes brownish.
Underparts. — Like upperparts but slightly paler.
Measurements. — Total length, 3.8 inches; vertebrae,
tail
1.6 inches; hind foot, .45 inch; ear from crown, i.i inches;
wing expanse, 13 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Arid sections of the south-
western United States south into Lower California and Mexico.
—
Food. Insects.
—
Enemies. Owls.
Only one species of the genus Macrotus reaches the United

States, although other species have a wide distribution in
tropical America. Writing of the California Leaf-nosed Bat,
Stephens {California Mammals, p. 276) says: "In California
they frequent valleys and foothills. They are probably
migratory. I know of no instance of their occurrence in
California in winter, and I have failed to find them at all in
January in a place where I can nearly always find them in
spring and summer. They probably spend the day in caves,
crevices in rocks and similar dark places. I have not seen
them on the wing until all the twilight has faded away. The
young are bom in June. More than half of the females bear
two young, the remainder but one."
48
BATS
Family Vespertilionidae ^
This family includes most of the species of Bats found in
North America, north of the Rio Grande. The members of
the Vespertilionidse are among the most highly specialized of
the entire order and have progressed farther from terrestrial
mammals than most of the other families of Bats, with respect
to the greatly developed flight mechanism. Only two other
families, the Molossidae and the Mystacopidê, display an equal
degree of flight perfection, and even these two families lack the
extreme subordination of the ulna seen in the Vespertilionidce.
Species of the Vespertilionidae are characterized by absence
of leaf -like outgrowths on muzzle and lips; separate ears (in
most genera), with well-developed tragi which are straight or
slightly curved; only two bony phalanges in third finger;
absence of sucking disks on sole and thumb wide interf emoral
;
membrane; long tail which reaches to edge of interf emoral

membrane but never extends much beyond it or becomes free.
The most diagnostic internal characters are a highly de-
veloped double articulation between scapula and humerus;
greatly reduced ulna shoulder girdle and pelvis unmodified in
;
fundamental details teeth normal (insectivorous) a con-

; ;
spicuous emargination at the anterior end of the bony palate.

The vespertilionids are mainly small to medium-sized Bats
and none of them (in North America) attain the size of some
of the Phyllostomidas of tropical America. The Vespertilio-
nidae are very widely distributed geographically, cosmopolitan
in fact, and are found in greatest number of species in the
Northern Hemisphere.
While some of the North American species of the Vesperti-
lionidae are social in habit and may be found associated in
good-sized colonies, many of the species are found only in small
numbers, and in temperate regions the Bat population seldom
appears to be very large. Some of the forms are definitely
known to be migratory, others are suspected to be so, while
still others are found hibernating where winters are severe.
All of the North American members of the Vespertilionids

are strictly insectivorous in diet.
^ See G. S. Miller, Jr., North American Fauna, No. 13, 1897, for a
revision of the Vespertilionidae of North America. Many species have
been described, however, since this paper was published.
49
Subfamily Vespertilioninae
Genus Myotis
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, } ; Premolars, f ; Molars, | =38.
Little Brown Bat. —Myotis lucifugus

and related forms
General Description. — Â small, delicately- built Bat with
hairy face, narrow ear, slender tragus, rather ample mem-
branes, and long pelage fairly long and soft; upper side of
tail;
interfemoral membrane sparsely haired on basal fourth.

Color.—Adults colored alike; no very noticeable seasonal
variation.
Upperparts dull brown, the fur slate-colored at base; mem-
branes brownish.
Underparts a little paler and more yellowish than upper-
part .1.
—
Measurements. Total length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.6 inches; hind foot, .35 inch; length of forearm, 1.5 inches.
—
Food.— Flying insects.
Enemies. — Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Myotis
This is a difficult group and a brief written synopsis can not

take the layman far. Details of the skull, of the ear structure,
and the finer shades of color distinction can best be shown
by the actual comparison of specimens, and there is not space
in this field book to set these differences forth at length. The
genus has been revised b}^ G. S. Miller, Jr., and G. M. Allen,
and the forthcoming publication of their studies will supply
a needed guide to the student.
Little Brown Bat. — Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (Le Conte).

As described above; ear about reaching nostril when laid
forward. Found in "The whole of North America north of
the southern boundary of the United States, except in the
Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific coast of California,
Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and southern
Alaska." (Miller) Plate III.
50
LITTLE BROWN BAT
Alaskan Little Brown Bat. — Myotis lucijngiis alascensis

Miller.
Like typical Incifugus but darker and with longer ears.
.6 inch. Found in "Humid coast district of southern Alaska
and northern British Columbia," (Miller)
—
High Sierra Bat. Myotis Incifugus altipetens (H. W. Grinnell).
Somewhat similar to alascensis but yellower, upperparts
yellowish gray. Total length, 3.4 inches; tail vertebra,
1.4 inches; hind foot, .4 inch; forearm, 1.4 inches. Found
in " the central Sierra Nevada, the vicinity of Mount Shasta,
and the Warner Mountains." (Grinnell).
—
White-edged Bat. Myotis alhicinctus G. M. Allen.
"A bat of the size and proportions of M. lucifugus but very
pallid, with conspicuous white border to the wing mem-
branes, broadest between the fifth finger and tarsus."
(Allen) Upperparts pale buff; underparts clear white;
membranes blackish, except for white edging on wings and
on interfemoral membrane. Total length, 3.5 inches; tail
vertebras, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .36 inch; forearm, 1,5
inches. Has been taken on Mt. Whitney, California
(11,000 feet) and at Mammoth, Mono County, California.
—
Alberta Little Brown Bat. Myotis pernox Hollister.
Closely resembling typical lucifugus externally, but foot
larger and membranes blacker. Upperparts uniform
glossy brown; underparts deep yellowish gray. Total
length, 2>-7 inches; tail vertebrce, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .46
inch; forearm, 1.55 inches. Taken at Henry House,
Alberta.
—
Northern Little Brown Bat. Myotis altifrons Hollister.
Size of typical lucifugus but differing in color. Wing
attachment to hind feet at base of toes; tragus long and
narrow. Upperparts very dark brown; underparts dark
drab brown; membranes blackish. Total length, 3.6 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .36 inch; forearm, 1.46
inches. Taken at Henry House, Alberta.
—
Least Brown Bat. Myotis winnemana Nelson.
Resembling typical lucifugus but differing in shorter fore-
arm and ear and blackish muzzle. Upperparts dark rufous
chestnut-brown tinged with golden; blackish on muzzle
and sides of head; underparts dull grayish brown. Total
length, 3.3 inches; tail vertebra, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .32
inch; forearm, 1.22 inches; wing expanse, 11 inches. Taken
at Plummer Island, Maryland and at Brandon, Vermont.
—
Yellowstone Bat. Myotis carissima Thomas.
Resembling typical lucifugus (regarded as a subspecies of
lucifugus by Bailey). "Ears, small and pointed; fur,
glossy; colors, light hazel-brown above, buffy below; ears
and membranes, dark brown or blackish; tail membranes,
edged with gray." (Bailey, N. A. Fauna, No. 49, p. 215).
Total length, 3.8 inches; tail vertebra, 1.6 inches; hind foot,
51
—
.4 inch; forearm, inches; wing expanse, 10.4 inches.

1.5
Found from "western Montana to the Black Hills and over
western North Dakota." (Bailey)
—
Northwestern Long-legged Bat. Myotis longicrus longicrus
(True).
Resembling typical lucifugus but a trifle larger and with
proportionally shorter ear and forearm. Upperparts bister
sprinkled with lighter tipped hairs; underparts washed with
vinaceous buff. Total length, 4 inches; tail vertebrse, 1,8
inches; hind foot, .32 inch; length of forearm, 1.5 inches.
Found Boreal and Transition Zones from Puget Sound
'
in '
east to Wyoming; south at least to Arizona and southern

California, and probably much farther. [The range as here
given is that of the entire species.] " (Miller)
Interior Long-legged Bat. —
Myotis longicrus interior Miller.
Differing from typical longicrus in being tawny olive instead
of bister. Has been taken in Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado,
Nevada, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Little California Bat.
—Myotis californicus californicus (Audu-
bon and Bachman).
Smallest of the Myotis found in the United States and
characterized by "slender form, delicate membranes, long
tail and legs, small feet, and pale yellowish color." (Miller)
Ears reaching just beyond tip of nose when laid forward,
tragus slender, more or less straight, pointed. Upperparts
light yellowish gray underparts paler membranes blackish.
; ;
Total length, 3.2 inches; tail vertebrse, 1.5 inches; hind foot,
.25 inch; forearm, 1.25 inches. Found in "Austral Zones
and lower part of Transition Zone throughout the western
United vStates and Lower California; east to Wyoming and
Texas." (Miller)
Little Pallid Bat.
—
Myotis californicus pallidus Stephens.
Resembling typical californicus but slightly smaller and _
paler. Upperparts light buff, pelage blackish at base;

underparts pale buff; membranes light brown. Total
length, 3.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .3
inch; forearm, 1.2 inches. Found in California in "Lower
Sonoran Zone on the Colorado and Mohave deserts, and
north in Owens Valley at least to Lone Pine." (Grinnell)
Oak Foliage Bat. Myotis californicus quercinus H. W.
Grinnell.
Intermediate in color between typical californicus and
pallidus. Upperparts cinnamon; underparts light buff.
Total length, 3.2 inches; tail vertebra, 1.45 inches; hind
foot, .24 inch; forearm, 1.3 inches. Found in Southern
California and the Santa Barbara Islands in Upper Sonoran
and low Transition Zones.
Northwestern Little Brown Bat. — Myotis californicus caurinus
Miller.
Very much darker than typical californicus. Upperparts
very dark,"almost blackish sepia throughout, slightly
52
— ;
LITTLE BROWN BAT
yellowish on belly, the fur everywhere blackish plumbeous

at base." (Miller) Total length, 3 inches; tail vertebrae,
in "The humid coast district of British Columbia, Washing-
ton, and Oregon, and possibly of northern California also."
(Miller)
Prairie Little Brown Bat. —Myotis caUfornicus ciliolahrum
(Merriam).
Paler than typical caUfornicus and with slightly larger
ears interf emoral membrane thinly haired on upper surface
;
for about half its extent from body, about one-fifth its
extent on under surface. Upperparts pale yellowish white
in marked contrast to dark brown of ears, muzzle, and chin.
.28 inch; forearm, 1.3 inches. Found in Kansas and South
Dakota; limits of range unknown.
La GruUa Brown Bat. Myotis orinomus Elliot.
Like typical caUfornicus externally but larger and with
longer thumb tragus tall, slender, tapering and rounded at
;
tip; pelage soft and silky. Upperparts tawny olive; under-

parts pale buffy; membranes dark brown. Total length,
3.4 inches; tail vertebree, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .28 inch;
forearm, 1.3 inches. Found in southern California in the
high Upper Sonoran Zone.
—
Yuma Bat. MyoUs yumanensis yumanensis (H. Allen).
Size small; ear reaching just beyond tip of nose when laid
forward; tip of ear narrow and abruptly rounded; tragus
slender, sharply pointed; hind foot proportionally large;
calcar long. Upperparts pale wood-brown or buff; under-
parts whitish; membranes light brown and rather thick for
such a small Bat. Total length, 3.4 inches; tail vertebras,
in "Austral Zones and lower edge of Transition Zone from
the southwestern United States to San Luis Potosi and
Michoacan, Mexico." (Miller)
—
Tejon Bat. MyoUs yumanensis sociabiUs H. W. Grinnell.
Intermediate between typical yumanensis and saturatus.
Upperparts wood-brown; underparts light buff; pelage
everywhere clove-brown at base. Total length, 3.3 inches;
tail vertebrce, 1.35 inches; hind foot, .33 inch; forearm, 1.4
inches. Found in "the semi-arid Transition and Sonoran
Zones in California west and north of the southeastern
deserts." (Grinnell); taken also on Mt. Whitney, 11,000
feet.
Miller Bat. —
MyoUs yumanensis sahiratus Miller.
Resembling typical yumanensis but with longer fur and
darker color; smaller than typical lucifugus which it re-
sembles in color. Upperparts dark glossy yellowish brown
underparts old gold; sides, chin, and throat darker than
underparts; membranes blackish; pelage everywhere slaty
black at base. Total length, 3.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.4
53
—
inches; hind foot, .34 inch; forearm, 1.4 inches. Found in

"Transition Zone in Oregon, Washington, and British
Columbia." (Miller)
Cave Bat. — My oils velifer (Allen).
The largest species of the genus found in the United States;
ears short and pointed. Upperparts uniform dull sepia;
underparts somewhat paler; pelage everywhere slate-
colored at base. Total length, 4 inches; tail vertebras,
along the southern border of the United States.
—
Bailey Little Brown Bat. Myotis haileyi HolHster.
Most like velifer but smaller, forearm shorter; tragus broad
at base and sharply pointed; larger than occultus, ears.
larger. Sepia above, smoke-gray below; membranes black.
Forearm, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Has been taken
only at Ruidoso and Luna, New Mexico.
—
Little Gray Bat. -Myotis grisescens Howell.
Most nearly related to velifer but darker in color and wings
attached to feet at ankle joint instead of at base of toes.
Upperparts dark mouse-gray, the hairs one color from tips
to roots; underparts pale smoke-gray, the hairs darker
basally; membranes black. Total length, 3.7 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .42 inch; forearm, 1.65
inches. Found in Tennessee, Missouri, and Indiana.
—
San Antonio Little Brown Bat. Myotis incautus (Allen).
A large species about the size of velifer. Upperparts dull
light brown with a tinge of olive underparts grayish washed
;
with buffy; membranes blackish brown. Total length 3.75

inches; tail vertebrse, 1.75 inches; forearm, 1.7 inches;
expanse, 1 1 i inches. Known from various localities in
.
New Mexico and Texas, from Carlsbad, New Mexico to

Bexar County, Texas.
Say Bat. Myotis suhulatus suhulatus (Say).
Not unlike typical lucifiigus externally but with longer ears
which reach well beyond tip of nose when laid forward.
Darker than evotis and ears narrower; pelage soft and lax.
Upperparts yellowish brown; underparts slightly paler;
membranes dark brown. Total length, 3.8 inches; tail
vertebrce, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .36 inch; forearm, 1.5
inches; wing expanse, 10 inches. Found irregularly dis-
tributed in North America east of the Rocky Mountains.
—
Keen Bat. Myotis suhulatus keenii (Merriam).
Darker than typical suhulatus and with longer tail and ears.
.33 inch; forearm, 1.4 inches. Found on Queen Charlotte
Islands, British Columbia, and probably on adjacent
mainland.
Little Long-eared Bat. — Myotis evotis (H. Allen).
Size medium; ears very large, naked and black; fur glossy,
soft and lax. Upperparts buffy yellowish; paler, almost
whitish, on underparts; membranes blackish. Total
54
LITTLE BROWN BAT
length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebrse, 1.7 inches; hind foot,

.36 inch; forearm, 1.6 inches; ear from notch, .8 inch.
Found in "Austral and Transition Zones from the Pacific
coast to the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains; south
to Vera Cruz, Mexico." (Miller)
Hollister Bat. —
Myotis occuUus Hollister.
Differs from other North American species of Myotis in low,
flat braincase and wide, flat rostrum. Upperparts rich
glossy brown with cinnamon tint; underparts paler, tinged
with buffy. Total length, 3.6 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6
inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found along the west side of
the Colorado River from Needles, California to Yuma;
limits of range unknown.
—
Fringed Bat. Myotis thysanodes Miller.
Alarge species with moderately long ears (which reach
about a quarter of an inch beyond tip of nose when laid
forward), wing attached to hind foot at a point between
ankle and base of toes, free border of interfemoral membrane
thickened and densely haired. Upperparts dull yellowish
brown; underparts paler; membranes dark. Total length,
3.5 inches; tail vertebras, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .32 inch;
forearm, 1.65 inches. Found in "Lower Sonoran Zone from
Some
******
near the southern border of the United States to San Luis
Potosi and Michoacan, Mexico."
species of this genus is

(Miller)
usually the
*
commonest small
Bat of any given region. The genus is almost cosmopolitan
in distribution, being found over a large part of both the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and some one of the many
American forms is generally to be seen at dusk anywhere
in North America where Bats can find flying insects. Myotis
can generally be told by its small size, the only other North
American Bat as small being Pipistrellus. These two genera,
however, can probably not be distinguished on the wing by
the layman.
The flight of Myotis
is fairly rapid, but because of the ample
membranes more a series of full-winged flutterings than the

is
rapid beats of some of the more narrow-winged Bats such as

Tadarida. The flight is quite erratic and as a rule the Bat
flies at no great height above the ground. It is difficult to
observe when the light becomes dim because it seldom comes
against the sky-line unless directly overhead.
The voice of this Bat
is a very fine, wiry squeak, and
attention often directed to the presence of Myotis by this

is
note which, however, is pitched so high as to be inaudible

to some individuals.
55
Myotis spends the day in caves and, when these are not
available, in hollow trees or under the eaves and in the roofs
of buildings where they are not disturbed.
Myotis may be seen flying iii a great many environments,
but is observed to best advantage at the edge of a forest
clearing, over the surface of a lake or a slow-flowing stream,
or at the opening of any natural tunnel such as a foliage-
enclosed corridor under the trees, under bridges, or near an
open shed or bam. This Bat often flies into houses if the
doors or windows are open,
I believe that the Bats of this genus generally have but one
young at a birth.
Genus Lasionycteris
Dentition.— Incisors, f ; Canines, \; Premolars, f Molars, f =36.
;
Silver-haired Bat. —Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le

Conte)
Names. — Silver-haired Bat; Silvery-haired Bat; Black Bat.
General Description. —A medium-sized Bat of dark appear-
ance, the hairs tipped with silvery white. Ear of medium
size,broad, rounded at tip; tragus short, straight and broad;
interfemoral membrane well furred on basal half of upper
surface.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal vari-
ation.
Upperparts dark chocolate-brown tipped with silvery white;
pelage long and lax; membranes dark brown; underparts very-
much like upperparts but with less light-tipping.
Measurements. — Total length, 4 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.6 inches; hind foot, .32 inch; ear from crown, .6 inch; fore-
arm, 1.6 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. "North America north of
Mexico, from the Atlantic to the Pacific; probably not breed-
ing south of the Transition Zone." (Miller)
—
Food. Flying insects.
—
Enemies. Owls.
The genus Lasionycteris is peculiar to North America and
only the one species is known. Although this Bat ranges
over most of North America its distribution is somewhat
56
PIPISTRELLE
irregular,and over large areas it is absent or very rare. It

seems to prefer the banks of forested streams or mountain
meadows where it appears when twilight has set in.
This Bat migrates southward from the colder parts of its
range upon the approach of autumn and during this time may-
be seen occasionally flying during the day. This species
spends the day in hollow trees, in dense masses of foliage, or
in caves.
The young may be one or two in a litter.
Genus Pipistrellus
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars, f Molars,

; ;
| = 34.
Pipistrelle. —Pipistrellus subflavus

and related forms
—
Names. Pipistrelle; various names for the different species,
such as Western Bat for P. hesperus.
General Description. —Among the smallest of the North
American Bats; ear of medium size, broad, rounded at tip;
tragus straight or slightly curved forward, tip bluntly rounded;
interfemoral membrane sparingly sprinkled with hair on basal
third of upper surface; membranes blackish.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal vari-
ation.
Upperparts light yellowish brown, underparts very much
likeupper or slightly paler; pelage everywhere slaty black at
base.
Measurements. —
Total length, 3.4 inches; tail vertebras,
hind foot, .32 inch; forearm, 1.3 inches.
1.6 inches;
—
Geographical Distribution. Eastern United »States.
—
—
Enemies. Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Pipistrellus
Georgian Bat. —Pipistrellus subflavus (F. Cuvier).

suhflavus
As described above; ear reaching slightly beyond nostril
when laid forward. Found in the eastern United States
from Atlantic coast to Iowa and eastern and southern
Texas, in Austral and occasional parts of Transition Zone.
—
New York Pipistrelle. Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus Miller.
Duller and less yellow than typical subflavtis and with more
57
— —
dark- tipped hairs on back. Upperparts pale wood-brown;

underparts pale yellowish gray. Total length, 3.4 inches;
tail vertebras, 1.55 inches; hind foot, .32 inch; forearm, 1.4
inches. Found "Along border of Transition Zone and
Upper Austral Zone in central and eastern New York."
(Miller)
Western Bat; Canyon Bat. Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus
(H. Allen).
Smallest of North American Bats ear short (barely reaching
;
to nostril when laid forward), bluntly rounded; tragus blunt

and inclined forward at tip. Above and below light yellow-
ish gray or whitish gray; pelage slate-colored at base.
.22 inch; forearm, 1.2 inches. Found in "Lower Austral
Zone in the western United States from southern and
western Texas to the Pacific coast. Limits of range im-
perfectly known." (Miller)
Merriam Bat. Pipistrellus hesperus merriami (Dobson).
Resembling typical hesperus but darker in color and slightly
larger. Color above and below warm buff. Total length,
3 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.2 inches; hind foot, .22 inch; fore-
arm, 1. 1 5 inches. Found in the Upper Sonoran and
Transition Zones from the Mexican line northwest through
California, east of the humid coast belt and west of the
Sierra Nevada to Butte and Tehama counties.
The and
species of Pipistrellus are very small, erratic flyers
are often found in large numbers in favored localities. These
Bats seem to be commonest over the southern part of their
range and show a preference for cliffs and rocky hillsides.
They are variously recorded as appearing on the wing soon
after sunset, at late dusk, and even at 9 a.m.
The number of young is one or two, more often the latter.
The North American forms of Pipistrellus live in caves or
crevices in the rocks.
Genus Eptesicus
Dentition: Incisors, f; Canines, \; Premolars, I; Molars, § = 32.
Brown Bat. —Eptesicus fuscus

and related forms
Names. — Brown Bat; Big Brown Bat; House Bat.
General Description. —A large Bat, brown in color and
without any peculiar development of nose, ear, or wing
structure. Ear of medium size, narrowly rounded at tip, ear
58
BROWN BAT
membranes rather tough and leathery; tragus of medium

height, straight and moderately rounded at tip; pelage soft
and loose; flight membranes naked; interfemoral membrane
ample.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation.
Upperparts uniform brown, varying slightly with in-
dividuals from sepia almost to cinnamon-brown; pelage
Fig. 15. Head of Brown Bat

blackish at base; membranes blackish; face and ears blackish;
underparts somewhat lighter than upperparts, a paler shade
of brown with buffy tinge.
Measurements. —Total length, 4.5 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.6 inches; hind foot, .4 inch; forearm, 1.8 inches; wing ex-
panse, 12 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Most of North America.
—
—
Enemies. Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Eptesicus

Common Brown —
Bat; Big Brown Bat. Eptesicus fuscus
fuscus (Beauvois), Plate III.
As described above. Found in "Austral, Transition, and
lower edge of Boreal Zones throughout the greater part of
the United States and adjoining British Provinces."
(Miller)
Eptesicus fuscus melanopterus Rehn
Eptesicus fuscus hernardinus Rhoads
These two races are listed in Miller's North American
Recent Mammals, but are probably not to be distinguished
from typical fuscus.
59
Florida Big —
Brown Bat. Eptesicus fuscus osceola Rhoads.
Resembling typical fuscus but darker in color. Upperparts
cinnamon-brown. Total length, 4.5 inches; tail vertebras,
1.8 inches; hind foot, .4 inch. Found in peninsular Florida.
Colorado Brown Bat; Pale Brown Bat. Eptesicus fuscus —
pallidus (Young).
Paler and larger than typical fuscus but otherwise very much
like it. Upperparts brownish ashy underparts silvery gray.
*******
;
Total length, 5 inches; tail vertebrse, 2 inches^; hind foot,

.48 inch. Taken at Boulder, Colorado.
Eptesicus is the commonest of the larger Bats found in the

United States. Its size and fairly steady flight are good
distinguishing characters. Although its flight traces abrupt
changes of direction, one of the least erratic fliers among
it is
the North American Bats. It is not infrequently heard to

utter its high-pitched, squeaky call, and is often seen about
street lights in large cities where it finds congenial abodes in
dark nooks in the roofs or inaccessible crannies in the buildings.
Several observers have stated that in the eastern states
the Big Brown Bat does not appear until rather late, but in
the West I have noted them as quite early, very shortly after
sundown, in fact. This Bat flies fairly high and shows a
preference for meadows, clearings in the forest, and over
water-courses. It may enter houses through open doors or
windows.
The number of young at a birth is one or two. The Big
Brown Bat either hibernates or migrates from the regions of
cold autumns and winters. In New York City it is not an
uncommon thing to come across the Big Brown Bat hiber-
nating in some building.
Genus Nycteris
Dentition: Incisors, \\ Canines, \; Premolars, |; Molars, f =32.
Red Bat. —Nycteris borealis

and its subspecies
—
General Description. A medium-sized Bat of conspicuous
reddish coloration. Ears low, broad, rounded; tragus broad
at base, tapering at point; pelage long and lax; interfemoral
membrane densely furred on upper surface, sparingly furred
60
RED BAT
for about one- third, on under surface; fur on wing membranes

in region of elbow and wrist above and more extensively along
arm from body to wrist below. Plate III.
Color. —Sexes colored alike no noticeable seasonal variation.
;
Upperparts bright rufous red, the pelage blackish at base,

sprinkled with minute, whitish tips to give appearance of
delicate frosting; color varies somewhat and specimens may
be yellowish gray above, generally with a faint tinge of
salmon; a yellowish white shoulder patch present; underparts
paler and less reddish than upperparts.
—
Measurements. Total length, 4.2 inches; tail vertebra,
2 inches; hind foot, .3 inch; forearm, 1,6 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. North America from Canada
south.
Food. —Flying insects.
Enemies. — Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Nycteris.
Northern Red Bat. — Nycteris horealis horealis (Miiller).
As described above. Found in "Boreal, Transition,
and
Austral Zones in eastern North America from Canada to
Florida and Texas; west at least to Indian Territory and
Colorado." (Miller)
—
Seminole Red Bat. Nycteris horealis seminola (Rhoads).
Size of typical horealis but differing in color. Upperparts
rich mahogany-brown slightly frosted with grayish white;
whitish areas on throat and chest; whitish shoulder patches.
Found in "Lower Austral and Tropical Zones from South
Carolina to southern Texas." (Miller)
—
Western Red Bat. Nycteris horealis teliotis (H. Allen).
Smaller than typical horealis, with shorter ear and brighter
color. Upperparts cinnamon reddish to ochraceous buff.
.32 inch; forearm, 1.6 inches. Found "From the head of
Sacramento Valley, California, south to Comondu, Lower
California." (Miller)
Hoary Bat. —Nycteris cinerea (Beauvois)

Names. — Hoary Bat; Great Northern Bat.
Similar in general structure to its congener, the Red Bat,
in the following characters: broad, low ear which is furred
almost to the tip, rimmed with black; tragus broad basally;
pelage long and lax; interfemoral membrane heavily furred
61
above; wings furred along forearm as far as wrist on under-

side. Larger than the Red Bat and gray instead of reddish
in color.
Upperparts grayish white, with darker basal color of pelage
showing through hairs brownish black at base, then pale yel-
;
lowish brown, followed by a narrow band of chocolate-brown

and finally tipped with whitish. Underparts yellower and
without so much of the white tipping except on throat where
long hairs form a sort of ruff colored like back. Membranes
brownish black except for a narrow yellowish brown strip
along forearm and half way down fingers on upperside.
.2 inch; forearm, 2 inches; wing expanse, 16 inches.
Found in "Boreal North America from Atlantic to Pacific,

breeding within the Boreal Zone, but in autumn and winter
(Miller)
*******
migrating at least to southern border of United States."
The Red Bat

American Bats and
is more
is
of a tree Bat than the other North
consequently never found away from the
forests,except possibly during migration. It spends the day-
time hanging amongst the leaves and it rather closely re-
sembles a dead and brown leaf. It is said to be solitary in
habit and only one or two are found together.
This Bat appears in the air rather early in the evening and is
not infrequently seen abroad in the daytime. It enters
houses in pursuit of insects just as does Eptesicus and Myotis
and can be readily identified by its very distinctive reddish
color.
The Red Bat is a very rapid flyer and follows an erratic
course fairly well up above the ground. The rapidity of
flight, large size, and long narrow wings are the best field
characters.
Bats of this genus have four mammae and the number of
young at a birth varies from one to four. If the mother has
four young the combined weights of her offspring may exceed
her own weight; and, since she carries them with her until
they are able to fly for themselves, it indicates very marked
powers of flight.
The Hoary Bat is like the Red Bat in its preference for
forests, its long pointed wing, swift, erratic flight, and the
62
YELLOW BAT
number ot young, (often four), but differs in its greater size,

gray instead of reddish color, later appearance in the evening,
and generally higher course of flight. This Bat is not common
anywhere and does not take to the air until the twilight is
nearly past. It is one of the least known of our widely rang-
ing Bats. A specimen in the hand can not be mistaken for
any other species and it is easily the most handsome North
American Bat.
There are many observations on record to show that the
species of Nycteris migrate with the coming of the autumn
frosts.
Genus Dasypterus
Dentition: Incisors, \\ Canines, \ ; Premolars, |; Molars, f = 30.
Yellow Bat. —Dasypterus intermedius

and related species
General Description. —Very much like Nycteris in general

characters. Ear of medium height, rather broad and rounded,
only sparsely sprinkled with hairs on inner surface, furred
about half way on outer surface; tragus broad basally, taper-
ing at tip interf emoral membrane well haired above for about
;
basal third, naked below; a sprinkling of fur on underside of

volar membranes along forearm to wrist pelage long
;
and silky.
Color. —Sexes colored alike, no noticeable seasonal
variation.
Upperparts pale yellowish brown more or less mottled by
dusky- tipped hairs; pelage blackish at base; membranes
brownish to blackish; underparts warmer in tone than up-
perparts and washed with rusty brown on lower abdomen.
Measurements. —Total length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebras,
hind foot, .4 inch; forearm, 2.2 inches.
2.6 inches;
—
Geographical Distribution. Southern states from Texas
east.
—
Enemies. Owls.—
Species of the Genus Dasypterus
Only two species reach the United States, the genus having
a wider distribution south of the United States.
63
—
Texan Yellow Bat. Dasypterus intermedins (H, Allen).
As described above. Found in "Mexico from Chiapas
north to extreme southern Texas." (Miller)
—
Florida Yellow Bat. Dasypterus fioridanus Miller.
Smaller than intermedins but colored the same. Total
length, 5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .36
inch; forearm, 1.9 inches. Found in "Florida and Gulf
coast west to Louisiana." (Miller)
Very little has been written about this Bat which apparently
is common anywhere. This genus is southern in its
not very
distribution and ranges down into South America. The
different species apparently prefer dry, hot country. The
number of young is two at a birth and they are bom in late
May (Texas).
Genus Nycticeius
Dentition: Incisors, \, Canines, t; Premolars, \', Molars, f= 30.
Rafinesque Bat. —Nycticeius humeralis

(Rafinesque)
—
Names. Rafinesque Bat; Evening Bat.
—
General Description. A small to medium-sized Bat with
very much the external appearance of a large Myotis or a
small Eptesicus. Ear small, thick and leathery, naked,
rounded in anterior profile, tip moderately narrow and
rounded tragus short and blunt pelage not extending onto
; ;
membranes, rather short.

Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal variation.
Upperparts dull brown, the pelage brownish black at base;
membranes blackish; underparts lighter and more buffy than
upperparts.
Measurements. —
Total length, 3.7 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.5 inches;hind foot, .28 inch; forearm, 1.4 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found in "Austral Zones in
the eastern United States, west to Arkansas and southern
Texas." (Miller)
—
*******
Enemies. — Owls.
64
SPOTTED BAT
This Bat is a member of a small genus peculiar in many

characters which set from other North American Bats.
it off
Not very much has been recorded on the habits of Nycticeius

and it is apparently not very common over parts of its range,
although elsewhere it may be fairly abundant, as in eastern
and southern Texas,
Harper {Mammals of Okefiîokee Swamp) writes of this Bat
in Georgia:
"These bats have been found roosting in a hollow tree
also
in a cypress bay, as mentioned below. They are observed
for the most part during the last half hour of daylight, gen-
erally at a height of perhaps 40 to 75 feet. As darkness falls,
however, they come much closer to the ground, so that
occasionally specimens may be knocked down with a reed
fishing-pole."
Genus Euderma
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, \; Premolars f; Molars, f
; = 34.
Spotted Bat. —Euderma maculata (Allen)
Names. — Spotted Bat; Jackass Bat.

General Distribution. —A good-sized Bat with very large
ears and peculiar spotted coloration. Ears enormous, joined
across forehead by a low band, marked by transverse ridges,
about fifteen in number; tragus tall, broad, and bluntly
rounded at tip; pelage long and soft; membranes thin and
papery; face without any glandular swellings.
Upperparts dark chocolate-brown, almost black, with a
large, irregular white spot on each shoulder and on rump;
underparts washed with white over chocolate-brown basal
pelage; membranes light yellowish brown.
Measurements. —Total length, 4.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2
inches; hind foot, .36 inch; forearm, 2 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Southwestern states; a very
rare Bat of which very few have ever been taken; taken at
Piru, Ventura County, and Mecca, Riverside County, in
CaliforniaYuma in Arizona; and Mesilla Park in New Mexico.
;
—
—
Enemies. Presumably Owls.
65
Very little is known of the habits of this Bat which is the

rarest of all the Bats found in the United States. The few
specimens secured have been taken under unusual circum-
stances, the type specimen was found on a fence, the second
specimen, taken thirteen years later, was found dead in a bio-
logical laboratory, and another specimen was found dead lying
in a puddle formed by an overflow from a railway water tank.
Apparently there is something peculiar about its hours or
place of flight to account for the fact that this Bat is not seen
flying at dusk with other Bats and is only taken as the result of
some accident.
The large ears, and peculiar black and white color pattern,
at once distinguish the Spotted Bat from all other North
American Bats.
Genus Corynorhinus^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, 1; Premolars, f Molars, # = 36.
; ;
Lump-nosed Bat. — Corynorhinus rafinesquii

and related forms
Names. — Lump-nosed Bat; Big-eared Bat.
General Description. — A good-sized Bat with peculiar
lump-like, warty outgrowth on muzzle, and very large ears.
Ears much longer than head, joined across forehead, tips
narrow; tragus long and slender; nostrils opening upward and
surmounted by prominent glandular masses tail less than half
;
total length of animal; interfemoral membrane wide; pelage

soft and color pattern simple.
Clove-brown on back, wood-brown on sides; whitish at base
of ear underparts pale pinkish buff pelage everywhere gray or
; ;
slaty gray at base, not strongly contrasted with color on tips

of hairs.
Immature pelage dark hair-brown to fuscous above, pale
hair-brown below, dirty whitish on abdomen.
—
Measurements. Sexes equal in size. Total length, 4.3
inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, .48 inch; wing
expanse, 12.8 inches.
^ For a full revision of this genus see G. M. Allen, Bulletin Museum
Comparative Zoology, Vol. LX, pp. 333-356, 1916
66
LUMP-NOSED BAT
—
Geographical Distribution. Southeastern states to Van-
couver Island and south into Mexico on the west.
—
—
Enemies. Owls,
vSpecies and Subspecies of the Genus Corynorhinus
Rafinesque Lump-nosed Bat. — Corynorhinus rafinesquii rafin-

esquii (Lesson).
As described above. Found in "Central eastern United
States from extreme western Virginia, through Kentucky,
southern Indiana and Illinois, to Kansas, intergrading with
the race pallescens to the westward." (G. M. Allen)
Pallid Lump-nosed Bat. —
Corynorhinus rafinesquii pallescens
(Miller).
Smaller than typical rafinesquii and paler. Upperparts pink-
ish buff; whitish patch back of ear; underparts pale ochra-
ceous buff; pelage everywhere gray to slate-gray basally
except on mid-throat where the hairs are colored alike from
root to tip. Total length, 4.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches;
hind foot, .36 inch; wing expanse, 12 inches. Found
in "Western United States from western Texas, Colorado,
and southwestern South Dakota, to the Pacific coast of
southern California."
Townsend Lump-nosed
(G.
Bat. — M. Allen)
Corynorhinus rafinesquii town-
sendii (Cooper).
Dark-colored, with base of pelage strongly contrasting in
color with tip. Upperparts uniform warm sepia, pelage
dark slaty at base; ear patch whitish; underparts washed
with pale wood-brown, pelage blackish plumbeous at base.
Total length, 3.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.9 inches; hind foot
.48 inch; ear, 1.44 inches. Found in "The humid coast
region from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, south-
ward to San Francisco, California, intergrading with
pallescens here, as well as in north central California.
Inland it extends over most of (?) Washington, Oregon, and
the western half of northern California." (G. M, Allen)
—
Le Conte Lump-nosed Bat. Corynorhinus macrotis (Le
Conte).
Differing from the foregoing forms by presence of white-
tipped hairs on abdomen. Upperparts cinnamon-brown,
pelage slate-colored at base; underparts clear white, basally
slate-colored; a sharp contrast between colors of base and
tip of hair on upper and lower parts; a whitish ear patch
may or may not be present, but usually the posterior base of
ear is colored like rest of upperparts. Found in "South-
eastern United States, from North Carolina, Georgia and
(? northern) Florida, westward through the Southern
67
and Gulf States, into Louisiana, and probably eastern

Texas." (G. M. Allen)
Lump-nosed Bats are easily distinguished from other Bats

by their very large ears and the prominent lump on the nose.
These Bats prefer to live in caves, although they may use
any deep, dark recess such as abandoned mine shafts and
tunnels, or even buildings. In favorable localities they may
be numerous, and Vernon Bailey found them so in the Carls-
bad Cavern, New Mexico, on April 15th, when they were still
deep in the winter sleep. The large ears were curled up in
spiral coils like a ram's horns, during the dormant period.
The members of this genus do not appear to migrate.
The records indicate one young at birth and the time of
birth as July or earlier.
Lump-nosed Bats take wing before the twilight is gone.
Subfamily Nyctophilinae
Genus Antrozous
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, { ; Premolars, h; Molars,| =28.
Pale Bat. —Antrozous pallidus

and related forms
Names. — Pale Bat; Big-eared Bat; Desert Palhd Bat.
General Description. —A large Bat with big ears and pale
coloration. Ears large and broad, extending considerably
beyond end of nose when
laid forward, crossed by nine or ten
narrowly rounded; tragus tall, slender
fine transverse lines, tip
and tapering; membranes tough and strong, naked; feet large
and strong; nostrils surrounded by a ridge, muzzle rather
blunt.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no seasonal variation in color.
Upperparts pale drab gray, with some dusky-tipped hairs;
pelage light-colored to base; membranes brownish; underparts
paler than upperparts and lacking the dusky tips to the hairs,
except on sides.
Measurements. — Total length, 4.4 inches; tail vertebrse,
1.8 inches; hind foot, .4 inch; ear from meatus, 1.2 inches; fore-
arm, 2 inches.
68
—
PALE BAT
Geographical Distribution. —Western and southwestern

United States.
—
Food. Insects,
Enemies. Owls. —
vSpecies and Subspecies of the Genus Antrozous
—
Pale Bat; Desert Pallid Bat. Antrozous pallidus pallidus
(Le Conte).
As described above. Found in "Lower Austral Zone
in desert region of eastern California, Nevada, Arizona,
New Mexico, and western Texas." (Miller)
Pacific Pale Bat. Antrozous pallidus pacificus Merriam.
Larger than typical pallidus and slightly darker. Upper-
parts yellowish drab, with heavy wash of brownish on back.
Total length, 4.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind
foot, .5 inch; forearm, 2.2 inches. Found in "Austral
Mexico." (Miller)
*
The forms
******
Zones of the western United States and northwestern
of Antrozous are well characterized

large size, big ears, pale color,
by their
and ridge above the nostrils,
and are not likely to be confused with any other Bat in the
United States.
These Bats live in the roofs of buildings or other darkened
nooks in bams, churches, etc., and in crevices in cliffs. They
are common in many places and because of their habit of tak-
ing up quarters in human habitations may become a nuisance.
The flight is not as erratic as that of most Bats, although
rapid.
There evidence to show that these Bats catch some of
is
their prey, such as Jerusalem Crickets, upon the ground, also

that they are to some extent, at least, migratory.
The number of young at birth varies from one to three.
Family Molossidfie
This family shares with the Vespertilionidce a very high
degree of flight specialization. The members of this family
may be recognized by the blunt, obliquely truncate muzzle
which is generally set with short, specially modified hairs
having "spoon-shaped" tips; nostrils terminating in a modified
pad which may be fringed with dermal excrescences; ears
variable in size and shape, sometimes joined across forehead;
69
;
tragus reduced but antitragus generally very large; fifth finger

greatly reduced wing membranes strong, thick, and leathery
;
the interfemoral membrane narrow, especially so when com-

pared to the Vespertilionidae wing surface narrow; tail pro-
;
jecting noticeably beyond interfemoral membrane and earning

for this group the name of "Free-tailed" Bats; dentition of
normal insectivorous type.
This family occupies among American Bats a position more
or less analogous to that occupied by the Swifts among the
Fig. 1 6. Free-tailed Bat
birds, as far as outward manifestations of flight ability are

concerned. The Free-tailed Bats, with their narrow, pointed
wings, progress through the air with rapid wing beats which
appear to travel through a rather restricted arc. Flight is
very rapid and very erratic, and these Bats can be recognized
as molossids almost as far as they can be seen. Some of the
species (of the genera Molossus and Tadarida) take wing very
early in the evening, often in the late afternoon.
This family is much more tropical in its distribution than the
Vespertilionidasand only a very few forms range far enough
north to enter the United States. The molossids that reach
70
FREE-TAILED BAT
the United States are social in habit, some of them congregat-

ing,under favorable circumstances, in very large numbers, and
are characterized by a pronounced, musky odor, rather
disagreeable in nature. The largest and heaviest of the
Bats found in the United States is a molossid, Eumops
caUjornicus.
Genus Tadarida
Dentition: Incisors, § or |; Canines, \; Premolars, |; Molars,
f. =30 or 32.
Free-tailed Bat. — Tadarida cynocephala

and related forms
Names. —Free-tailed Bat, with various qualifying words for
the different forms.
General Description.- —A medium-sized Bat with tail only
partly within the interfemoral membrane and projecting for
about half its length; ears low, very broad, tough and leathery,
arising from the same point on forehead; tragus very small,
flat, truncate; stiff, bristly hairs on face; tiny horny excres-
cences on inner margins of ears; upper lip wrinkled; wings

very narrow, interfemoral membrane reduced; pelage soft and
velvet-like, dark in color; foot with long hairs on toes.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal varia-
tion.
Upperparts uniform warm brown, near bister brown, the
pelage short and with very short, light-colored base; mem-
branes brownish; underparts lighter than upperparts and with
more yellow.
Measurements. —Total length, 4 inches; tail vertebrae, i
inch; hind foot, .35 inch; forearm, 1.75 inches.

Geographical Distribution. — Southern states.
—
—
Enemies. Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Tadarida

This genus is almost cosmopolitan in its distribution, but is
essentially a tropical or warm-country group. Only a few forms
range north into the southern states, although in Central and
South America the Free-tailed Bats are very abundant.
71
.
Le Conte Free-tailed Bat. — Tadarida cynocephala (Le

Conte)
As described above. Found in the southeastern states
from Georgia and southern Alabama south and west limits ;
of range unknown.
—
Mexican Free-tailed Bat. Tadarida mexicana (Saussure).
Resembling cynocephala in external characters. Upper-
parts hair-brown, paler on underparts. Total length, 4
inches; tail vertebrce, 1.3 inches; hind foot, .4 inch; forearm,
1.7 inches. Found in the southwestern United States from
Garfield County, Colorado south into Mexico and from
the Pacific east to the middle of Texas.
—
Pocketed Bat. Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam).
Similar to mexicana but larger, tail more than half free of
membrane, a fold of membrane from femur to tibia forming
pocket. Upperparts dull brown. Total length, 4.1 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches; forearm, 1.6 inches. Very few
specimens of this Bat have ever been taken. The only
records I have seen are Palm Springs, Riverside County,
Palm Canon near Palm Springs, California, and Fort
Huachuca, Arizona.
Tacubaya Free-tailed Ba.t.~~Tadarida depressa (Ward).
Size large; ears united at bases; prominent swelling between
eye and nostril. Upperparts dull brown underparts lighter.
;

foot, .52 inch; forearm, 2.4 inches. Found from Mexico
The
tail
*******
City north to Iowa, but has been collected only a few times.
There are records from Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, Iowa,
and California, one specimen each, except for Iowa two.
Free-tailed Bats are easily recognized by the mouse-like

which projects beyond the interfemoral membrane, and
by the very narrow wings. The small species of Tadarida are
the most rapid flyers of all the North American Bats, rowing
through the air with rapid wing beats and rather suggestive
of Swifts in their mode of flight. These Bats are firm and
compact in build, with heavier bodies than the same-sized
Bats of the family Vespertilionidae and appear to be more
highly specialized as aerial projectiles. The flight, while
broken by abrupt changes of direction, may be quite direct for
intervals of many yards.
These Ba'ts are "house" Bats, colonies of many hundreds
sometimes taking up abodes in buildings where darkened nooks
are accessible. In San Antonio, Texas, municipal bat roosts
have been erected to encourage Tadarida mexicana and large
colonies have established themselves there. The purpose of
attracting these Bats was to bring in an enemy of the mos-
72
CALIFORNIA MASTIFF BAT
quito. Dr. Charles A. R. Campbell of San Antonio has

written a book on municipal bat roosts and believes that they
are an asset, but Dr. E. W. Nelson, formerly Chief of the
U. S. Biological Survey, and other observers question the
value of Bats as a mosquito control.
Genus Eumops
Dentition: Incisors, ^; Canines, {; Premolars, f or §; Molars,
1=30 or 28.
California Mastiff Bat. —Eumops californicus
(Merriam)
Names. —California Mastiff Bat; Bonnet Bat.
—
General Description. Largest of the Bats found in the
United States. Body large and robust, wings small and
narrow; ears very large, low, broad, and joined to one another
across forehead; a well-developed keel extending across ear to
form a broad shelf over eye; tragus small and fiat; ear mem-
branes tough and leathery; pelage short and velvety to the
touch; a thin strip of hair along upperside of forearm, mem-
branes otherwise naked; long hairs on toes.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation.
Upperparts everywhere sooty brown, pelage lighter at
base; membranes brownish black; underparts only slightly
paler than upperparts.
Measurements. — Total length, 6.5 inches; vertebrae, 2
tail
inches; hind foot, .72 inch; forearm, 2.9 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Found in southern California
and Arizona east into southern Texas, in the Lower Sonoran
Zone; rather local in its distribution.
Only the one species of Eumops is found as far north as the

United States; this genus is southern in its distribution. The
California Mastiff Bat is much the largest and strongest Bat
found in the United States and on the micre basis of size may
be readily identified. The large ears which overhang and
completely hide the head and face from above are another
infallible character.
This Bat has been taken only at a few localities and appears
to be sporadic in distribution. Most of the specimens have
been found in or about buildings.
73
;
Order CARNIVORA. CARNIVOROUS OR

FLESH-EATING MAMMALS
Placental mammals, small to large in size, with following
characters: feet bearing claws; dentition modified for a flesh
diet; brain rather highly developed (cerebral hemispheres
showing distinct convolutions); habit typically terrestrial,
rarely aquatic, semi-arboreal or semi-f ossorial condyle of ;
lower jaw articulating transversely; clavicle reduced or

absent; stomach simple.
Family Ursidae. Bears

Size large to very large, largest of the carnivorous mammals
form robust; legs stout and rather short; feet plantigrade,
with five digits tail very short pelage long and heavy molar
;
;
;
teeth of crushing type with broad, flat crowns; no highly

specialized carnassial teeth; terrestrial in habit (except for
the Polar Bear which is semi-aquatic).
Genus Euarctos
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars,
; |; Molars, f =42.
Black Bear. —Euarctos americanus

and related forms
Names. —Black Bear; American Black Bear; American
Bear; Common Black Bear; Cinnamon Bear; Brown Bear.
—
General Description. A medium-sized Bear of dark color-
ation, black or dark brown in color; claws of forefeet curved,
slightly longer than those of hind feet; facial profile straight,
not dished; pelage long and moderately soft.
Color. — Sexes colored alike; some seasonal variation, chiefly
in length and glossiness of pelage.
Upperparts varying with the individual and the season
from deep glossy black to cinnamon-brown; nose brownish;
underparts very much the same as upperparts; sometimes
with spot of white on chest.
74
BLACK BEAR
The pelage is longest and glossiest from the time the Bears
go into hibernation until soon after they come out in the
spring; in summer the coat may be ragged and dull. Con-
siderable variation in color is shown, and in some regions
Fig. 17. Elack Bear
the Brown or Cinnamon Bear may be fairly common; else-

where the Brown may be very scarce and the Black Bear the
prevailing type.
Measurements. — Total length, about 60 inches; tail
vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot, 7.25 inches; height at shoulders,
25 inches. Weight from about 200 to 450 or 500 pounds.
Geographical Distribution. Most — of wooded North
America,
—
Food. Omnivorous; a great variety of vegetable and
animal life: grass, fruit, berries, roots, ants, honey, any
mammals or birds it can catch, fish and frogs, carrion.
—
Enemies. Practically none when full grown, except under
exceptional circumstances.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Euarctos
American Black Bear. — Euarctos americanus americanus

(Pallas).
As described above. Formerly found over much of eastern
North America, but now exterminated in many places;
known today in New York and Pennsylvania south to
Georgia, north to Ungava, and west to British Columbia
and Yukon. Plate IV.
75
Euarctos cinnamomum (Audubon and Badhman) = Euarctos

aniericanus americamis
—
New Mexico Black Bear. Euarctos aniericanus amhlycep
(Baird).
Resembling typical americanus but with broader skull, color
brown, with hairs tipped with lighter shade. Found in
New Mexico.
—
Kenai Black Bear. Euarctos americanus perniger (Allen).
Very similar to typical americanus but differing in having
very narrow skull. Color intense black. Found on the
Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.
Dall Island Black êar.— Euarctos americanus pugnax
(Swarth).
Differing from typical americanus in broad and heavy skull,
with flattened frontal bones; color black. Found on Dall
Island, Alaska.
—
Queen Charlotte Black Bear.- Euarctos americanus carlottce
(Osgood).
Differing from typical americanus in larger size and various
cranial characters such as longer skull, more elongate
rostrum and heavier dentition color said to be glossy black
;
and the cinnamon phase unknown. Found on Graham

Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
—
Olympic Black Bear. Euarctos altifrontalis (Elliot).
This Bear is listed as a full species in Miller's North American
Recent Mammals, but it is undoubtedly a form of ameri-
canus. It was described as "black, nose tan color"; fore-
head broad, high and bulging; and was taken on the shore
of Lake Crescent, Clallam County, Washington.
Florida Black Bear; Everglade Bear. —
Euarctos floridanus
(Merriam).
Larger than typical americanus and wholl}^ black; highly
arched frontal region. Weight may reach 500 to 600
pounds. Found from Florida north into Georgia.
—
Louisiana Black Bear. Euarctos luteolus (Griffith).
Large in size like floridanus but with frontal region flat;
molar teeth very large; color generally black but occurs
in the brown phase and may be yellowish brown in worn
pelage of that phase. Found from Louisiana into eastern
Texas.
—
Glacier Bear; Emmons Bear; Blue Bear.^ Euarctos em-
monsii (Dall). Plate IV.
Small in size, bluish black in color. Claws short and
strongly curved; pelage only moderately long, a mixture
of black and gray to give a grizzled appearance; a black
dorsal line; muzzle brown. Found near Yakutat Bay,
Alaska, in the glacier region of the St. Elias Alps, south-
east to Glacier Bay. Said by E. W. Nelson to be only a
rare color phase of the American Black Bear.
—
Kermode Bear. Euarctos kermodei (Homaday). Plate IV.
A very small Bear, white in color; by some considered to be
76
KermodeBezLT
Glacier Bear Cmnamon Bear
Black Bear
Measurements. —Males, total length, 6 feet to 8 feet 6

about 2 inches; hind foot, lo to I2 inches.
inches; tail vertebrae,
Height at shoulder, 3 feet to nearly 4 feet. Weight 350 to
Fig. 18. Grizzly Bear
Females
about 900 pounds park animals up to 1 1 50 pounds.
;
slightly smaller than males.

Geographical Distribution.— Great Plains region and
Rocky
Mountain region; north into Alaska.
Food. — Omnivorous; wild game when it can be caught,
and roots of
cattle, sheep, hogs, fish, berries, fruit, grass,
various species, ants.

Enemies.' —Hunted only by man.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ursus
North
The group of Grizzly and Big Brown Bears of
handbook.
America is a most troublesome one to include in any
who has
The most recent review is by Dr. C. Hart Merriam,
collections of
had the benefit of many years of study and large
distinct forms,
specimens. This review lists no less than 86
covered
ofwhich 84 are to be found in the geographical area
A great many of these forms are based
by this handbook.
skulls; the external characters are
unknown. To set
upon
of Bears would be to
forth here these 84 species and subspecies
swamp the student and discourage him from any
attem.pt to
Grizzly or a Big Brown Bear. Indeed, it is a

identify a
78
GRIZZLY BEAR
difficult task for a museum, with a fair-sized collection of

these animals, to identify specimens. In the attempt to make
this field book complete, a synopsis, more or less brief, was
written for each and every one of the 84 forms, but in the
was discarded in favor of a much briefer, more
final analysis it
comprehensive treatment which is open to criticism, it is
admitted, but which is far less confusing to the lay reader.
"The differences formerly supposed to exist between the
Grizzlies and the Big Brown Bears appear, in the light of the
material now available, to distinguish certain groups of species
from certain other groups, rather than the Grizzlies col-
lectively from the Big Brown Bears collectively. In other
words, the differences between the Grizzlies on the one hand
and the Big Brown Bears on the other are neither so great nor
so constant as at one time believed. And there are species
which in the present state of knowledge can not be positively
referred to either group. In fact, it seems at least possible
that certain species which appear to belong with the Grizzlies
are closely related to certain other species which clearly belong
with the Big Brown Bears. The typical Brown Bears differ
from the typical Grizzlies in peculiarities of color, claws, skull,
and teeth. The color of the former is more uniform, with less
of the surface grizzling due to admixture of pale-tipped hairs;
the claws are shorter, more curved, darker, and scurfy instead
of smooth; the skull is more massive; the fourth lower premolar
isconical, lacking the sulcate heel of the true Grizzlies. But
these are average differences, not one of which holds true
throughout the group. Most of the specimens in museums
consist of skulls only, unaccompanied by skins or claws,
leaving a doubt as to the external characters; and in old bears
the important fourth lower premolar is likely to be so worn
that original form can not be made out.
its And, worst of all,
some of the Grizzlies lack the distinctive type of premolar,
leaving only the skull as a guide to their affinities.
'
(Merriam,
'
North American Fauna, No, 41, p. 12, 1918.)
Big Plains Grizzly; Silvertip. —

Ursns horrihilis horrihilis Ord.
The animal described above. Found on the Great Plains
bordering the Missouri River in eastern Montana and
the Dakotas; limits of range unknown.
Baird Grizzly. — Ursus horrihilis bairdi (Merriam).
"Probably a mountain animal, while its neighbor horrihilis
80
Plate V
Griz-zly Beai
AiasKa BrcjwnBe air

—
GRIZZLY BEAR
was a plains species." (Merriam) Found in "Southern

Rocky Mountain region from San Juan Mountains, south-
western Colorado, northward through Wyoming to Mon-
tana, and perhaps to southeastern British Columbia."
(Merriam)
Yakutat Grizzly. —Ursus nortoni Merriam.
"Head grizzled yellowish or golden brown; muzzle pale
brown; neck and shoulders to middle of back pale buffy
from the long whitish buff-tipped hairs, giving the skin
viewed from behind a decidedly whitish appearance; hinder
back and rump dark, well washed with pale brown tips;
lower part of legs and feet dark brown; back of forefeet
browner and not so dark; underchin and throat pale soiled
buffy whitish," (Merriam) Found at Yakutat Bay,
Alaska.
Black Hills Grizzly. — Ursus rogersi hisonophagus Merriam,
Size large; claws of moderate length, strongly curved; color
of male: "muzzle pale brown (apparently old pelage) head ;
and face blackish, becoming slightly grizzled posteriorly

and on lower part of cheeks by wash of yellowish-brown-
tipped hairs; entire bod}^ legs, and feet very dark brown
overlaid on back by wash of light tips," (Merriam)
Taken at "Bear Lodge, Sundance National Forest, Black
Hills, northeastern Wyoming." (Merriam)
Southern California Grizzly. Ursus magister Merriam. —
"Size of male huge (estimated weight over 1,400 pounds),
largest of known Grizzlies, considerably larger than cali-
foj'fiicus of the IVIonterey region, and even than Jiorribilis,
the great buffalo-killing Grizzly of the Plains (only equaled
by the largest alexandrce of Kenai Peninsula) sexual dis- ;
parity great; skull of female hardly half the bulk of male;

skull of male of a rather generalized type; not dished.
Claws of old female from head of Trabuco Canyon, Santa
Ana Mountains, exceedingly long, strongly curved, mainly
yellowish above. Color (old female from head of Trabuco
Canyon) General color dusky or sooty all over except head
:
and grizzling of back. Muzzle gray or mouse-brown, palest

above; top of head and neck very dark brown, sparsely
grizzled with pale-tipped hairs; back dusky grizzled with
grayish; legs and underparts wholly blackish," Known
from "Santa Ana or Trabuco Mountains, Cuyamaca and
Santa Rosa Mountains, and probably San Jacinto Moun-
tains. BeHeved to be extinct." (Merriam)
"Flesh measurements, Old male. —
Height at shoulder . . :
from flat of foot, 4 ft, total length, snout to tail, 9>^

. . . ;
ft, . sole of largest foot without claws: length 12 in.

. . ;
. . breadth, 8 in,
. . ; Length of old female from
. . .
Trabuco Canyon, measured in the flesh by Andrew Joplin,

6 ft. 3 in," (Merriam)
New Mexico Grizzly. Ursus horricBUs (Baird). —
"Size medium; external characters unknown. Range.
81
Parts of New Mexico, south to Casas Grandes, Chihuahua,

Mexico; probably extending into eastern Arizona."
(Merriam)
Alaska Grizzly. —
Ursus alascensis (Merriam).
Size small. Found in "Norton Sound region, Alaska
(Unalaklik and Shaktolik Hills), southerly over the Nusha-
gak and Kuskokwim Rivers to Chinitna on Cook Inlet.
Limits unknown." (Merriam)
—
Barren Ground Bear. Ursus richardsoni Swainson.
"Size medium; color variable, from yellowish to grizzly
brown; foreclaws of medium length, smooth; skull medium
or small, with broadly spreading zygomata." Taken on
"Shore of Arctic Ocean, on west side of Bathurst Inlet near
mouth of Hood River." (Merriam)
—
Xanana Grizzly. Ursus phcBo?iyx (Merriam).
"Size of male large; of female small (sexual disparity great,
much greater than in dalli). Upperparts varying
. . .
from creamy or buffy to dark 'grizzly color'; underparts

and muzzle pale brown; legs very dark brown, varying to
blackish brown; claws horny and smooth, usually dark but
sometimes marked with whitish. Last upper molar of
medium size or rather small." Found in "Tanana Moun-
tains between Tanana and Yukon Rivers." (Merriam)
—
Kidder Bear. Ursus kidderi kidderi Merriam.
Size medium, much smaller than gyas, which is found in the
same region. "June specimens (in left-over winter
pelage) General color yellowish brown, darkest on belly
:
and legs, legs much darker than body. Most of the Kidder
bears in the National Zoological Park are pale buffy yellow-
ish, or yellowish cream color." Found in "Alaska Penin-
sula for its entire length." (Merriam)
—
Alexander Grizzly. Ursus alexandrcB Merriam.
Size very large skull long and narrow rostrum exception-
'
' ; ;
ally broad for a grizzly; pelage very uniform in color,

scarcely or not grizzled claws enormous (second foreclaw of
;
type specimen measuring: length from upper base, 91 mm.;

height at base, 25; breadth, 11.5). The longest claw in a
specimen collected by Wilson Potter measures 120 mm. in a ;
male killed by Dall DeWeese, no mm. Among the

. . .
grizzlies it stands alone in the great breadth of the rostrum,

which in bears of its size is only exceeded by the widely
different kenaiensis. Ursus alexandrce attains the largest
size known among the grizzly bears, the biggest skulls
equaling those of the huge magister of Southern California.
—
"Color. Type, very old male, in fresh short fall pelage:
General color pale, almost grayish brown, becoming yellow-
ish brown between ears, contrasting with pale brown of
muzzle; legs and feet only slightly darker than back; entire
animal remarkably unicolor; under-fur plumbeous, crinkled,
and wooly. Another male, killed by Wilson Potter, of
Philadelphia, in May, 1912 (belonging to skull No. 181 102,
82
BIG ALASKA BEARS
presented by Wilson Potter) is pale buffy inclining to light

,
reddish brown throughout, without grizzly appearance; legs

only slightly darker. One killed by Dall DeWeese, of
Canyon City, Colorado, September 7, 1897, is described
by him as 'grayish-yellow,' with legs and sides chocolate-
brown." (Merriam) Found in Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.
—
Alaska Brown Bear; Dall Brown Bear. Ursus dalli Merriam.
"Size very large; skull without very pronounced characters,
although differing sufficiently from its neighbors. General
color dark brown, strongly grizzled." Found in "Mala-
spina Glacier and region northwest of Yakutat Bay,
Alaska." (Merriam) Plate V.
Sitka Brown Bear. — Ursus sitkensis Merriam.
"Size large; coloration very dark; claws of moderate length,
curved, dark blue-black, scurfy; skull broad and massive.
Color. —Dark; muzzle dark brown, sometimes chocolate-
brown or even sooty, paler in faded summer pelage; head
and body very dark brown or even dusky, varying to dull
brown in summer, washed on back of head, neck, and
shoulders with yellowish or golden." (Merriam) Found
on Baranof and Chichagof Islands, Sitka Islands, Alaska.
Shiras Brown Bear. — Ursus shirasi Merriam.
"A huge brown bear larger than the largest sitkensis; head
highly arched; color black, except muzzle, which is dull
brown; claws dark blue-black, dull, slightly scurfy (not
smoothly polished as in the grizzlies), rather strongly curved
and of moderate length (middle claw over curve, 92 mm.;
from top of base to apex, 75), fourth and fifth rounded off
—
on outer side. Color. Entire animal, except muzzle,
coal black, showing when examined closely a brownish wash
along middle of back; muzzle from nose pad to between
eyes dull brown. . .Restricted to Admiralty Island."
.
(Merriam)
Peninsula Giant Bear. —
Ursus gyas (Merriam),
"Size huge, either largest living bear or second only to the
great Kadiak bear (middendorffi). Claws rather long and
smooth, dark when young, pale when old. Color variable,
from grizzled brown to pale yellowish. Skull of male large,
long, and massive, but not highly arched. Sexual disparity
great." Found along "Entire length of Alaska Peninsula
from Cook Inlet to Isanotski Strait and adjacent Unimak
Island." (Merriam)
Kadiak Bear. —
Ursus middendorffi Merriam,
Size huge. Found on "Kodiak and adjacent islands,
Afognak and Shuyak; not known from mainland." (Mer-
riam)
Kenai Giant Bear. —Ursus kenaiensis Merriam.
"Size large; appearance that of a big grizzly; coloration
rather dark; claws moderately curved, dark, usually marked
with whitish streaks on sides and near tip; longest claw
in three adults 82-90 mm. Skull broad and massive,
83
that of male strikingly larger than female. Muzzle . . .
pale fulvous-brown; cheeks and forehead similar but hairs

longer and with pale tips; ground color of top of head, neck,
and back much darker but deeply washed on tips with buffy
or buffy whitish, giving these parts the look of a grizzly;
legs and feet (but not belly) much darker." (Merriam)
Found on Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.
Patriarchal Bear. —
Ursus inopinatus (Merriam).
Size small. "General color varying from whitish buff to
pale yellowish buff (yellowest on back of head and neck),
darkening to dull reddish brown on ankles, feet, and median
line of belly. The pale body color covers the entire body
from between eyes to base of tail and reaches down over
thighs and upper parts of legs. Muzzle golden brown,
becoming dull fulvous-brown around eyes; top of head
from between eyes posteriorly soiled buff; long hairs of
cheeks washed with bufTy; ears pale buffy. Fur every-
where full, soft, and wooly; basal fur of upperparts varying
from grayish to grayish brown, but distal half or more
than half, pale buffy, so the animal as a whole appears to be
buffy whitish." (Merriam) Taken at Rendezvous Lake,
northeast of Fort Anderson, Mackenzie.
As Black Bears, there is little

in the case of Eiiarctos, the
need to tell how to identify a member
of the genus Ursus.
Everyone recognizes the Big Bears and the bigger they are the
more certain one can be that the creature is either a Grizzly
or an Alaskan Brown. The differences between these two
groups have been set forth elsewhere, page 80.
The true Grizzlies of the southern Rocky Mountain districts
and the western plains have become extinct, or nearly so, in
most places, but in the north the huge Bears of British Colum-
bia, Alaska, and the offshore islands are still the prized big
game of North America. The habits of these Bears have been
recorded at length by numerous writers and the reader is re-
ferred to the bibliography at the end of this volume.
Genus Thalarctos
; \\ Premolars, |; Molars, f =42.
Polar Bear. —Thalarctos maritimus

and related forms
Names. — Polar Bear; White Bear; Water Bear; Ice Bear.
General Description. —A very large white Bear. Neck
long, head proportionally small; pelage very dense.
84
POLAR BEAR
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation.
Everywhere white with generally a yellowish suffusion;
sometimes brownish white in summer.
Immature purer white.
—
Measurements. Males about twenty per cent larger than
females. Total length, 84-96 inches; tail, 3.5-5 inches; hind
Polar Bear
foot, 14.5 inches; weight,

700-1600 pounds, average male 900
pounds, average female 700 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Arctic America.
Food.— Omnivorous; principally sea food such as Seals,
fish,shrimp, mollusks, seaweeds; and on land, grass, roots,
Foxes, Caribou, birds, etc.
—
Enemies. Very few apart from man— the Eskimo; prob-
ably a few are caught by Killer Whales.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Thalarctos
Knottnerus-Meyer has divided the Polar Bears into a

number of geographical races and since these Bears are all very
much the same externally the basis of separation is the skull.
He gives four different subspecies for North America but it is
85
.
to be doubted whether there are four truly distinguishable

varieties in the North American Arctic.
Polar Bear. — Thalarctos maritimus maritimus (Phipps).

As described above. Found in West Greenland, Ellesmere-
Hudson Bay, and Arctic coast of Alaska.
land,
—
Ungava Polar Bear. Thalarctos maritimus ungavensis (Knott-
nerus- Meyer).
Found in the vicinity of Ungava Bay, Ungava, Canada.
East Greenland Polar Bear. — Thalarctos eogroenlandicus
(Knottnerus-Meyer)
Found in the region of eastern Greenland.
— Thalarctos
*******
Labrador Polar Bear. lahradorensis (Knottnerus-
Meyer).
Found in Labrador.
The Polar Bear, with his white coat and characteristic body
form, stands by himself, apart from the other Bears. He has
cast aside a dependence upon firm land and is at home in the
sea or on drifting ice. He follows the food supply and
is unlike the rest of the Ursidae in his behavior toward man.
Accounts agree that very often the great White Bear shows
no instinctive fear of man and may even stalk a man the
same as a Seal or other natural prey.
The native habitat of the Polar Bear is so far north that
comparatively few men have ever seen him there, but he is a
common denizen of zoological parks and a familiar species.
The number of young born to the Polar Bear is nearly always
two, and the time varies from late December to early January.
Family Procyonidae. Raccoons

Carnivores of small or medium size; five toes on fore- and
hind feet; feet comparatively long and slender; gait planti-
grade; pads of feet naked; tail long, bushy, and usually
annulated; muzzle elongated; molar crowns tuberculate.
Genus Procyon
; \; Premolars, f Molars, | =40
;
Raccoon. —Procyon lotor

and related forms
Names. — Raccoon; Coon. Plates VI and XVIII.
General Description. — A robust, fair-sized carnivore with
long pelage and long, banded, rather bushy, tail. Muzzle long
86
Plate VI
Raccoon
^^
;
RACCOON
and slender; head broad across the jowls; ears erect and
prominent; form thickset; fore- and hind-feet with five toes
bearing non-retractile claws; soles naked, hind feet planti-
grade; tail moderately long and bushy, cylindrical; pelage
thick and heavy; habit somewhat arboreal; nocturnal.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; some seasonal variation.
—
Upperparts. Grizzled gray, brown, and black, the pelage
dull brown at base; a black band across forehead and eyes,
Fig. 21. Raccoon
grayish on muzzle and back of ears; ears grayish, with black

area at posterior base sides with less black than dorsal region
;
tailbanded with alternate grayish and blackish, six or seven

dark rings; gray of upperparts, except that on head, is strongly
mixed with yellowish; hands and feet yellowish gray.
Underparts. — Dull brownish, grizzled with yellowish gray.
—
Measurements. Total length, about 30 inches; tail verte-
bras, 10 inches; hind foot, 4.5 inches; weight from 15 pounds
average up to 49 pounds maximum.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of North America from
about 50° latitude south.
—
Food. Practically omnivorous: frogs, fish, shell-fish, small
mammals, birds, eggs, reptiles, insects, fruit, nuts, com, etc.
Enemies. — Fisher.
87
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Procyon
Subgenus Procyon
Eastern Raccoon. — Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus)
As described above. Found in United States east of the
Rocky Mountains from southern Ontario and Manitoba to
Florida. Plate XVIIL
Florida Raccoon. —
Procyon lotor elucus Bangs.
Resembling typical lotor in size but with longer tail, more
rounded ear, more yellowish in color. Upperparts grizzled
yellowish and black; patch on shoulders deep orange-rufous.
5 inches. Found in Florida and eastern Georgia.
Texas Raccoon; Brown-footed Raccoon. — Procyon lotor
M
f use i pes earns.
Largest of the Raccoons; resembling typical lotor, usually
with six black rings on tail; feet dark brown. Upperparts
pale gray darkened with black-tipped hairs: nape rusty;
black mark on face very extensive. Total length, 36 inches;
tail vertebrae, 11.5 inches; hind foot, 5.3 inches. Found
in southern Texas, from Devils River south into Mexico.
California Raccoon. —Procyon lotor psora (Gray).
By some authors this form is considered to be a full species,
Procyon psora. Upperparts yellowish gray mixed with
black; general color pattern about as in typical lotor; tail
with five to seven dark bands which are interrupted on
lower side except for last two or three; forefeet gray; hind
feet dusky, gray on toes and inner edge. Total length, 34
inches; tail vertebrae, 1 1.8 inches; hind foot, 5 inches. Found
in "Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, and Lower Transition
Zones throughout California, except the northern border
and the southeastern deserts." (Grinnell)
—
Southwestern Raccoon; San Diego Raccoon. Procyon lotor
californicus M earns.
Resembling psora but smaller and paler. Upperparts soiled
grayish white mixed with brownish black; nape clay color;
fore- and hind feet grayish white; dark rings on tail scarcely
discernible on underside. Total length, 2>^ inches; tail
vertebra, 12.5 inches; hind foot, 4.5 inches. Found in south-
western California.
Pacific Raccoon. —Procyon lotor pacifica (Merriam).
Similar to psora but darker; black rings on tail not broken
on underside. Upperparts drab gray thickly mixed with
black. Total length, 37 inches; tail vertebras, 12.5 inches;
hind foot, 4.6 inches. Found on the northwest coast from
Puget Sound and the Cascade Mountains of Washington
south to Pitt River, Shasta County, California.
Desert Raccoon Pallid Raccoon.
;
—
Procyon pallidus Merriam.
Very pale; tail long and slender; color pattern similar to that
of psora. Upperparts pale gray mixed with black- tipped
88
RACCOON
hairs; underparts grayish white; hind feet pale gray; dark

rings on tail narrow. Total length, 34 inches; tail vertebrae,
12.4 inches; hind foot, 5.2 inches. Found in California in
"Lower Sonoran Zone on the Colorado Desert, in Imperial
*******
County, and north along the Colorado River at least to
Needles." (Grinnell)
The Raccoon has a

distinctive color pattern and even if it
was not an animal with which most people have become
familiar, eitherthrough seeing it in Zoos, as fur coats, or as
sketched in the press, it could be readily identified from a
written description. The combination of the following char-
acters, robust form, ringed tail, and black mask across the
eyes, found in no other North American mammal.
is
Since the vogue in furs has favored the use of Raccoon fur,
the long, loose, gray and black pelage of this mammal has
become a favorite for coats. It has long been a popular beast
of the chase and in some sections of the country "coon" hunt-
ing at night is the high water mark of the year's sport. As a
pet the Raccoon takes high rank, although it has somewhat
of a penchant for getting into mischief and can not be trusted
too much at large.
Raccoons prefer the vicinity of streams, lakes, or marshes
and make their homes in hollow trees, hollow logs, or less often
in the rocks or in burrows. They are first-class climbers and
are not found away from trees or brush. A peculiarity which
shows the fondness of these animals for water is the fact that
whenever possible they wash their food before eating it. A
frog drippmg from the stream where it was caught will be
washed before the Raccoon eats it.
The Raccoon has a querulous voice which he is not bashful
in using. Seton gives the common calls as a "churr" when
squabbling for food, snarls and barks when fighting, "err-err-
err" when the tame Coon begs for food, and finally a long
drawn tremulous "whoo-oo-oo-oo" in the deep of the night,
very similar to the call of a Screech Owl.
The number of Coon litter usually is four, but
young in a
variesfrom three to six. The young Coons arrive in April to
May. Raccoons hibernate during cold weather, remaining
dormant for about three months, depending upon the latitude,
or in the southern part of their range they may not hibernate
at all.
Raccoons are strictly nocturnal in habit and unless disturbed

do not come out in the daytime.
The flesh of young Raccoons is said to be good eating, but
on this point I have no personal experience.
Family Bassariscidae. Cacomistles

Resembling the Procyonidse in most external characters,
but differing in dental characters; canines rounded; incisors
with small secondary lobes; premolars and molars dog-like,
with sharp cusps; claws short, sharp, curved; digits fully
webbed or nearly so; feet densely haired to pads.
Genus Bassariscus
;
| ; Molars, | =40.
Cacomistle. —Bassariscus astutus flavus

and related forms
Names. — Cacomistle; Cacomixtl; Ringtail; Ring-tailed Cat;
Civet-cat; Coon-cat; Bassarisk. Plate VI.
General Description. — A small trim-bodied carnivore most
nearly related to the Raccoons but much smaller, more slender,
Fig. 22. Cacomistle
pelage shorter and softer, tail longer,and color pattern quite

different. Head small; ears large and thinly haired; body
slender and lithe; tail about as long as head and body, bushy;
90
CACOMISTLE
fore- and hind feet furred to pads; five toes on each foot, claws
semi-retractile; digitigrade; habit nocturnal.
Color. — vSexes colored alike; no very great seasonal varia-
tion.
—
Upperparts General tone grayish brown formed by a
mixture of buff, gray, and brownish black, darkest on back,
the sides yellowish gray; pelage dark gray at base; blackish
about eyes, a small brownish black patch on side of muzzle
and in front of ear; tail brownish black with seven white bands.
—
Underparts. Buffy white; tail with white bands broader
than on upper side and running into one another alongmid-line.
—
Measurements. Males, total length, 32 inches; tail
vertebrce, 17 inches; hind foot, 2.8 inches. Weight about 2.5
pounds. Females somewhat smaller than males.
—
Geographical Distribution. Southern United States from
Texas west.
—
Food. Small mammals, birds, insects and occasionally
fruit.
—
Enemies. Probably too active to be caught under ordinary
circumstances by the larger carnivores which would prey on it
if they could; possibly caught occasionally by Great Horned
Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Eassariscus

—
Texan Cacomistle. Bassariscus astutus flaviis Rhoads.
As described above. Found in the western half of Texas
north into Colorado and southern Utah and west through
New Mexico and Arizona; scattered records from as far east
as Louisiana and Alabama.
Western Cacomistle; Oregon Ring-tailed Cat. Bassariscus —
astutus oregonus (Rhoads). [
= Bassarisctis raptor (Baird)]
Darker than flavus. Upperparts wood-brown mixed with
blackish; underparts deep buffy. Total length, 30 inches;
tail vertebrae, 15 inches; hind foot, 2.y inches. Found from
southern Oregon south through California.
—
Nevada Cacomistle. Bassariscus astutus nevadensis Miller.
Smaller than oregonus; "color peculiar in the clear gray of
head in front of ears, and in the reduction of the amount of
buff in general tint of neck and anterior half of back, this
entire region appearing more ashy than in any other adult
specimen in fresh pelage seen; underparts pale cream buff
behind fore legs, less pallid anteriorly." (Miller) Total
length, female, 25.6 inches; tail vertebras, 12.4 inches; hind
foot, 2.3 inches. Taken in Eldorado Canyon, Clark County,

southern Nevada.
The Cacomistle is a beautiful little carnivore somewhat

suggestive of the Raccoon in the character of banded tail, but
more likea Marten in its long, slender body and graceful build.
This mammal has such a restricted range in the United States
that it is unknown to most people. The name Civet Cat is a
misnomer, for this term belongs to the members of the Viver-
ridae, an Old World family of small carnivores, and should not
be used for any North American mammal.

The Cacomistle is strictly nocturnal and moves about only
after sundown.
The young are three or four in number and are born in A'lay
or June. The nest is usually in a hole in a tree.
Family Mustelidae. Weasels, Martens, Minks,

Otters, Skunks, Badgers
and Wolverines
Carnivorous mammals very small to medium in size;
form typically slender; limbs short; tail variable; feet digiti-
grade to subplantigrade, digits five in number; anal scent-

glands usually present and often highly developed; dentition
of shearing-crushing type, well-developed carnassial teeth
present; upper molars one on each side; habit terrestrial, semi-
arboreal, semiaquatic, or semi-fossorial pelage often soft
;
and dense, and rating high as fur.
Subfamily Mustelinae. Martens, Weasels,

and Minks
Form long and slender; legs short; feet digitigrade, toes
partly webbed; tail variable in length, slender or bushy;
pelage dense but not especially long; anal scent-gland fairly
well developed; habit terrestrial, semi-arboreal or semiaquatic.
Genus Martes
Dentition: Incisors, f ; Canines, {; Premolars, |; Molars, ^ =38
92
MARTEN
Marten. —Martes americana

and related forms
Names.— Marten; Pine Marten; American Marten; Ameri-
can Sable; Hudson Bay Sable. Plate VII.
General Description. —A small carnivore of weasel-like form,
a smaller than a House-cat, with soft, rich pelage, bushy
little
and ochraceous or buffy patches on throat and chest.

tail,
Head rather small; ears broad and rounded; body long and
Fig. 23. Marten
lithe; limbs short; toes five on each foot, claws sharp and
slender; soles densely hairy; tail about half as long as head and
body, bushy, cylindrical; habit more or less arboreal.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no very marked seasonal varia-
tion in color.
Upperparts. —
Uniform rich yellowish brown mixed with
hairs which are dark brown dark brown on legs and tail ears
;
;
edged with whitish; top of head warm brown. Tone of upper-

parts varies from warm yellowish brown, almost olive, to light
buffy brown with ochraceous tinge, and top of head from
brown to almost white.
93
—
Underparts. Slightly warmer in tone than upperparts and
without the yellowish tinge to the brown; an irregular area of
bright ochraceous buff on throat and chest.
—
Measurements. Males larger than females. Total length,
males, 23-25 inches; tail vertebrae, 7-8 inches; hind foot, 3.3-3.5
inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Forested parts of northern
North America.
—
Food. Largely carnivorous; small mammals and birds, such
as Squirrels, Chipmunks, Mice, Rabbits, Grouse, and
also
some nuts, fruit and berries (mountain ash berries are said to
be a favorite article of diet), reptiles, frogs, insects, honey.
—
Enemies. Able to escape most of the predatory animals
that would prey upon it, with the exception of the Fisher, and
possibly the Lynx and Great Horned Owl.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Martes

Subgenus Martes
American Marten. — Martes americana americana (Turton).

As described above. in eastern North America from
Found
Labrador and the shores of Hudson Bay south to about
Virginia (in mountains) and west to Minnesota.
—
Hudson Bay Marten. Martes americana ahieticola (Preble).
Larger than typical americana. Upperparts (winter) "rich
dark yellowish brown, darkest on middle of back; legs and
tail darker, the latter almost black at tip; an
irregular blotch
and a small spot on chest, ochraceous; face and cheeks
grayish brown; ears edged with whitish." (Preble.) Total
length, males, 26 inches; tail vertebras, 8.5 inches;
hmd foot
3 8 inches. Found in the region from the western shores oi
Hudson Bay to Saskatchewan and north to the tree limit.
British Columbia Marten.
— Martes americana ahtetmotdes
Upperparts seal-brown, darkest on legs, feet, tail, and

middle back; head with more or less grizzling of gray; throat
patch ochraceous buff. Total length, females, 23.5 inches;
tail vertebrae, 7 inches; hind foot, 3.5
inches. Found m the
"Humid interior region of British Columbia, peculiar to the
Selkirk and Gold Ranges." (Rhoads)
—
Alaska Marten. Martes americana actuosa (Osgood).
Much larger than typical americana. Upperparts pale
ochraceous buff mixed with brown on posterior half, becom-
ing grayer on shoulders; head grizzled grayish
and brown;
chest patch creamy buff; tail brown darkening
toward tip.
94
MARTEN
Total length, males, 26 inches; tail vertebra, 8 inches; hind

foot, 4.4 inches. Found from the Barren Grounds of Alaska
and Yukon south into British Columbia and from the Coast
Ranges of British Columbia and Alaska east to meet the
range of abieticola.
—
Kenai Marten. Martes americana kenaiensis (Elliot).
Smaller than actuosa, tail longer, feet shorter, color darker •
often with no yellow patch on throat. Upperparts tawny

buff mixed with black, darkest on dorsal region, top of
head
grizzled; underparts darker than upperparts. Found on
the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska.
—
Newfoundland Marten. Martes atrata (Bangs).
Size of americana but color different, suggesting a
dark-
colored Mink. Upperparts deep chocolate, darkest on back
head, legs, and tail, where it becomes blackish; ear bordered
with dull white and with patch of yellowish white in front
of opening; irregular ochraceous blotches on throat
and
belly. Total length, females, 22 inches; tail vertebrae,
7.4
mches; hind foot, 3.5 inches. Found in Newfoundland
—
North Labrador Marten. Martes brumalis (Bangs).
Larger than typical americana and darker. Upperparts
dark brown to almost blackish; head lighter than back
Total length, males, 27 inches; tail vertebra?, -j.^ inches';
hmd foot, 4.6 inches. Found in "Humid coast region of
northeastern Labrador, Ungava Bay to Straits of Belle Isle "
(Rhoads)
Pacific —
Marten. Martes caurina caurina (Merriam).
Resembling americana but color a richer shade of brown
above and with brighter colored and more extensive throat
and breast patches. Upperparts rich brown with suggestion
of cinnamon and sprinkling of white hairs; head pale brown;
underparts with extensive irregular area of orange-buff frorn
lower jaw more or less to tail. Total length, males, 27
inches; tail vertebrce, 10.8 inches; hind foot, 3.6 inches.
Found in the humid coast belt of northern California,
Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, east to Cascade
Range.
—
Rocky Mountain Marten. Martes caurina origenes (Rhoads).
Differing in color from typical caurina, head darker, iii
comparison with body color, ears not edged with white.
Upperparts brown, darkest on middle of back, paling on
sides; top of head grayish brown; ears edged with ochra-
ceous buff; legs, feet, and tail dark brown; underparts brown
marked with extensi^ê irregular areas of buffy ochraceous
on throat, chest, and belly. Total length, males, 28 inches;
tail vertebrae, 9 inches; hind foot, 3.4 inches. Found in the
southern Rocky Mountain region from New Mexico north
through Colorado.
Sierra Marten. — Martes caurina sierrce Grinnell and Storer.
Paler above and below than typical caurina. Sides of face
paler; extensive patch of pale ochraceous orange on chest.
95
Total length, males, 24 inches; tail vertebra, 7.5 inches;

hind foot, 3.2 inches. Found in the Boreal Zone of the whole
Sierra Nevada north at least to Mt. Shasta, California.
Queen Charlotte Marten.— Marten nesophila (Osgood).
Larger than typical caurina which it resembles. Described
from skulls only but said to be light colored and short haired.
*******
Dentition heavier than that of caurina and rostrum shorter.
Found on the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
The Marten is the arboreal member of the Weasel family
and such an accomplished cHmber that it can prey success-

is
fully upon Squirrels. If seen at any distance it would probably

pass for a large Squirrel in the trees, but near at hand should
be recognized by the weasel-like face, with white-edged ears,
cylindrical and not flattened tail, and dark yellowish brown
color, with orange to yellowish throat patch.
Because of its preference for an arboreal life, the Marten
is not found outside of forested areas, and
the thicker the
woods the better from the Marten's point of view. This
mammal is one of the very first to resent the presence of man,
and, long before a district is settled, the Martens have dis-
appeared.
In addition to the food it may find in the tree tops, the
Marten has much the same habits as the Weasels on the
ground and preys on Mice, Hares, Partridges, etc. They are
said to be both nocturnal and diurnal, but they are so secretive
that one is very seldom seen. They are easy to trap, however,
as they are unsuspicious and eager to attack a bait. The fur
of the Marten high prices and always commands a
sells for
good market. The American Marten is close kin to the famous

Russian Sable.
The number of young Martens in a litter varies from one to
five, with three or four as the average.
They are born late in
four
April and are stated to be blind for a long time, over
weeks. The nest which the female makes, lined with grass
and moss, is usually in a hollow tree or rarely in a burrow in

the ground.
The Marten hisses, growls, snarls, or screeches, according
to Seton.
Subgenus Pekania
Dentition: Incisors, Canines, \; Premolars, t ;

Molars, \ =38.
f;
96
Plate VII
Mirten
û-.
—
FISHER
Fisher. — Martes pennanti

and related subspecies
Names. — Fisher; Pekan; Pennant Marten; Black Fox;
Blackcat. Plate VII.
General Description.— A large powerful Marten, much
larger and darker, than the Pine Marten but very similar to it
in general structure; pelage long and soft.
Color. — Sexes colored alike;
seasonal variation not con-
spicuous. General tone varying from grayish brown to warm
brown, darkest along dorsal region where it may be almost
black; nose, feet, and tail blackish; top of head grizzled with
gray which extends down neck to shoulders; dark brown on
throat, chest, and belly.
Measurements.— Males larger than females. Alales: total
length, 36-38 inches; tail vertebrce, 15 inches; hind foot, 4
inches; weight, 8 to 12 pounds or up to about 18 as a maximum;
weight of females, about 5 pounds.
Geographical Distribution.— Northeastern states and Can-
ada west through Saskatchewan and British Columbia.
—
Food. Small mammals, birds, frogs, fish, with some fruit
and nuts.
—
Enemies. Few in number aside from man. Too agile to
be caught by the larger carnivores and said to be able to kill
Fox, Raccoon, and Lynx.
Subspecies of Fisher
Fisher — Martes pennanti pennanti (Erxleben).
As described. Found formerly from mountains of Virginia
north into Quebec and thence westward, but probably to
be found today only in Maine and in forested sections north
to 50° m
Quebec, west through Saskatchewan as far north
as 60° and thence through British Columbia to the Pacific,
south along the Rockies to Yellowstone Park.
Pacific Fisher. Martes pennanti pacifica (Rhoads).
"Colors variable, ochraceous, chestnut, blackish, etc.,
lightest on head and shoulders, darkest on rump, tail and
legs; these usually rich brownish, black or quite
black;
skull large, much constricted interorbitally last upper molar
;
large." (Stephens) Total length, males, 42 inches; tail

vertebras, 14 mches; hind foot, 4.6 inches. Found from the
northern part of California north to British Columbia, in
forests.
97
The Fisher is a large Marten and is said to have been so

named, in contradistinction to its smaller relative, the Pine
Marten, because of its fondness for fish. In appearance it
looks like an overgrown black Cat or a black Fox. It is one
of the most powerful of the smaller carnivores and one of the
most feared members of the Weasel family.
This animal frequents forests, hunting either in the trees
or on the ground, and showssome preference for the neighbor-
hood of water or swamps. It is not as aquatic, however, as
the Mink. It does not seem to be an abundant mammal
anywhere, and with the disappearance of the forests is becom-
ing more scarce. In recent years Fisher fur has been in demand
and brought such high prices that this animal has been much
sought by trappers.
Different observers have paid tribute to the activity of the
Fisher. It is said to be the most active arboreal mammal in
North America, able to catch the Pine Marten, and leaping
from bough to bough with all the agility of a Squirrel. It is
an equally successful hunter on the ground, pursuing prey
such as Rabbits, clinging to the trail with persistence until it
wears down its victim. It is nocturnal in habit and only
rarely moving about by day.
Like the Wolverine, the Fisher may rob trap-lines and
destroy the animals which have been caught. It is wary and
difficult to trap itself. It is like the Raccoon when chased by
Dogs and trees when the Dogs overtake it. It is a very fierce
fighter and dangerous to Dogs.
It is one of the very few carnivores to prey with impunity
upon the Porcupine, which it kills by overturning and attack-
ing on the unprotected underside.
The young number one to five in a litter, but the usual
number is The young are bom about the first of May
three.
and the mother Fisher makes a nest, preferably in a hollow
tree at some distance above the ground.
Genus Mustela^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, ; {; Premolars, f Molars, | =34.
;
^ For a revision of the Weasels see Merriam, North American Fauna,

No. II, 1896.
98
WEASEL
Weasel. —Mustela cicognani

and related forms
Names. —Weasel; Ermine; Stoat; Ferret. Plate VIII.
—
General Description. A slender, long-bodied, short-legged,
predatory mammal, small in size. Head small, ears low and
rounded, tail short, tipped with black, soles of hands and feet
furry. Pelage composed of soft, close underfur and long, hard,
glistening, outer hairs; brown of upperparts in sharp contrast
Fig. 24. Weasel
to whitish underparts; summer pelage brown above, winter

pelage white all over except for black tip of tail. Habit
terrestrial, intensely active, bloodthirsty. Males noticeably
larger then females; anal musk-gland capable of secreting a
very powerful and disagreeable odor.
Upperparts. — Summer: Uniform chocolate-brown, slightly
darkened on top of head hands and
; feet touched with yellow-
ish white; terminal third of tail black.
Underparts. —Whitish with yellowish suffusion; underside
of tail same as upperside.
Winter pelage everywhere white except for the black tip
on tail; a yellowish tinge on lower back and underparts.
Immature pelage very much like that of adults.
99
Measurements. — Total length, males, ii inches, females,

9 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 3.2 inches, females, 2.8 inches;
hind foot, males, 1.45 inches, females, 1.22 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Practically all of North Amer-
ica.
—
Food. Small mamm_als and birds.
—
Enemies. Doubtless caught, on occasion, by Great Horned
Owls, and probably by other predatory mammals such as Fox,
Lynx, Alink, Fisher, etc., but so active as to escape most four-
footed enemies, except under very exceptional circumstances.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Mustela
Subgenus Mustela
All the following forms, except rixosa and its subspecies,
have black-tipped tails, in summer and winter.
Bonaparte Weasel. — Mustela cicognavi cicognani Bonaparte.
As described above. Found in "Boreal forest-covered parts
of North America from New England and Labrador to
coast of southeastern Alaska (Juneau, Wrangel, and Loring),
and south in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado (Silverton).
It occurs in the interior of British Columbia (at Sicamous),
but in the Puget Sound region is replaced by a smaller and
darker form, P. In the United States it is common
streatori.
in New England and New York, and in the forest-covered
parts of Minnesota. It probably occurs also in northern
Michigan and Wisconsin." (Merriam)
—
Richardson Weasel. Mustela cicognani richardsoni (Bona-
parte).
Like typical cicognani but larger and with longer tail.
Total length, males, 15.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.8 inches;
hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in "Hudsonian timber belt
from Hudson Bay to interior of Alaska and British
Columbia." (Merriam)
Newfoundland Weasel. — Mtistela cicognafii mortigena Bangs.
brown in summer, tail shorter,
Similar to richardso?ii but less
and less white on hands and feet. Upperparts Front's
brown in summer. Total length, males, 13 inches, females,
II inches; tail vertebrae, males, 3.8 inches, females, 3.2
inches; hind foot, males, 1.9 inches, females, 1.4 inches.
Found in Newfoundland.
—
Juneau Weasel.^ Mustela cicognani alascensis (Merriam).
Resembling richardsoni but with more white on feet. Total
l2n;^th,males, 13.5 inches, females, 11 inches; tail vertebras,
males, 3.8 inches, females, 3.1 inches; hind foot, males, 1.9
inches, females, 1.4 inches. Found in the region about
Juneau, Alaska.
WEASEL
—
Small-eared Weasel. Mustela microtis (Allen).
Somewhat resembling richardsoni in color, but smaller; ears
very small. Upperparts dark brown with slight golden
tinge; underparts white washed with sulphur-yellow.
Males, total length, 11.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.3 inches;
hind foot, 1.5 inches; ear from crown, .76 inch. Found in
the vicinity of Shesley, British Columbia.
—
Puget Sound Weasel. Mustela streatori streatori (Merriam).
Smaller and darker than typical cicognaîi, with dark brown
of upperparts reaching well onto belly, sometimes meeting
along mid- line; terminal third of tail black. Winter pelage
may or may not be white, depending upon locality. Total
length, males, 11 inches, females, 8.5 inches; tail vertebras,
males, 3.3 inches, females, 2 inches; hind foot, males, 1.3
inches, females, i.o inch. Found in "Puget Sound and coast
region of Washington and Oregon south at least to Yaquina
;
Bay (Newport), Oregon. Confined to a narrow strip along

the coast." (Merriam)
Dwarf Weasel. — Mustela streatori leptus (Merriam).
Very small in size, less black on tail than in typical streatori.
Upperparts, summer, dark brown, tip of tail black; under-
parts white. In winter white without yellowish tinge, tip
of tail black. Total length, males, 9.8 inches; tail vertebras,
2.6 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in Rocky Moun-
tains from Colorado into Alberta.
Little Weasel Sierra Least Weasel.
;
—
Mustela muricus (Bangs).
wSize very small; tail short, black- tipped. Upperparts drab
brown with tendency toward olivaceous; underparts white.
Total length, males, 8.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.4 inches;
hind foot, 1.24 inches. Known from El Dorado County,
California.
—
Least Weasel; Bangs Weasel. Mustela rixosa rixosa (Bangs).
Size very small, smallest of the Weasels; tail short and having
no black tip; upperparts uniform dark reddish brown;
underparts white. Winter pelage white, including tip of
tail. Total length, females, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.2
inches; hind foot, .9 inch. Found in "Boreal America from
Hudson Bay to coast of Alaska (St. Michaels) south to ;
northern Minnesota (Pembina) and Montana (Sun River)."

(Merriam) Plate VIII.
—
Alaskan Least Weasel. Mustela rixosa eskimo (Stone).
Similar to typical rixosa, but duller in color. Upperparts
(summer) brown with slight reddish tinge. Total length,
males, 11.2 inches, females, 7.4 inches; tail vertebrce, males,
1.2 inches, females, i.o inch; hind foot, males, .84 inch,
females, .76 inch. Found in the region about Point
Barrow, Alaska.
—
AUeghenian Least Weasel. Mustela allegheniensis (Rhoads).
Resembling rixosa but larger and darker. Upperparts
(summer) walnut-brown, underparts pure white; tail lacking
black tip or with only a few black hairs. Winter pelage
lOI
everywhere white. Total length, females, 7 inches; tail

vertebrae, .8 inch; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in Pennsylvania
in Allegheny mountains.
—
Plains Least WeaseL Mustela campestris Jackson.
Like rixosa in color but paler and with more white on under-
parts. Upperparts (summer) Front's brown, tail without
black tip underparts white, extending onto forefeet. Total
;
length, males, 7.4 inches; tail vertebras, 1.3 inches; hind

foot, .76 inch. Taken at Beemer, Cuming County,
Nebraska.
—
Tundra or Arctic WeaseL Mustela arctica arctica (Merriam).
"Size large; ears small; tail short but with very long black
pencil; underparts yellow (including underside of basal half
of tail)." Summer pelage dark yellowish brown above; in
winter, white all over except for black tip of tail and yellow-
ish suffusion posteriorly. Total length, males, 16 inches;
tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 2.0 inches. Found on
"Arctic coast and tundras. Specimens examined from
Anderson River, Franklin Bay, old Fort Good Hope, lower
Mackenzie River, Point Barrow, and St. Michaels."
(Merriam) Plate VIII.
—
Polar Weasel. Mustela arctica polaris (Barrett-Hamilton).
Resembling typical arctica. Upperparts (summer) golden
brown; underparts deep "primrose yellow," white on upper
lip, chin, and upper throat. Found in Hall Land, northern
Greenland.
Greenland WeaseL — Mustela audax (Barrett-Hamilton).
Medium tail short, with definite black pencil,
in size;
Upperparts (summer) wood-brown; underparts white, a
clear line of demarcation between upper and lower parts.
Found in North Greenland.
—
Kodiak Island Weasel. Mustela hadiacensis (Merriam).
Resembling arctica but smaller and differing in cranial
characters. Total length, males, 12.8 inches; tail vertebrse,
3.4 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found only on Kodiak
Island, Alaska.
—
Queen Charlotte WeaseL Mustela haidarum (Preble).
Resembling kadiacensis but smaller and with more black on
the tail. Upperparts (summer) very dark brown. In winter
white, with saffron tinge posteriorly and on underparts.
Tail black for about sixty per cent of its length. Males,
total length, 11 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.4 inches; hind foot,
1.5 inches. Found on Graham Island, Queen Charlotte
Islands, British Columbia.
—
New York WeaseL Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis
(Emmons). Plate VIII.
Males large, females much smaller; tail long and bushy,
with black tip for third to half its length. Upperparts dark,
rich brown; underparts white, with more or less yellowish
wash. Winter pelage white except in southern part of its
range. Total length, males, 16.3 inches, females, 13 inches;
102
——
WEASEL
tail vertebrae, males, 5.8 inches, females, 4.3 inches; hind

foot, males, inches, females, 1.4 inches.
1.9 Found in
"Eastern United States from southern Maine to North
Carolina, and west to Illinois." (Merriam)
—
Southern Weasel. Mtisiela novehoracensis notia (Bangs).
Resembling typical novehoracensis but darker brown above
and yellow below instead of white. Upperparts (summer)
dark chocolate-brown to seal-brown. Males, total length,
17 inches; tail vertebrae, 6.8 inches; hind foot, 1.9 inches.
Found from North Carolina to District of Columbia.
—
Northern Long-tailed Weasel. Mustela occisor (Bangs).
Very large and long-tailed. Tail not as broad as in noveho-
racensis and black tip very restricted. Color pattern much
as in novehoracensis. Total length, males, 18 inches, females,
13.5 inches; tail vertebras, males, 7 inches, females, 4.5
Taken at Bucksport, Maine.
Washington Weasel Mustela washingtoni (Merriam).
"Similar to P. novehoracensis in size and general appearance,
but with longer tail and shorter black tip. Female very
much smaller than male, as in novehoracensis.'' (Merriam)
Total length, males, 16 inches, females, 14.4 inches; tail
vertebras, males, 6 inches, females, 4.8 inches; hind foot,
males, 1.8 inches, females, 1.5 inches. Found in the vicinity
of Mount Adams, Washington.
Florida Weasel. —
Mustela peninsulce peninsulcB (Rhoads).
Quite similar to novehoracensis externally but differing in
cranial characters. Upperparts chocolate-brown; under-
parts yellowish; white on upper lip and chin; brown spot
behind comers of mouth. Total length, females, 15 inches;
tail vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in the
"Peninsula of Florida; limits of range unknown." (Mer-
riam)
—
Alabama Weasel. Mustela peninsula olivacea Howell.
Resembling typical peninsulce, but color in winter paler
and more olivaceous and with less yellow on feet. Upper-
parts (winter) buffy brown; underparts straw-colored;
black tip of tail about 3 inches. Total length, males, 16.8
inches; tail vertebrae, 5.6 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found
in Central Alabama.
Long-tailed Weasel. Mtistela longicauda longicauda Bona-
parte.
Size large; tail long, with relatively short black tip; under-
parts strongly yellowish. Upperparts pale yellowish brown,
darker on head; white on upper lip and chin; underparts
deep buffy yellow to warm ochraceous. White in winter.
Total length, males, 18 inches, females, 15.5 inches; tail
vertebras, males, 6.6 inches, females, 5.8 inches; hind foot,
males, 2 inches, females, 1.8 inches. Found on "Great
Plains from Kansas northward." (Merriam)
103
Mountain Long-tailed WeaseL — Mustela longicauda oribasus

(Bangs).
Darker than typical longicauda but equal to it in size.
Upperparts dark brown, without any tinge of reddish,
darker about head; underparts buffy yellow; white on upper
lip and chin and on tops of feet. Total length, females, 15.6
inches; tail vertebrae, 6 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found
in the region about the head of Kettle River, British Columbia.
—
Minnesota WeaseL Mustela longicauda spadix (Bangs).
Resembling typical longicauda but darker, upperparts
chocolate-brown. Total length, males, 18.2 inches, females,
14 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 6.6 inches, females, 5.3
Found in "Edge of timber belt in Minnesota, along boundary
between Transition and Boreal Zones." (Merriam)
—
Missouri WeaseL Mustela primulina Jackson.
A bright- colored member of the longicauda group. Darker
above than longicauda, underparts yellow, not buif Upper-
.
parts Brussels brown; tail black- tipped chin white. Total

;
length, females, 13 inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches; hind foot,

1.8 inches. Taken at Avilla, Jasper County, Missouri.
—
Cascade Mountain WeaseL Mustela saturata (Merriam).
Large, long-tailed, dark. Upperparts dark, raw umber- brown,
darker on top of head; brown spot at comer of mouth;
chin white underparts yellow to orange. Total length males,
; ,

Found in "Cascade and Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon and
Washington, northward into British Columbia. " (Miller)
—
Mountain WeaseL Mustela arizonensis (Mearns).
Resembling longicauda in color and markings, but smaller.
Upperparts raw umber-brown, darker on head; underparts
yellow to orange, except for white chin and upper lip.
Total length, males, 15.4 inches, females, 14 inches; tail
vertebrae, males, 5.8 inches, females, 5.2 inches; hind foot,
males, 1.8 inches, females, 1.6 inches. Found in "Broadly,
the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountain systems, reaching
British Columbia in the Rock>^ Mountain region, but not
known north of the Siskiyou Mountains in the Sierra-
Cascade system." (Merriam)
—
Black Hills WeaseL Mustela alleni (Merriam).
Resembling arizonensis but more yellow on upperparts,
which are golden to yellowish brown. Total length, males,
Found in the "Black Hills, South Dakota." (Merriam)
California WeaseL — Mustela xafithogenys xanthogenys Gray.
"Size medium; tail long; face conspicuously marked with
whitish, but rest of head not black; underparts ochraceous.
Upperparts from back of head to terminal part of tail in
summer pelage raw umber-brown, tinged with golden; in
winter pelage, drab brown, without yellowish suffusion;
head always darker, becoming dusky over nose; a large
104
Plate VIII
r
Least Weevsel
Arct \c Weasel -wiriter-
Arctic Weasel -sum me r-
NewYorRVeasel
Bridled Weasel
,^
Black-footed Ferret
^
;
WEASEL
rectangular spot between eyes, and a broad oblique band

between eye and ear, whitish; end of tail black; a brown
spot behind comers of mouth; chin white; rest of underparts,
including forefeet all round and inner side and toes of hind
feet, varying from buffy ochraceous to ochraceous orange."
(Merriam) Total length, males, i6 inches, females, 14.7
inches; tail vertebrae, males, 6.2 inches, females, 5.4 inches;
hind foot, males, 1.7 inches, females, 1.6 inches. Found in
"Sonoran and Transition faunas of California, on both sides
of the Sierra Nevada. " (Merriam)
—
Redwoods Weasel.^ Mustela xanthogenys munda (Bangs).
Resembling typical xanthogenys but smaller and darker.
Upperparts (winter) dark, rich tawny russet, dusky on top
of head and nose; underparts deep rich orange-buff. In
summer darker and duller above, paler below. Males, total
length, 15 inches; tail vertebrce, 5.6 inches; hind foot, 1.7
inches. Found in the coast region of northern California.
—
Oregon Weasel. Mustela xanthogenys oregonensis (Merriam).
Larger, darker, and with more restricted face markings than
typical xanthogenys. Upperparts pale chocolate-brown tail ;
without any yellowish tinge, terminal fifth black. Total

length, females, 16.5 inches; tail vertebras, 6.2 inches; hind
foot, 1.8 inches. Found in "Rogue River Valley, Oregon;
limits of range unknown." (Merriam)
—
Bridled Weasel. Mustela frenata frenata Lichtenstein.
A large, long-tailed Weasel with conspicuous white markings
on head. Upperparts light brown except for top of head,
which is blackish, marked by a white band between eye and
ear and a small white spot between eyes; underparts och-
raceous yellow, whitish on chin and throat, dark spot behind
comer of mouth; tail with short black tip. Total length,
males, 19.5 inches, females, 17.5 inches; tail vertebras, males,
7.7 inches, females, 7.5 inches; hind foot, males, 2 inches,
females, 1.7 inches. Found from the Valley of Mexico north
to southern Texas. Plate VIII.
—
New Mexico Bridled Weasel. Mustela frenata neomexicana
(Barber and Cockerell).
Paler than typical frenata, with more white on head. Upper-
parts pale yellowish ochre terminal two inches of tail black
;
underparts similar to back but paler; head brownish black

with large whitish patch between eyes, and with broad
whitish band between eye and ear. Males, total length, 20
inches; tail vertebras, 8 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found
in the Mesilla Valley of New Mexico
Subgenus Putorius
Black-footed Ferret. — Mustela nigripes (Audubon and Bach-
man). Plate VIII.
Size large; more robust than other North American Weasels,
mink-like. Upperparts pale buffy yellow, with a sprinkling
105
of dark brown hairs on crown and back; underparts buffy

or cream-colored; hands and feet blackish; a broad black
band across eyes like a mask; tail short, colored like body,
except for short blackish tip. Total length, males, 23,
inches; tail vertebrae, 5.3 inches; hind foot, 2.4 inches.
Female slightly smaller. Found on "Great Plains, from
western North Dakota and northern Montana to Texas;
not known west of eastern base of Rocky Mountains."
(Miller.)
Weasels are widely distributed over both the Eastern and

Western Hemispheres, but the group is essentially a northern
one and the greatest number of species is found north of the
equator. Throughout North America north of the Rio Grande
there are no fewer than 36 species and subspecies of this active
little carnivore, and it would appear as if nature had evolved a
special type of Weasel to fit each economic niche.

There ar^ small Weasels, such as rixosa, which feed on
Meadow Mice and very small rodents, the larger Weasels,
such as arctica which prey on Hares, and Weasels such as
novehoracensis and arizonensis which hunt a variety of game
and are equipped to gain a living from a great many different
sources. The largest of our Weasels, the Black-footed Ferret,
preys upon Prairie-dogs.
Weasels are highly carnivorous and predatory, representing
an extreme development along these lines. They are intensely
active and alert, about at all seasons of the year and may be
seen at any hour of the day. They are probably most active
at night, however, and rest much of the day. In the regions
where winters are cold and long the Weasels turn white, but
in the southern parts of their range they maintain the yellow
or brown summer pelage throughout the year, only slightly
different in winter, due to wear and molt. In the winter coat,
any of the Weasels may be called Ermine, but arctica is most
nearly related to the true Ermine of the Old World.
terrestrial, although they have been
Weasels are essentially
known and seem to be sure of themselves above
to climb trees,
the ground; they habitually hunt on the ground or in the
burrows under the ground. Possessed of good powers of
smell, sight, and hearing, they are tireless hunters and are
so remarkably successful that one wonders how small mam-
mals and ground -nesting birds are able to maintain themselves
106
MINK
against such enemies. The Weasel kills not only for food, but
seemingly for sheer pleasure, and when in the midst of a
number As many as forty chickens have
of victims slays
all.
been killed one night by a single Weasel (fide Bachman) and

in
Kennicott tells of finding a pile of a hundred or more
Rats
and Mice killed by Weasels. The normal food of Weasels is
warm blood which is sucked from the neck or base of the skull
of the victim.
Weasels are curious and bold. When one is discovered it is
a simple matter to attract its attention, and even after it has
disappeared in a rock-pile a squeak will cause it to reappear
almost instantly. This small hunter is so fearless and confident
of its powers that it will not hesitate to attack mammals many
times its own size, and so rapid are its
it can dodgemovements
anything less rapid than a bullet. Indeed, it is credited with
being able to dodge at the flash of a gun and escape even
a
bullet, but all that I ever shot at either did not
possess such
speed or else had very bad luck.
Weasels are easily trapped and enter a trap without suspic-
ion. Since they prefer to kill their own game, it is probably
curiosity more than hunger that takes them into the trap, in
places where wild life is at all abundant. Even in summer,
when there was plenty for a Weasel to catch, I have caught
them on baits far from fresh. A trapped Weasel is the very
picture of baffled frenzy and rage, a furious creature
that
ounce for ounce would know no master.
The female Weasel has from four to six or even eight young
at a birth and the mother is absolutely fearless in
protecting
her litter.
Subgenus Lutreola ^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, ;
i; Premolars, f Molars, | =34.
;
Mink. —Mustela vison

and related forms
Names.— Mink; American Mink. Plate IX.
General Description.—A weasel-like mammal nearly as
large as a small House-cat but much more slender. Body
^ For a synopsis of this subgenus see N. Hollister, Proceedings
U. S
National Museum, Vol. 44, pp. 471-480, 1913.
107
elongate and supple; head sub triangular viewed from above;

ears small; neck long; legs short; tail about half as long as
head and body, moderately bushy; feet with five toes; pelage
composed of soft underfur more or less concealed by long.
Fig. 25. Mink

glistening guard-hairs; color dark, glossy brown; anal musk-
gland well developed; semi-aquatic in habit; alert and active
in behavior.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no noticeable seasonal variation.
Upperparts a uniform dark umber-brown, rich and glossy
in appearance, slightly darker along back and tail underparts
;
like upperparts except for white area on chin and irregular

white spots which may be scattered anywhere.
Immature pelage not quite as dark as adults, and lacking
most of the long, hard, outer hairs.
—
Measurements. Females noticeably smaller than males.
Total length, males, 24 inches; tail vertebrae, 8 inches; hind
foot, 2.5 inches. Weight (large male) 2 pounds; females,
I pound, 10 ounces.
—
Geographical Distribution. Nearly all of North America,
from Gulf of Mexico north to Arctic Circle.
—
Food. Strictly carnivorous; fish, frogs, snakes, crayfish,
small mammals, such as Muskrat, Mice, and Rabbits, and birds.
—
Enemies. Few in number; Great Homed Owl.
108
Plate IX
Mink
s«^
i
MINK
Species and Subspecies of the Subgenus

Lutreola
"' ^'"^' ^^^'^ Mmk.~Mustela vison vison
^^'Ichre^lf
As described above the smallest of the American Minks
Found m "Eastern Canada, west to Hudson Bay south in
interior to Catskill Mountains, New York, and to nSrthem
l'^^^^- i^^JT^ - ^^^ --^ --^ of 5few
Common Mink.-l/^^.te/a vison mink (Peale and
Beauvois)
Colored about as m
typical vison or slightly darker-
larger
and more robust. Total length, males,
25.5 inches tall
vertebra, 8.5 inches; hind foot,
Eastern United States, from coast of
2.9 inchts^ Foundin
New England south
^^^' ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ôr, to central Georgia
JnH ?1 h^''"''^'"^'
Ta
and nJ^^^T/
^^stward through southern Pennsylvania
Ohio to Missouri and northeastern
Florida -^vcik.—Mustela vison lutensis
Texas." ^"^^''^ster)
(Bangs)
'° ""^^^ o^
(Hoi
''^^^'^ brown;
S
Pfi!'
tail1hor?''''"Tn?.M' length,_ '"'f '
males,
TLÎI u- ll^^
8 mches; hmd foot, 2.8 mches.
23 inches; tail vertebrae
Found in region along
to^??Sid1.''^tHXSr^^'
'''''' ^^^^ S- '^ C-o^-
Southern Mink.— 7lf//5/^/a mow vulgivaga
(Bangs)
Resembling ^r/«^ but paler and smaller.
light brown rich and lustrous,
Color uniform
darker on end of tail; whi?^
on chm and small spot on throat.
Total length, Jales
24.5 mches; tail vertebra, 7.5 inches; hind
foot, 2.9 inches'
Coast of Louisiana and Mississippi
fh^M— North in
'"'" ^°"°^' '" northern Louisiana"
(Holl^ter''''''
^cSfihTf '^ Mink -^f .,,/./« ,,-,,,, letifera Hollister.

on chin, throat, and
breast ^Tnf^rr'.r^^ T^^^^ 'P°''
frf.T
inches; w ^^''^^^' "'^^^S' 26 inches; tail vertebr^
hmd foot, 2.9 inches. Found "From northerifwis
1. 04
SouthDakota south to northern iTlinoi
noXrTlr"'^''"
northern Missouri, and southern Kansas." ,
(Hollister)
Hudson Bay Mink.-lf «.^,/a vison lacustris (Preble) ^
â^k.^^ôcolate-brown above, a little lighter

wh ?I on chm and irregularly
white below-
between hmd legs. Total length,
distributed on breast
males, 27 inches- tail
Cd
vertebra 8 inches; hind foot,
3 inches. Found n "SerTor
of Canada from Great Bear
Lake and western shores Cf
^^b^^^^' Saskatchewan and
Man??nhi^7
Manitoba '°".l^ '^;r^^.
to southern North Dakota." (Hollister)
'' ^^'"^^ Mink.-M.././. vison :lrTrlumenos
(B^n^)"^
hlTî"-^
blackish on^'l\
"^^.^
chm
Color dark sooty brown
^^ ôlor.
tail ;
white.
Total length, males, inches' L
'4ltem
western NortVr '°°^^-9 --hes. p'oundln
North America, Y""
from northern British Columbia
109
south to the Sierra Nevada Mountains

California and m
Rocky Mountains in New Mexico.
(Holhster)
'
Calif orma Lowland Mink.—

Mustela vtson cBstuanna Grinnell.
separated from
ResembUng energumenos but smaller ;
7n:r^menl chiefly on the basis of c^--^?âracte^^^^^^^^^

paler and pelage not so heavy.
Found m
The lowlands ot
west-central California, particularly
the delta region at the
Confluence of the Sacramento and San
Joaqum rivers; west
and Marin Counties. No mmks are
known to
S Petaluma and San Francisco
occufon Sfe south side of Golden Gate
Bay." (Grinnell)
nesolestes (Heller).
Island Mivik.—Mustela vison
ingens and energumenos- colors
''sSe intermediate between
rather dark'' (Hollister) Color Vandyke brown, lighter
tail; underparts walnut-
on cheeks and sides, darker on
white spots or areas on
brown white on chin and irregular
throat' clest inner arm, and
abdomen. Total length, males,
inches; înd, foot 3-2^^^^^^^^
^4 s^nche?; tail vertebra 7-3
Found in "Alexander Archipelago, A aska_
(Hollister)
Kenai Mink.— Mw5/e/a vison melampeplus chocolate without

(iilhot).
dark
Darker than energumenos. Color
paler than upperparts;
any reddish Unge; underparts slightly Total length
wWte spot on 'chin and sometimes throat. inches; hind foot,
males 28 inches; tail vertebrae, 7-2
^fnches Found in "Kenai Peninsula
and Cook Inlet region,
Alaska " (Hollister) .^.
.v .
vison ingens (Osgood).

Alaska Mink Big mnk.—Mustela energumenos
Minks; reêmhXmz
Larle^ of existing American
Sgh?er Total length, males, 28.8 mches; ta,^
vertebrae
in cofor.
7.2 inches; hind foot, 3.0 inches. Found m
Alaska; northern Yukon
"Northern western, knd central
to the Alaska Peninsula
and nortS;estem Mackenzie; south
*******
and to Fort Good Hope,
River."
The Mink
(Holhster)
is
Mackenzie; east to Anderson
merely a large Weasel of somewhat

specialized
m its general
habits and shows this relationship rather clearly
It differs from the other
Weasels m slightly more
structure
uniformly darker coloration, and semiaquatic
robust build,
vicinity of
^""tS mammal has a wide range, but prefers the
water. It is found in the forests or out
streams or standing
the water- courses. The den
on the plains where it follows m
may be in a burrow bank, under logs,
in a
rocks, or m
anv similar nook. ^ x
Much of the food of the Mink

is caught m
_ 1,
the water, but
animal is not so specialized for

an aquatic existence as the
this
no
•
WOLVERINE
Otter and does much hunting along the banks of streams

It IS fully capable of catching
active fish such as trout and
thus Its range of diet runs all the way from
mammals such as
Kabbits and Muskrats, through frogs and less
active land dwel-
ling prey, to any of the highly
developed forms of stream life
There are records to tell of the bloodthirsty
temperament of
the Mmk and apparently it sometimes kills for the
sheer love
of the act, although it is said to be
less given to this than the
smaller Weasels. It has also been
stated that the Mink can
be tamed and makes a very interesting
pet. A trapped Mink
is the triple distilled essence
of fury and red-eyed rage.
The odor of the musk carried by the Mink,
as by all the
Weasels, and set free at moments of great
excitement, is very
powerful and disagreeable, more offensive
to the nostrils of
some people than the musk of the Skunk.
Although the Mink can and does climb,
upon occasion it '
seldom does so.
The fur of the Mink is of high quality, being durable,
of
close texture,
and a good natural color.
The Mink has five or six young in the average
litter, the
number varying from three to ten. They
are bom from
April to May and there is but one
brood a season.
Subfamily Guloninae. Wolverines

Form heavy and robust; size large; feet subplantigrade
tail short and bushy, the hairs drooping; pelage
quite long'
anal scent-glands moderately developed;
habit terrestrial.
Genus Gulo
Dentition: Incisors, f ; Canines, i; Premolars, f Molars, i =38.
;
Wolverine— Gulo luscus

and related forms
Names.— Wolverine; Glutton; Carcajou; Skunk-bear
General Description.—A sturdy, long-haired
member of the
Weasel family of which it is the largest. Head
broad and
powerful; ears short; form robust and bear-like;
legs sturdy
toes five on fore- and hind feet; claws
large and curved, sem'i-
retractile; soles hairy; semiplantigrade; tail fairly long, heavy,
III
.
and bushy; pelage long and thick; color pattern dark brown
with broad, light, lateral band.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; no very marked seasonal varia-
tion in color but great individual variation shown.
—
Upperparts. Dark brown to almost black, marked with
two broad, pale, lateral bands, brownish white to yellowish
Fig. 26. Wolverine
white, which run from just back of shoulder to

rump where
onto basal half of tail above; head
they merge and extend
grizzled gray and brown; muzzle dark.
Underparts.— Dark brown with an irregular spot or two
of yellowish white on throat or chest.
Immature resemble adults in appearance.
Total
Measurements.— ^lales slightly larger than females.
tail vertebras,
length, males, 41 inches, females, 37 inches;
foot, males, 8
males,' 8.5 inches, females, I.2 inches; hind
inches, females, 7 inches; weight, males, 30-35
pounds, females,
22-27 pounds.
Arctic
Geographical Distribution.— North America from the
Ocean south into the northern United States.
but
Food.— Birds, mammals, amphibians, fish, and berries,
principally rodents such as Ground Squirrels,
Woodchucks,
Moose.
Mice, Beaver, etc. occasionally even Caribou and
;
Enemies.— Apparently not attacked by any of the larger

carnivores.
WOLVERINE
Species of the Genus Gulo

Common Wolverine. —Gulo luscus (Linnseus). Plate XI
As described above. Found from the Arctic Ocean and
Baffin Bay southward and from the Pacific to the Atlantic,
reaching the extreme northeastern United States, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, and down the Rocky-
Mountains into Utah and Colorado.
—
Mount McKinley Wolverine. Gulo hylceus Elliot.
Coloration very dark. "Head, throat, sides of neck and
body, and base of tail chestnut; hind part of neck, back,
underparts, legs, and feet black; chest spotted or blotched
with white or orange, and orange spot on anal region; nose
darker chestnut than head; tail, except at base, black."
(Elliot) Found in the region of Mount McKinley, Alaska.
—
Southern Wolverine. Gulo luteus Elliot.
Rather paler in color than luscus but like it in color pattern.
Top of head and back of eyes pale gray; buff on sides, and
upper base of tail; black on nose, legs, feet, and most of tail;
chestnut on nape, lower back, and rump. Total length,
38 inches; tail vertebree, 8 inches; hind foot, 6.8 inches.
Found in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California from
Tulare County north; limits of range unknown but reported
from Yakutat Bay, Alaska.
Giiloauduboni Matschie. Taken in Newfoundland.
Gulo hairdi Matschie. Taken at Fort Union, North Dakota.
Gulo katschemakensis Matschie. Taken on the Kenai
Peninsula, Alaska.
Gulo niediecki Matschie. Taken at Dease Lake, British
Columbia.
The above four species are listed in Miller's North American
Recent Mammals. appear to be synonyms of Gulo
They all
luscus since they are indistinguishable from that animal.
The status of the Wolverines is not very satisfactory and the

genus calls for a revision. It is likely that all of the North
American Wolverines should be subspecies of one full species,
lusctis.
The Wolverine has an unenviable reputation most of which

ithas truly earned, but part of which has been imparted to it
by fanciful legend. Since it is not a common animal today in
regions which most of us may visit, we must turn to the
accounts of the trappers, traders, and explorers who know the
north country, or to the descriptions of the naturalists who
knew it before it disappeared from its early range.
The size and powerful body of the Wolverine set it off from
the other carnivores for it is the largest of the Weasel family,
113
much larger than the so-called small carnivores but smaller

than a Black Bear. The long, dark pelage, marked with the
broad lateral bands of yellowish white, is an unmistakable
character of identification.
This big cousin of the Weasel confines its activities to the
ground; he can climb low trees if need be. Accounts of the
Wolverine credit it with unusual strength and an aggressive
disposition before which even the Bear gives way. Upon rare
occasion it will attack and kill Deer and Caribou, and has been
known to attack even the Moose. It digs out or breaks into
the trapper's cache and carries off or scatters and ruins all his
stores. It follows the trail of the trapper when he makes his
rounds and destroys every animal it finds in the traps or
breaks the traps themselves.
The number of young in a Wolverine family is generally
two or three but may reach five. They are bom in June to
July (in high latitudes). The female makes a nest of leaves
under rocks or in some sheltered cranny.
The name Glutton has been given to the Wolverine because
of the supposed greediness of the animal. There is little to
show that it is any more greedy than other carnivores, which
are all heavy eaters when food is plentiful.
Subfamily Lutrinae. Otters

Form long and slender; head flattened; legs very short; toes
webbed; claws reduced or absent; tail long and muscular;
pelage very dense; habit semiaquatic.
Genus Lutra
; 1; Premolars, f Molars, | =36.
;
Otter. —Lutra canadensis

and related forms
Names. — Otter: Common Otter; Land Otter; River Otter.
General Description. —A long, lithe-bodied carnivore, of
weasel-like form, with webbed feet, and long tail. Size large;
head rather broad and flat; body long and proportionally
slender; legs short; fore- and hind feet with five toes, soles
hairy, forefeet webbed; taillong and tapering, pelage very
OTTER
dense and composed of thick, short underfur and long, glisten-

ing guard-hairs; habit more or less aquatic. Plate IX
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no very marked seasonal varia-
tion in color.
Upperparts uniform glossy brown, dark and rich in tone,
grayish on lips and cheeks; underparts lighter than upperparts,
with grayish tinge.
Fig. 27. Otter
Measurements. — Total length, 40-45 inches; tail vertebrse,

1 2. 5- 1 5 inches; hind foot, 4-4.7 inches. Weight from
18 to 25
pounds, about 20 being average.
—
—
Food. Principally fish and crayfish, but at times birds and
small mammals such as ducks, poultry, Muskrats, young
Beaver, etc. frogs on occasion.
;
—
Enemies. Except for man, well able to elude any animal
powerful enough to be an enemy.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Lutra

—
Canada Otter. Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber).
As described above. Found from Labrador to north of the
Arctic Circle in Alaska and Yukon, south on the Atlantic
coast to South Carolina.
Interior Otter. —
Lutra canadensis interior Swenk.
Paler and larger than typical canadensis. Upperparts
(summei) dark reddish brown. Total length, 53 inches;
115
tail vertebrae, i8 inches; hind foot, 4.8 inches. Found in

Nebraska and adjacent states; hmits of range unknown.
—
Carolina Otter. Lutra canadensis lataxina (F. Cuvier).
Small, lighter in color than typical canadensis, and soles of
feet less hairy. Upperparts Prout's brown washed with pale
yellowish on sides of head and neck. Total length, 45
inches; tail vertebrae, 18 inches. Found in the southeastern
states— — —
NorthandSouthCarolina limitsof range unknown.
Florida Otter. Lutra canadensis vaga (Bangs).
Slightly larger than typical canadensis, with longer tail and
more reddish in color. Upperparts, "Lustrous chestnut-
brown, somewhat paler below; cheeks, lips, chin, throat,
and sides of neck grizzled yellowish brown." (Bangs)
Total length, 51 inches; tail vertebrae, 19.5 inches; hind
foot, 5.2 inches. Found in Florida and eastern Georgia.
Fig. 28. Feet of Otter; hind foot at left, forefoot at right.
Pacific Otter. — Lutra canadensis pacifica (Rhoads).

Very large; browner than typical canadensis. Upperparts
ruddy seal-brown; pale wood-brown on sides of head, neck,
and on breast; underparts much lighter than upperparts.
5 inches. Found in the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to
the coast of Alaska.
California Otter. —Lutra canadensis hrevipilosus Grinnell.
"Similar to L. c. pacifica and L. c. periclyzomce but general
size greater, pelage shorter, coloration paler, ..." (Grin-
nell) Upperparts bister, grizzled with light-tipped hairs;
paler on sides and underparts; much paler, buffy brown, on
throat, chin, and upper lip. Total length, 46 inches; tail
vertebrce, 1 8 inches; hind foot, 5 inches. Found in California
on Sacramento and San Joaquin drainages.
OTTER
—
Sonora Otter. Lutra cmiadensis sonora (Rhoads).
Large in size, light in color. Upperparts brown, grizzled
with light- tipped hairs giving impression of pale brown;
underparts light grayish brown; pale yellowish or cream
color on sides of head and neck. Total length, 52 inches;
19 inches; hind foot, 5.8 inches.
tail vertebrse, Found in
Arizona and southern California.
—
Queen Charlotte Otter; Island Otter. Lutra periclyzomcE
Elliot.
Known only from skulls; no descriptions of external char-
acters have been published. Probably as large or larger
than pacifica. Found on the Queen Charlotte Islands,
British Columbia.
—
Newfoundland Otter. Lutra degener Bangs.
Size small; color dark. Upperparts seal-brown to blackish,
lighter on sides of head and neck. Total length, 40 inches;
tail vertebras, 14 inches; hind foot, 4.6 inches. Found in
Newfoundland.
The Weasel family is versatile and in the Otter it has a

member which is the finest aquatic specialization, short of the
Sea Otter, among the mammals which live on the land and
have four limbs recognizable as legs. The Otter has made
the most of its dry-land equipment and the broad, webbed
feet give it such mastery of the streams that it catches the

swiftest of fish, while the dense fur and subcutaneous layer of
fat make it indifferent to long immersion.
The long, lithe body, large size, webbed feet, and long,
muscular tail are sufficient identifying characters.
Otters are never far distant from lakes or water-courses
although they are great travelers and are known to have an
individual range of many miles. In summer their movements
are governed by the abundance or scarcity of fish and under
favorable circumstances food is easy to get, but in winter ice
may close the streams and the Otter are forced to seek stretches
where rapids or falls provide open water. Such places may be
scarce and far apart.
The Otter is a playful mammal and one of the common
manifestations of this playfulness the "otter-slide" which is
is
a steep slope down which the animals coast on the breast and
belly, with the forelegs bent backward out of the way. These
slides are oftenest noted on the snow in winter, but may also
be made on slippery clay banks in summer. At the bottom
of such a slide the Otter dives into the water. The stories told
117
of tame Otter indicate that they make unusual pets, friendly,

good natured, and with very little of the uncertain temper
common to the Weasels.
The Otter is a strong and capable fighter and more than a
match for a Dog in fair fight on land; in the water the Otter
is much more than a match for a Dog.
From one to three young are born to the Otter, with as many
as five noted in an exceptional instance. The young arrive in
late April and but one family is reared in a season. It is said
to have its den in a bank with an under- water entrance, or less
frequently in a hollow log.
The Otter is active at all hours. "The species makes a
variety of noises. It utters a loud sniffmg that sounds like
clearing its nose of water, and it growls and snarls in menace.
A female in the National Zoo at Washington, obtained in
northern New York, often emitted a loud birdy chirp to
express inquiry, desire, or hunger. Another female that I was
sketching at the same time (April 28), made a low chatter or
querulous grumble that seemed to express the same idea. The
latterwas from Florida. A captive Otter kept by J. K.
MacDonald, of Winnipeg, in 1886, at Bersimis on the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, used to utter such a piercing whistle that my
informant repeatedly heard across the river (a mile and a half
away), as plainly, he said, as he could hear a man whistle if in
the same room with him. He knew of no other animal sound
so shrill, save the scream of the eagle or loon." (Seton.)
The fur of the Otter is valuable and very serviceable, being
among the most durable of all the furs.
Subfamily Enhydrinae. Sea Otters

Characters as given under Enhydra.
Genus Enhydra
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, {; Premolars, f Molars, i =32.
;
Sea Otter. —Enhydra lutris

and subspecies
—
Names.^ vSea Otter; Sea Beaver; Kalan.
—
General Description. A large Otter with specialized struc-
tures for a marine habitat. Head rather broad and flat; ears
118
SEA OTTERS
almost hidden in fur; body supple; limbs short; forefeet

proportionally small; hind feet broadly webbed, flipper-like,
haired on both surfaces; tail short and thick.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation
in color.
Upperparts dark brown or brownish black, glossy and
rich in tone, sprinkled with white- tipped hairs; grayer on top
of head and neck; underparts same as upperparts.
—
Measurements. Total length, about 4 feet; tail vertebrae,
12 inches; hind foot, 6 inches long by 4 inches wide.
—
Geographical Distribution. Formerly the north Pacific
coast south to Lower California.
—
Food. Marine animal life such as fish, crustaceans, shell
fish, cuttle-fish, sea-urchins, etc. said to eat seaweeds and
;
kelp when forced to do so, and to eat meat when obtainable.

—
Enemies. Killer Whale and Steller Sea Lion.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Enhydra

Northern Sea Otter. — Enhydra lutris lutris (Linuceus).
As described above. Today exterminated over most of its
range and to be found in North America only in a few
scattered localities from Vancouver Island north to the
Alaskan coast and adjacent islands.
—
Southern Sea Otter. Enhydra lutris nereis (Merriam).
Larger than typical lutris, browner, less black, and with
fewer white-tipped hairs. Total length, 4 to 6 feet; tail
vertebrce, 11 inches; hind foot, 6 inches. Found today only
in very few localities along coast of southern California
south along lower California, or possibly even extinct.
* * * * * * jf:
The Sea Otter such a rare mammal today, so nearly

is
extinct, that there is very little likelihood any of the readers

of this handbook will ever see one alive. There are only a
few localities where Sea Otter are known to exist and these
animals have become so wary that they very seldom come onto
the land.
The favorite haunts are kelp beds and shallow waters along
rocky islands and coves. They get all of their food from the
sea and are expert swimm.ers, diving to depths of three hundred
feet or more.
The young is usually but one to a birth, occasionally two,
and may be born any month of the year. The mother is very
affectionate and solicitous of her offspring.
119
Subfamily Mephitinae. Skunks

Form robust; legs short; tail long and very
bushy; feet sub-
plantigrade; anal scent-glands highly developed;
pelage quite
long; color pattern conspicuous black
and white; habit
terrestrial.
Genus Spilogale^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars, a= 34.
;
f Molars, ;
Spotted Skunk.— Spilogale putorius

and related forms
Names.— Spotted Skunk; Little Spotted Skunk; Polecat-
Little StripedSkunk. Plate X.
General Description.— A small Skunk, much
less robust
than Mephitis and more nearly weasel-like, about
the size of a
Fig. 29. Spotted Skunk
half -grown House-cat. Pelage long; color pattern black and

white, arranged in conspicuous stripes or connected spots;
head small and weasel-like, legs short, tail bushy, both fore-
and hind feet with four tubercles at the bases of the toes.
^ For a full revision of this genus see A. H. Howell, North American

Fauna, No. 26, 1906.
120
Littly Spotted Skunk
Hod- nosed Skunk
Common Skunk
SPOTTED SKUNK
o o
2 2 ° ^-^S
O ^_, .
3.2-t2 I » H H «
•+3 0<1 ^ C 'o ?,;:« s s s
^ i: ;< V S-«-«^
+3 'o tj 3 "a "« "3 "a "3 "o «

W CU
QJ ujooooooaooooooo
d ^ s M rO'Tl-iOvO t>-0O 0\o
O
• c^
03 o
121
—
Upperparts, Conspicuously contrasting pattern of alter-
nate black and white areas: the ground or base color of body
and tail is black, and white markings occur as follows; white
spots or irregular areas on forehead between eyes, on each
side ofrump, and on each side of tail at base; four white
and running from crown or neck, along the
stripes, parallel
upperparts about to middle of body; outer pair of white stripes
reaches forward to in front of ear; a lateral white stripe reach-
ing from behind foreleg torump where it curves up onto back
to meet or almost meet the dorsal stripe; on rump the white
dorsal stripes continue as detached spots which are met by
transverse white bands that pass in front of hips; tail black,
except for white tip.
— Black.
Underparts.
Immature marked adults.
like
Measurements. — Males slightly larger than females. Total
length, males, 19-22.5 inches; females, 17. 5-2 1.8; tail vertebrae,
males 7.8-8.8, females, 6.6-8.2 inches; hind foot, males, 1.8-2
inches, females, 1.5- 1.8 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of the United States.
—
Food. Mainly insects, beetles, and grasshoppers but
varied with small mammals, birds, eggs, lizards, salamianders,
et cetera,and occasionally fruit.
—
Enemies. Rather free from molestation by predatory
•
creatures because of its musk defense, but sometimes caught

and eaten by great Homed Owl and Bobcat.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Spilogale

—
Alleghenian Spotted Skunk. Spilogale putorius (Linnaeus).
The animal of the above description. Found in "Missis-
sippi, Alabama, western Georgia, western South Carolina,
and northward along the AUeghenies to northern Virginia;
western limits of range unknown." (Howell)
Florida Spotted Skunk. —
Spilogale amharvalis Bangs.
Smaller than putorius, with shorter tail and more white.
Total length, males, 14-16 inches; tail vertebras, 4.2-5.4
inches; hind foot, 1.5- 1.7 inches. White dorsal stripes
about as wide as the black areas they enclose; large, white
spot on frontal area, white patch in front of ear which runs
back into outer white dorsal stripe, white on terminal third
of tail above, and on terminal half below; a strap-shaped
white patch on tail near base, above. Found in "Eastern
portion of peninsular Florida, from New Smvrna south to
Lake Worth." (Howell)
122
SPOTTED SKUNK
Prairie Spotted Skunk. — Spilogale interrupt a (Rafinesque).

Most like putorius but blacker and without prominent white
tip to tail. Total length, males, 19.6-2 1.5 inches; tail
vertebrae, 7.2-8.9 inches; hind foot, 1.8-2 inches. Dorsal
stripes generally narrow and frequently interrupted and
broken up into widely separated spots; white frontal spot
small; white ear spot usually not running into white dorsal
stripe; tail entirely black or at most with very small terminal
tuft of white. Found in "Iowa, southern Minnesota,
Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma; south in
eastern Texas to about the middle of the state." (Howell)
—
Gulf Spotted Skunk. Spilogale indianola Merriam.
Color pattern resembling the discontinuous striping of
interrupta, but tail with white tip about equal to one-quarter
of the upper surface; median pair of white stripes generally
narrower than outer pair. Total length, males, 17. 6-21
inches; tail vertebrce, 6.6-8.2 inches; hind foot, 1.8-2 inches;
Found in "Coast region of Texas and Louisiana; south to
Victoria, Tamaulipas." (Howell)
—
Rio Grande Spotted Skunk. Spilogale leucoparid Merriam.
Characterized by extensive white markings. Lateral and
outer pair of white dorsal stripes very broad; large white
spots or areas on forehead, in front of ear, and on tail,
terminal fourth above, terminal two-thirds below. Total
length, males, 16 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.8 inches; hind foot,
1.9 inches. Found in "Arid region of western Texas and
southern New Mexico; south over the eastern side of the
Mexican table-land to Hidalgo; west to central Arizona."
(Howell)
—
Rocky Mountain Spotted Skunk. Spilogale tenuis Howell.
Resembling leucoparia but with narrower white lateral
stripes; white patch on forehead long and narrow; end of
tail white for terminal third. Total length, males, 18 inches;
tail vertebras, 6.6 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found on
"Eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and
northern New Mexico limits of range unknown.
'
(Howell)
—
; '
Canyon Spotted Skunk. Spilogale gracilis gracilis Merriam.

Marked about as in leucoparia but with rather less white on
tail; small size, slender. Total length, males, 13. 4-16
inches; tail vertebras, 5.2-6.4 inches; hind foot, 1.6-1.8
inches. Found in "Northern Arizona and desert ranges of
southeastern California; south in the Sierra Madre to
Jalisco and Michoacan." (Howell)
—
Great Basin Spotted Skunk. Spilogale gracilis saxatilis (Mer-
riam).
Somewhat larger than typical gracilis and generally without
white lateral stripe, or else with it greatly reduced. Total
length, males, 16.9-18 inches; tail vertebras, 6.5-7 inches;
hind foot, 1.8-2 inches. Found in "Utah, western Colorado,
northern Nevada, southern Idaho, eastern Oregon, and
northeastern California. " (Howell)
123
Chihuahua Spotted Skunk. —

Spilogale amhigua (Mearns).
Marked like gracilis, but with broad, white lateral stripes
and white band on thighs. Total length, males, 16.5 inches;
tail vertebras, 5.9 inches; hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found
"from central Arizona south over the western edge of the
Mexican table-land to Jalisco." (Howell)
—
Arizona Spotted Skunk. Spilogale arizona arizoncB (Mearns).
A'larked much as in gracilis and leucoparia; broad, white,
lateral stripe; tail white on terminal upper third and lower
half. Total length, males, 17.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 6.4
inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found in "Central and southern
Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and adjacent parts of
Mexico." (Howell)
California Spotted Skunk. — Spilogale phenax phenax Mer-
riam.
Resembling putorius in color pattern and size, but tail
shorter; white dorsal stripes extending between ears; large
white spots on forehead and in front of ear; white, curved
patch on base of tail smaller than in putorius white on tail ;
for terminal upper fourth and lower half. Total length,

males, 17- 19.4 inches; tail vertebra, 5.7-7.8 inches; hind
foot, 1.9-2. 1 inches. Found in "Greater portion of California,
excepting extreme northern part and southeastern desert
'
regions. (Howell)
'
—
Oregon Spotted Skunk. Spilogale phenax latifrons Merriam.
Smaller than typical phenax, with more black; white dorsal
stripes narrower, median pair usually very slender; lateral
white stripe reduced or absent; white markings on flanks
and rump reduced. Total length, males, 15.4- 17.4 inches;
tail vertebrae, 4.7-5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.8-2 inches. Found
in "Coast region of Oregon and northern California."
(Howell)
Puget Sound Spotted Skunk. — Spilogale phenax olympica
(Elliot).
Marked as in latifrons, but with shorter tail, and longer,
narrower white frontal spot. Total length, males, 16.5
inches; tail vertebras, 4.5 inches; hind foot, 1.9 inches.
bia."
*******
Found in "The Olympic Peninsula and shores of Puget
Sound; north (probably) to Howe Sound, British Colum-
(Howell)
The Spotted Skunk

American Skunks, but
not only the smallest of the North
is
is the handsomest as well.

it The
conspicuous color pattern of broken black and white differs
noticeably from the pattern on the larger Skunks which is
marked by black and white in broad bands or masses. In
addition, the Spotted Skunks are more slender and graceful
in build. They are like their larger relatives, however, in
their ability to defend tljemselves.
124
SPOTTED SKUNK
The members of the genus Spilogale are found

in various
haunts, although they are essentially plains and
desert
animals. Some species occur in forests and on mountain
slopes, and others show a preference
for rocky canyons cliffs
and broken country. The Spotted Skunks are more active
than the big Skunks, and climb trees upon
occasion.
The behavior of these small Skunks when
attacked is about
as described for the genus Mephitis,
see page 131.
Spilogale has the reputation of giving
hydrophobia when it
bites man, and one of the names for the Spotted
Skunk in the
Southwest is "Hydrophobia Skunk" or
"Phoby-cat " It is
well known that both large and small
Skunks may contract
hydrophobia if bitten by a "mad" Coyote,
for example, and
there are authentic cases of deaths from
bites given by "mad"
spilogale. However, this is of very rare occurrence
and the
average Skunk is scarcely more to be
dreaded on this score
than any other wild mammal. During
an epidemic of hydro-
phobia m a given section the Skunks are perhaps
more apt to
be bitten because of the fact that they rely
upon their defensive
equipment which usually protects them, but
would be value-
less againsta "mad" Coyote.
The Spotted Skunk is nocturnal in habit and does not roam
about during the day. Observers credit this mammal with a
playful and attractive disposition and find very little to mark
up against him.
The young range from two to six in number,
the average
four or five. The maternal den is
located in rocks, hollow
logs, or may be in a burrow dug
by the Skunk itself or in a
deserted burrow of Ground Squirrel, Wood
Rat or Burrowine
Owl.
Genus Mephitis'
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, \- Premolars, f
;
; Molars, § =34
Large Striped Skunk.— Mephitis mephitis
and related forms
Names.-Large Striped Skunk; Big Skunk; Line-backed
Skunk; Common Skunk. Plate X.
A 'J°i^
'7'^^^''?^^ ^'""' ^'^^'''' ^""^^^ "^"^^ °f Chincka) see
A. H. Howell. North American Fauna, No. 20, 1901.
heavy-bodied, black and white

General Description.-A
and well-developed scent-
niammal, with large bushy tail,
forcibly discharging fluid of penetrating and
glands capable of
proportionally small; bofy robust
disagreeable odor. Head
feet
House-cat; legs short; tail large and bushy;
about size of
Fig. 31. Large Striped Skunk
developed for digging;

semiplantigrade; claws of forefeet well
composed of long, hard hairs over a short, soft under-
pelage
black and white; nocturnal and
fur- color pattern conspicuous
in habit, but may sometimes be seen about m
crepuscular
and deliberate in behavior.
daytime; slow-moving
white stripe or
Upperpart glistening black, with broad
to base of tail as a
band from nape to shoulders, continuing
enclosing a median black area; a narrow
pair of lateral stripes
white stripe along nose to nape;
tail black and white m vary-
all tail hairs white at base; underparts black.

ing proportions,
pattern is shown by
Considerable variation from this
individuals; some races more variable than others.
Young striped like adults.
Measurements.-Males slightly largerthan females. Total
females, 23 inches; tail vertebra,
length, males, 24.5 inches,
inches, females, 6.6 inches; hmd foot, males, 3-1
males, 7.5
126
'
LARGE STRIPED SKUNK
inches; females, 2.8 inches. Weight, large male, about

eight
^ ^
pounds.
Geographical Distribution.-Practically
all of United States
and Canada north to 50° in east and 60° in
west
Food.-Insectivorous and carnivorous;
insects, grass-
hoppers crickets, larva., grubs. Meadow
Mice, and any small
mammals It can catch, eggs, frogs, snakes,
crayfish and
occasionally poultry.
Enemies.-Very few because of protection given by
scent-
glands-Great Horned Owls are known to
catch Skunks and
probab y carnivorous mammals when
pressed by starvation
may kill an occasional Skunk.
Species and Subspecies of the

Genus Mephitis
Subgenus Mephitis
Canada Skunyi.~ Mephitis mephitis
(Schreber)
t °'^'/
^^' M^
%Ztru ^Canada-Nova
n.f.
"°^?^^^ ^^ ^'^^^^ Pattern. Found
Scotia, Quebe?, and
northern
"°^^' '' '''^' '^ ^^^^^ House^^Ke^
watim^^ ThoVcH)
Northern Plains Skunk.-il/,p;„-//,
hudsonica (Richardson)
Size large, tail bushy and heavy,
tip broad and w?^^^^^^^
white pencil; general color pattern
as in mephiHs Toî
^ngth. males, 29 mches, females,
24 inches; tail vertebiS
males, 10.5 mches, females, 10
inches; hind foof ma£'
3.3 inches, females, 2.8 inches. Found in
from "Western Caâd;.
Manitoba to British Columbia (east of the Cascades)
^^ ^°^-^^°' Nebr^Sm-
M^nesSt^^'^ "InZit'^'
Mephitis minnesotcE Brass =M. hudsonica
Eastern Sûn^^ Mephitis nigra (Peale
and Beauvois)
Tail longer than m mephitis,
black, tipped with white-
dorsal stripes usually broader. white
Total length males 2!
mches, females, 23 inches; tail
vertebra., male's, Tinches^
Wles, 9 inches; hmd foot, males, 2.5 inches
females T;
inches. Found in ''New England and Middle
Atlantic
"'^1.'°^^^ Virginia; west to Indiana."
FlnHM ^°.
Florida Sûn^.—Mephitis elongata (Howe 1)
^-^"^^^^^
(Bangs)
Size medium; tail very long,
marked with
sides,and with a ong white pencil; markings white on the
white stripes usually very broad. " variable bu?
(Howell) Sexes about
Tf ^^^^^.e- total length, 28 inches;
inches; hmd foot,
3 inches.
tail verteb?^ i?6
Found in "FloridrVfrom
vicinity of Lake Worth) to
North Carolina and in th^
mountamsto West
Mississippi River."
Virginia; west on the Gulf coast
(Howell)
to the ^
127
1
Lichten-
Louisiana Skunk.— Mephitis mesomelas mesomelas
size, variable in color; tail short,
usually entirely
SmalHn INot
black; white stripes may or may not
reach to tail.
much difference in size between sexes. Tota length, 23
Found
foot, 2.5 inches
inches; tail vertebrae, 9 inches; hind
southern i>ouisiana
on "West side of Mississippi Valley from
coast of Texas to Mata-
to Missouri; westward along the
as far at least as
gorda Island; and up the Red River Valley
Wichita Falls." (Howell)
(Bangs)n
ama /-d
Illinois Skunk.— Mephitis mesomelas
Resembling typical mesomelas and differing
chiefly m
skull
Z.l length, 25 inches tail v-tebr. 8 inches;

Siara'ters.'
hind foot, 2.7 inches. Found m
"Prairie region of Illinois,
boundaries of range
western Indiana, and eastern Iowa;
imperfectly known. " (Howell)
mesomelas varians
Long-tailed Texas Skunk.— Mephitis
mephitis;
LargeYnd long-tailed; color pattern like that of
tail without white tip; fairly constant m
marking. Total
mches; tail vertebrae,
length males, 30 inches, females, 27
hind foot, males
males 15.7 inches, females, 15 inches;
^8 Inches, females, 2.8 inches. Found m'' Southern and
western Texas, eastern New Mexico,
and adjacent parts of
Kansas, and
Mexico; north into Oklahoma, Colorado,
Nebraska." (Howell) .
Arizona Skunk.— Mephitis estor Memam. . -^ .

tail; broad white
Smah in size, much white on body and white area across
dOTsal stripes, in some specimens
broad
fower bacli^ white on upper surface of
tail -- yXTi"'
Total length, males,
the black- white pencil at tip of
tail.
tail vertebra., males, 11.4
25 6 inches; females, 23 inches;
foot, males, 28 inches,
fnches females, 11 inches; hind
females 2.5 inches. Found in "Arizona, western New
S
Eco Sonora, Chihuahua, and northern
?A the Sierra Madre to southern
ranp"e unknown. " (Howell)
California S;k^xnk^Meph^tis
Lower California;
Chihuahua; limits of
7>
, -n
ocddentalis occtdaUalis Baird.
• 1
markings fairly constant, pattern

Large in size, tail long; _Tote^
of ^^^lum width
as fn hudsonica; white stripes
28 ^^^ês taiWertebrae
length, males, 32 inches females,
hind foot, males, 3-
males 12 s inches, females, 12 inches;
in "Northern and central
h^ches females 3 o inches. Found
Sifom^r from vicinity of Monterey Bay northward west
Valley,
Sfhe Sierra and Cascades, to the Willamette
occidentalis spissigrada
Pugrt''soU''Tktnk.-M.M^-^-
Likftypfcal occidentalis but with
more white and shorter
tail; white stripes on
back ^mding abou mi^^^^^
Total length, males, 20
and white on tail very extensive.
128
LARGE STRIPED SKUNK
inches, females, 25 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 10 inches,

females, 9.4 inches; hind foot, males, 3.2 inches, females,
3.0 inches. Found on "Shores of Puget Sound and coast
region of Washington and northern Oregon."
— (Howell)
Cascade Skunk. Mephitis occidentalis notata (Howell).
Resembling typical occidentalis but white dorsal stripes
narrower and separate for entire length, tail shorter; narrow
white dorsal stripes sometimes interrupted and usually
joined at nape, but not touching posterior to that region;
tail black and with Httle or no white. Total length, males,
25.3 inches, females, 26 inches; tail vertebra, males, 10
inches, females, 11.4 inches; hind foot, males, 3 inches,
females, 2.8 inches. Found in "Southern Washington and
northern Oregon, east of the Cascades; exact limits of range
unknown." (Howell)
—
Great Basin Skunk. Mephitis occidentalis major (Howell).
Larger than typical occidentalis, with longer hind foot white ;
dorsal stripes broad, dividing about middle of back, not

extending far onto tail; tail largely black. Total length,
males, 28 inches; tail vertebrae, 12.2 inches; hind foot,
3.4
inches. Found in "Eastern Oregon, northern California,
and Nevada; east to the Wasatch Mountains "
in Utah
(Howell)
Southern California Skunk. — Mephitis occidentalis holzneri
M earns.
Not differing appreciably from typical occidentalis in color,
but smaller in size. Total length, males, 26 inches, females,
24 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 11.8 inches, females, 11.8
Found in "Southern California, from vicinity of Monterey
Bay south into Lower California; east to the Sierra Nevada
and San Bernardino Range; limits of southward range
unknown. '
(Howell)
'
Broad-nosed S^nnk.—Mephitis platyrhina (Howell).

Resembling typical occidentalis externally but differing in
cranial characters; white stripes of medium breadth; tail
black, with indistinct white band on upper surface. Total
length, males, 30 inches; females, 27 inches; tail vertebrse,
males, 13 inches, females, 13 inches; hind foot, males, 3.6
inches, females, 3.2 inches. Found in Kern County,
California.
Subgenus Leucomitra. Hooded Skunks

Northern Hooded Skunk. Mephitis — macroura milleri
_
(Meams).
Size medium, markings extremely variable. Two phases
occur, one in which upperparts are nearly all white, under-
parts black; the other in which upperparts are chiefly black,
with narrow white stripes on sides and white on underside
of tail; various degrees of intergrading between these two
129
extremes may be seen. Total length, males, 27 inches,

females, 26.5 inches; tail vertebras, males, 14 inches,
females, 14 inches; hind foot, males, 2.6 inches, females,
*******
2.4 inches.
Mexico.
The Large
Found in southern Arizona and south into
Striped Skunks are

pattern, a coat that advertises its owner,
marked by a revealing color
and by its very con-
spicuousness warns. Skunks are not liable to confusion with
any other mammals since only Skunks (in North America)
have this black pelage striped with contrasting white, and the
long bushy tail. The unmistakable character of identification
is the unique weapon of defense possessed by Skunks and which
once experienced will never be forgotten. The heavy build,

large size, and broad, unbroken stripes of white easily dis-
tinguish this genus from Spilogale. From the other genus of
large Skunks, Conepatus, they may be told by the differences
enumerated under the discussion of the Hog-nosed Skunk.
The Large Striped Skunk is usually encountered about
clearings, pastures, or open ground near the borders of forest.
It is also found on the plains and prairies, seeking cover in the
brush along water-courses or in broken country. The animals
may be seen upon occasion at any hour of the day, but gen-
erally begin their hunting late in the afternoon. They are
most active at night. They are slow-moving and deliberate,
with great confidence in their powers. Much of their food is
obtained by digging and rooting about under the sod. They
dig a burrow or use an old Badger hole or other ready-made
hole in the ground, and the female makes a grass nest for the
young.
These may number as high as ten to a litter, but from four
to six is the average number. The young are bom the latter
part of April or early in May.
The scent of the Skunk is contained in a pair of anal glands
which are enclosed in a heavy sheath of muscle and under
control of the animal. These glands discharge through a duct
which is protruded from the anus when the animal is angered,
but normally occupies an internal position. By a powerful
muscular contraction the fluid of the gland is ejected in a fine,
almost invisible, spray or mist to a distance of eight or ten
feet. Down wind the spray itself will travel much faither and
the rapid diffusion of this substance will taint objects for many
130
LARGE STRIPED SKUNK
feet in all directions, on a still day. The Skunk is loathe to

eject this fluid can possibly be avoided and will put up
if it
with a surprising amount of abuse (sometimes) before losing

restraint. The usual posture of defense is head low and
toward the enemy, tail stiffly erect, and the hairs of the tail
distended. This is an obvious warning and if not crowded
the Skunk will usually soon assume a less tense attitude. As
long as the tail is lowered and less rigid the Skunk will not fire.
The animal can aim the discharge and not only is he
effective upon an enemy to the rear, but even upon one that is
facing the Skunk. No position is safe within a circle of two or
thiee yards.
The fluid from these scent-glands is a clear yellow in color,
strongly acid in reaction, and said to be slightly luminous after
dark. It is exceedingly painful if it falls into the eye and mây
cause temporary or possibly permanent blindness. Clothing
which has been saturated with this spray will retain an odor
for days and weeks, although burying the garments in the
ground will hasten their return to normalcy. One discharge
from the glands does not empty them; they are capable of a
number of salvos.
It is possible to kill a Skunk so that there is no emis-
sion from the glands. The surest way is to drown the Skunk.
Shooting usually results in a drenched atmosphere unless the
spinal cord is cut. It has been stated that if the tail of the
Skunk can be kept lowered, the animal is defenseless, and
there are various ways in which the Skunk may be dispatched
which depend upon this fact for their efficiency. The animal
may even be caught alive if the tail is grasped and kept down.
My own experience is that the element of risk is so great, and
the likelihood of some part of the scheme not developing as
per schedule so imminent, that I would class these latter
methods as impractical for the layman.
Skunks make very interesting pets and Merriam, Seton,
and others have written accounts of their experiences with
these mammals which show a surprising side to Skunk nature.
They are playful and affectionate and show a nice regard as
to the abuse of their powers. By a bit of minor surgery Skunks
can be rendered incapable of discharging musk and are then as
innocuous as Cats.
Skunks become very fat in the fall and den up during the
131
severe weather. The fur of these mammals has become quite

popular in recent years and a large traffic is done in Skunk
pelts. The dark- colored ones fetch the best prices and the fur
of a prime skin is deep, durable, and handsome.
Genus Conepatus
;
|; Molars, ^ =32.
Hog-nosed Skunk. — Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi

and related forms
Names. — Hog-nosed Skunk; White-backed Skunk.

Plate X.
General Description. —About the same size and build as the
species of Mephitis; a large, robust Skunk with conspicuous
black and white coloration; a broad unbroken band of white
from crown to end of tail differs from Mephitis also in having
;
a naked, hog-like muzzle and much smaller, less bushy, tail.

Color.— Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation
but considerable individual variation.
—
Upperparts. From crown to end of tail pure white to white
with faint yellowish tinge, extending as a band from head to
shoulders and then widening out to cover nearly the entire
dorsal region; rest of upperparts brownish black to black.
—
Underparts. Blackish except for tail which is white with a
few black hairs.
Immature much like adults.
Measurements. — Males larger than females. Total length,
males, 27 inches, females, 23 inches; tail vertebras, males, 11.6
inches, females, 9 inches; hind foot, males, 3 inches, females,
2.8 inches. Weight five to ten pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. From the states along the
border south into Mexico.
—
Food. Many varieties of insect food such as beetles and
their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, grubs, etc.; small rodents;
small birds and their eggs; fruit of cactus.
—
Enemies. Usually let alone by most predatory animals
but occasionally killed by Great Horned Owls, and perhaps, in
times of food scarcity, by Coyotes and Bobcats.
132
HOG-NOSED SKUNK
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Conepatus
Subgenus Oryctogale
This genus is southern in its distribution, ranging from the

southern end of South America up through Central America
and reaching its northern Hmit just north of the Mexican
boundary.
Meams Hog-nosed Skunk. — Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi

Merriam.
As described above. Found in western Texas and south
beyond the Rio Grande, east as far as Austin.
Swamp Hog-nosed Skunk; White-backed Skunk. Conepatus —
mesoleucus telmalesies Bailey.
Resembling meamsi but with lighter dentition and more
slender skull. "Whole upperparts and tail white, the white
extending forward on forehead nearly to eyes; lower parts,
sides, legs, and face black." (Bailey) Total length, males,
Found in a small section of Texas included in the counties
of Liberty, Hardin, San Jacinto, Montgomery, and Harris.
—
Arizona Hog-nosed Skunk. Conepatus mesoleucus venaticus
Goldman.
Resembling mearnsi
in size and color but differing in cranial
characters. Found in "Southeastern Arizona and adjacent
parts of New Mexico. ..." (Goldman)
—
Texas Hog-nosed Skunk. Co7iepatus leiiconotus texensis
Merriam.
Size large; white dorsal area more restricted than in mearnsi,
generally only a narrow stripe on rump and sometimes
completely cut off to leave rump black. Underside of tail
with much black. Total length, males, 33 inches, females,
28 inches; tail vertebras, males, 14.5 inches, females, 11.8
inches; hind foot, males, 3.4 inches, females, 3 inches.
Found in the "Coast strip of Texas from Rockport, Aransas
County, to mouth of Rio Grande." (Merriam.)
The Hog-nosed Skunk is about the same size as the Large

Striped Skunk and more or less similarly colored, but differs
in having a hog-like muzzle, a smaller tail, and a single, broad
band of white down the back instead of a pair of lateral bands
separated by a black dorsal strip. In general behavior and
skunk-like attributes the two genera are much alike, except
that the Hog-nose is more of a digger, as would be indicated
by the special development of a rooting muzzle.
133
—
Subfamily Taxidiinae. American Badgers

Form robust; legs short; toes not webbed; claws large and
strong, fossorial in type; tail moderately short; pelage long
and loose.
Genus Taxidea
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, \; Premolars,
; Molars. 34.
American Badger. —Taxidea taxus

and related forms
—
Names. American Badger; Common Badger; Blaireau
(French Canadian). Plate XI.
General Description. A large, powerful member of the
Weasel family, with heavy body; short, bushy tail; long,
Fig. 32. American Badger
shaggy pelage; and grizzled gray color. Head comparatively

small, broad and flat rather than rounded; ears low and
rounded; neck short; body low and squat, robust; legs short
and powerful; feet with five toes, claws large and well devel-
oped, especially on forefeet where they are over an inch in
length; tail short, thick and bushy; pelage very long and loose;
habit semifossorial.
Color. — Sexes colored alike; no marked change in color with
the seasons.
—
Upperparts. Silvery gray grizzled with black in general
impression, the hairs dirty gray at base, then grayish white
followed by a narrow black band and tipped with silvery
134
BADGER
white; pelage on head much shorter than on body; a narrow

whitish stripe from muzzle to shoulders, and whitish patch on
face below eye and on ear; sides of muzzle, a spot in front of
ear, top of head, and back of ear dusky gray; fore- and hind
feet blackish.
Underparts. —Yellowish white to soiled whitish, the pelage
much shorter than on back.
Immature very similar to adults but generally less
grizzled.
Measurements. — No marked difference in size between
sexes. Total length, 28 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.5 inches; hind
foot, 4 inches; weight, 13-14 pounds average up to maximum
of 23.
Geographical Distribution. — Central North America from
Saskatchewan south.
Food. — Small mammals such as Ground Squirrels, Prairie-
dogs, Mice, Pocket Gophers, etc.; birds and eggs; sometimes
insects.
Enemies. — Probably able to avoid, under normal circum-
stances, the only animals powerful enough to prey upon it,
namely, the large carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Taxidea

Common Badger. —
Taxidea taxus taxus (Schreber).
As described above. Found from about 55° latitude in
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba south to Colorado
and Kansas, east to Michigan and west across the Rocky
Mountains.
Colorado Badger. —
Taxidea taxus phippsi Figgins.
Resembling typical taxus but larger and darker. General
color as in taxus, but dark areas on head and face extensive
and black; white stripe down head and neck reaching to
shoulders. Total length, 30 inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches;
hind foot, 4.7 inches. Found in southern Colorado, limits
of range unknown.
—
Texas Badger; Mexican Badger. Taxidea taxus berlandieri
(Baird).
Resembling typical taxus but with slightly more buff and
with the white line on head and neck running onto back
sometimes as far as tail. Found in the western half of Texas,
west through Arizona into southeastern California.
California Badger; Western Badger. —
Taxidea taxus neglecta
(Mearns).
Differing from typical taxus in having less black which is
replaced by dark brown or dusky upperparts grizzled gray
;
135
and dusky; white stripe on head and neck sometimes to

shoulders and even to rump; dark markings on head and
face dusky to blackish; underparts buffy; tail yellowish
brown above, paler beneath. Total length, 29 inches; tail
vertebrae, 5.4 inches; hind foot, 4 inches. Found in the
western states from Washington and Oregon south through
California.
The low, squat form of the Badger, in conjunction with the

grizzled grayish color, white face markings, and long pelage,
is a field character which serves for easy identification of this
mammal.
Badgers are creatures of the prairies, plains, and open
forests. They dig out much of their prey and the range of the
genus in North America coincides rather closely with the
region of greatest rodent abundance, the home of the Ground
Squirrels, Prairie-dogs, etc. The Badger does not go into
heavy stands of timber, for there would be little there which
he could hunt he can not climb and is not swift in the chase.
;
Badgers are most active from late afternoon on, but may be
noted moving about at any hour of the day. The commonest
proof of their presence is the abundance of large holes they
dig. When these animals dig out a Ground Squirrel or a
Gopher they make a large, deep hole which may remain open
for a matter of several years before rains or other natural
causes fill it in. Badgers are industrious and where hunting
has been good badger-holes are thick. Ranchmen are often
annoyed by these rodent hunters when they excavate in the
alfalfa fields or sink pits where a saddle Horse may be tripped
and have a leg broken. The redeeming feature of this Badger
activity is that each hole means the death of one or more
rodent enemies of the rancher.
The Badger is a fearless little beast and when caught away
from a hole turns upon an enemy with such snarling fury that
it commands immediate respect. It is very tough and tena-
cious of life. Blows that would kill the ordinary mammal
produce no effect upon a Badger. The heavy pelage is prob-
ably some protection to the animal under such circumstances,
but its compact, muscular build enables it to withstand terrific
shocks. If the Badger is allowed only a moment to dig, it needs
no weapon of defense, for it can disappear below the surface in
a surprisingly short time.
136
Plate XI
B adder
»
-%&:^^",
RED FOX
A Badger that I once came upon as he began digging out a

Squirrel was only just below the surface and the ejected earth
was flying forth in leisurely spurts. The Badger sensed my
footsteps as I drew near and immediately changed his tempo.
Muttered snarling and rumbling began to pour out of the hole,
and a geyser of earth leaped up four or five feet into the air.
As I looked on, the height of this earth column dropped
almost with the seconds and in a very short time the Badger
was so deep that no more earth reached the surface and the
sounds of his subterranean rage were only faintly audible.
The number of young in a Badger litter is three as an
average and ranges from one to five. The young are born
late in the spring,May to early June, In regions of severe
winters the Badger dens up until the snow has melted. Seton
gives the period of hibernation in Manitoba as lasting from
the time the ground freezes until April.
Badger fur, while thick and handsome in color, is rather
coarse and is not valued very highly.
Family Canidae. Wolves, Coyotes and Fcxes

Medium-sized carnivores of dog-like form; head dog-like,
with elongate muzzle; legs rather long; feet digitigrade, with
four or five digits claws non-retractile tail long and unusually
; ;
bushy; dentition of shearing-crushing type, with well-devel-

oped camassial teeth; pelage rather long and thick; habit
terrestrial.
Subfamily Caninae
Genus Vulpes
42.
Red Fox. ' —Vulpes f ulva
and related forms

Names. —Red Fox; Cross Fox; Silver Fox; Black Fox;
Silver-gray Fox. Plate XII.
^ For a Preli7ninary Revision

of the North American Red Foxes see
C. H., Merriam, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 661-676, Dec,
1900.
General Description. — Resembling a small, sharp-nosed

Dog of slender build; ears large and erect; pupil of eye linear;
muzzle long and slender; tail long and bushy; claws fairly
long and sharp; pelage long and soft.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation;
slight
occurring also in several color phases.
Upperparts. — Bright golden yellowish, slightly darker
along mid-dorsal region, rump grizzled lightly with whitish;
Fig. 33. Red Fox
head reddish yellow, grizzled with whitish; forefeet to elbow

black; hind feet black; tail ^êllowish, mixed with black, a
black spot on upper surface near base, tip white.
Underparts. —White.
Immature have blackish on muzzle and back of ears; dusky
on head and tail; very young dull yellowish brown or drab in
general color.
Measurements. — Alales larger than females. Total length,
males, 41 inches; tail vertebrae, 16 inches; hind foot, 6.5 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of the United States and
Canada.
—
Food. Birds, small mammals, principally Mice, small
rodents and Rabbits, fruit and berries.
—
Enemies. Eagles, Wolves, Lynxes, Fishers; other carni-
vores also catch young Foxes.
138
RED FOX
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Vulpes

There is considerable similarity in general color pattern
between all the forms of North American Red Foxes.
The
typical pelage for each form is reddish yellow and
the varia-
tions are not sufficient to conceal the very obvious
identity of
the animal. Most of the forms, perhaps all,occur in
three
distinct color phases. The common pelage is the Red phase;
the rarest is the Black or Silver phase, which is
simply a
melanistic specimen, black with more or less
silver-tipped
hairs. The Cross Fox is an intermediate phase and while
rare is much more common than the Black phase. The
Cross Fox reddish yellow above except for a dark band
is
across shoulders which, with the dark dorsal band,

forms a
rough figure a cross; a broad band of blackish from chin
like
down throat and belly.
Plate XII.
These three phases may occur in the same litter and some
forms of Vulpes seem to produce these color variations
oftener
than others.
Fulva Group. Red Fox

EasternRed Fox.— F«//)e5 /«/m (Desmarest).
As described above. Found in the northeastern United
States.
Long-tailed Red Fox.— Vulpes macroma Baird.
''Size and general appearance oi fulva, but tail
much loneer-
hind feet larger; black of feet and legs much less extensive "
Total length, males, 41 inches; tail vertebra, 18.5 inches-
hind foot 7 inches. Found in "Mountains of Colorado'
_Utah, and Wyoming." (Merriam)
High Sierra Red Yox.— Vidpes necator Merriam.
Resembling fulva in general color, but sides of nose
darker less black on legs, dorsal region duller and
much
redder
lotal length, males, 40 inches; tail vertebrae,
152 inches-
hind foot, 6.8 inches. Found in "Southern or High Sierra''
California." (Merriam)
Cascade Red Fox.— Vulpes cascadensis Merriam.
"A short-tailed small-toothed mountain fox of the fulva
group, commonest in the 'black-cross' pelage; when
in red
pelage, yellow instead of fulvous." (Merriam) Upper-
parts straw-yellow, dorsal region golden yellowish;
tail very
pale; black on ears and feet reduced. Total length males
43 inches; tail vertebras, 16.5 inches; hind foot, 7.1'inches'
Found m " Cascade Range in Oregon and Washington and
northern Sierra Nevada in California; northern
limit un-
known." (Merriam)
139
Nova Scotia Red Fox. — Vulpes ruhricosa ruhricosa (Bangs).

"Size rather large; color deepest and darkest of all the red
foxes; tail large, very broad and bushy, and deep fulvous."
(Merriam) Upperparts rich dark fulvous; feet black but
not as extensively so as in fulva. Total length, females,
43 inches; tail vertebrae, i6 inches; hind foot, 6.6 inches.
Found "Nova — unknown." (Merriam)
in
Labrador Red Fox. —Scotia ^limits
Vulpes ruhricosa bangsi Merriam.
"Similar externally to fulva but ears smaller; black of ears
and feetmore restricted." Found "Labrador — limits
in
unknown." (Merriam)
Newfoundland Red Fox. — Vulpes Bangs.
deletrix
"Color very pale— straw yellow, deepening
light places
in
to golden yellow or even buffy fulvous; black of feet re-
stricted; tail pale buffy yellowish with usual admixture of
black hairs, but without black basal spot. Hind feet and
claws very large." (Merriam) Total length, females,
38.4 inches; tail vertebras, 13.5 inches; hind foot, 6.5
inches. Found in Newfoundland.
Alaska Red Fox. — Vulpes alascensis alascensis Merriam.
"A large long-tailed red fox closely related to V. vulpes of
Scandinavia and Siberia, and also to ruhricosa and hangsi
of Nova Scotia and Labrador. Color golden fulvous; tail
very long; ears small black of feet greatly restricted pelage
;
;
of neck and anterior part of back long and full, almost form-
ing a ruff; pelage of posterior part of back and rump shorter
and coarser." —
Found in "Northern Alaska limits un-
known." (Merriam)
British Columbia Red Fox. — Vulpes alascensis abietorum Mer-
riam.
Similar to typical alascensis but differing in longer and more
slender skull. Found in "Interior of British Columbia and
probably southeastern Alaska." (Merriam)
—
Kenia Red Fox. Vulpes kenaiensis Merriam.
vSize large; external characters unknown. Found in "Kenai
Peninsula; limits of range unknown." (Merriam)
—
Kodiak Red Fox. Vulpes harrimani Merriam.
"Size large; tail enormous, constricted at base, largest on
basal fourth and tapering thence to tip pelage coarse, wolf-
;
like on tail and posterior half of back; hairs of neck and

shoulders greatly elongated, forming a conspicuous ruff;
those of posterior half of back abruptly much shorter and
conspicuously grizzled." (Merriam) Upperparts yellow-
ish fulvous, brightest on anterior half of back, grizzled on
head and rump; underparts buffy with grayish buffy on
chin, throat, and inguinal region; ears black. Total length,
males, 52 inches; tail vertebrae, 18 inches. Found on
Kodiak Island, Alaska.
Northern Plains Red Fox. — Vulpes regalis IVIerriam.
"Size largest; ears very large and broad; tail very long but
diameter less than in ruhricosa; sexual difference in size
140
Plate XII
RED FOX
great; color a beautiful golden yellow, becoming almost

buffy- white on face and posterior part of back; legs abruptly
dark fulvous; black of feet very pure but restricted in area."
(Merriam) Total length, males, 45 inches; tail vertebrae,
17 inches; hind foot, 7 inches. Found on " Northern Plains
from Dakota to Alberta; east to Manitoba and Minnesota;
limits unknown." (Merriam)
Velox Group. Kit Foxes

The members of this group are
all small, and while belong-
ing to the same genus as the Red Foxes, they are colored quite
differently. The Kit Foxes are the smallest of the New World
Foxes.
Kit Fox; Swift. —

V^dpes velox velox (Say). Plate XII.
A very small, delicately-built Fox. Upperparts buffy
yellow, lightly frosted with white-tipped hairs and sprinkled
with black-tipped hairs; yellowish brown back of ears and
outer sides of limbs a black spot on side of snout tail above
; ;
buffy gray, below, yellower, tip black, a black spot on upper-

side of tail near base; underparts whitish. Total length,
26 inches tail vertebrae, 9 inches hind foot 4 inches. Found
; ;
in the Great Plains region from New Mexico north into

Saskatchewan, Canada.
Prairie Fox. —
Viilpes velox hebes Merriam.
Larger than typical velox and grayer. Upperparts reddish
gray m summer, dark buffy gray in winter; blackish on tip
of tail and sides of nose. Total length, 34 inches; tail ver-
tebras, 12.5 inches; hind foot, 5.2 inches. Found from
southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Saskatch-
ewan south to Wyoming; east into North Dakota.
Long-eared Kit Fox.— Vulpes macrotis macrotis Merriam.
Color very pale, size small, ears very large. Upperparts
pale grayish buff; chestnut or sepia on tip of tail and small
spot on upperside near base; underparts buffy white, chest
buffy. Total length, 30 inches; tail vertebrae, 11.6 inches;
hmd foot, 4.8 inches. Found in southwestern California,
from Los Angeles County south; Lower Sonoran Zone.
—
San Joaquin Kit Fox. Vulpes macrotis mutica (Merriam).
Larger than typical macrotis, hind foot and tail longer, back
browner. Total length, 38 inches; tail vertebra, 14 inches,
hmd foot, 5 inches. Found in the San Joaquin Valley,
California; Lower Sonoran Zone.
Desert Kit Fox. —
Vulpes macrotis arsipus (Elliot).
Differing from typical macrotis in paler color, smaller size,
and different cranial characters. Upperparts grizzled gray;
mixed pale gray and light brownish on head sides gray with
;
buffy tmge; black patch on sides of nose from eye and on

either side of chin; underparts whitish. Total length, 32.5
141
inches; tail vertebrae, 12.5 inches; hind foot, 5 inches; ear

from notch, 3.4 inches. Found in Cahfomia on Colorado
and Mohave Deserts, west to Palm Springs, Riverside
County, and north into Inyo County; Lower Sonoran Zone.
—
New Mexico Desert Fox. Vulpes macrotis neomexicana
Merriam.
Larger than typical macrotis, with larger skull and heavier
teeth. Total length, 33 inches; tail vertebrae, 12 inches;
hind foot, 5.4 inches. Found in the Lower Sonoran Zone
one of the
*******
in southern Arizona, New Mexico, and southwestern Texas;
The Red Fox needs little introduction to the layman for

common mammals of literature and zoological parks.
it is
From .^sops Fables to the daily press the Fox is frequently

figured or his characteristics referred to in some way. Conse-
quently most of us know the Fox by reputation at least.
Regardless of where it is found or which species it repre-
sents, the Red Fox is easily recognized because of its bright
reddish or fulvous color and its big, bushy tail. The several
color phases. Cross, Silver, or Black Foxes, although quite
different in color from the Red Fox, show all the other typical
Fox characters so clearly that they should be confused with
no others of the Canidas.
Red Foxes prefer areas of diversified topography and en-
vironment. Although they range over the prairies and
forested sections they do not haunt the heavy, continuous
stands of unbroken timber nor do they live on open, brush-
less plains. Cover of some sort and suitable hunting grounds
are part of this animal's preferred environment. The indi-
vidual Fox does not seem to travel over a very extensive
range, and throughout the year usually does not cover an area
of more than five to ten miles across.
Red Foxes move about during
are most active at night but
the day as well and be encountered at any hour. They
may
are alert, wary, and have keen eyes, ears, and noses. The
track of a Red Fox is very much like that of a small Dog.
These mammals dig burrows into banks or hillsides or ha^•e
dens in old hollow logs or stumps. The young are born in
March or April and number from four to nine. Both parents
share in the care of the family and are very solicitous of the
young.
The Kit Fox is much smaller than the Red Fox and is a
142
GRAY FOX
plains or prairie dweller, spending rather

more of its time in
burrows and cunning than its red relative. Its general
is less
habits are somewhat modified from those of the

Red Fox be-
cause it is an open country animal, but the
details of its
family life are about the same.
The fur of the Red Fox and its color phases. Cross, Silver,
and Black, is very valuable and one of the favorites of
the fur
trade. Prime Silver or Black Foxes fetch very high prices
and
are successfully reared on fox farms or ranches.
The pelt of
the Kit Fox is not so valuable and does not
command a very
good figure.
Foxes have several calls, the commonest a short
yapping
bark, given by Seton as "yap-yurr," a long
yell, and a shrill
squall uttered by the female in the mating
season.
Genus Urocyon
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars, =
;
f Molars, f ;
42.
Gray Fox.— Urocyon cinereoargenteus

and related forms
Names.— Gray Fox; Colishe; Tree Pox. Plate XIII.
General Description.— Typically fox-like in
appearance-
muzzle fairly long; ears erect; tail long, bushy,
and with a
:ÎG. 34. Tail of Gray Fox, with hair parted to show con-
cealed mane of stiffhairs
»ncealed mane of stiff hairs; soles of feet furry; pupil of

eye
dliptical.
Color.— Sexes colored alike and color pattern
not varying
Quch with season, variation consisting chiefly in
longer pelage
a wmter and slightly brighter shades in fresh pelage.
143
Upperparts.— Grizzled gray and black, pepper-and-salt,

lighteron sides, marked with reddish brown about ears, sides
of neck, sides of forelegs and "ankles"; muzzle blackish,
tail
heavily marked with black; cheek and inside of ear clear

white.
Underparts. —White with tawny along lower sides and tail;
blackish on chin.
Measurements.— Females approximately same size as
males. Total length, about 40 inches; tail vertebrae, 12

inches; hind foot, 5 inches; weight about 8 pounds.
Geographical Distribution.— United States from region of
Great Lakes east to Atlantic seaboard, south to Texas; in
western states along Pacific coast to Washington and north
Wyoming.
in interior to
Food.— Small mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, fruit, berries,
acorns, mushrooms; practically omnivorous.

—
Enemies. Not much has been recorded on this point, but
Tjossibly occasionally caught by Lynx in the northern part of
i::s range, and young Foxes
caught by Eagles, Great Horned
Owls, Coyotes, Wolves, etc.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Urocyon
Eastern Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargen-

/gz^5 (Schreber).
As described. Found in eastern United States from Vir-
ginia north into New England and west to the Great Lakes
region, south to meet the range oi floridanus ; limits of range
unknown.
—
Northern Gray Fox. Urocyon cinereoargenteus boreahs
Merriam. . .
Described as considerably larger than typical cinereoargen-

teus, with different skull and tooth characters.
Taken near
Monadnock, New Hampshire; limits of range unrecorded.
Florida Gray Fox. —Urocyon cinereoargenteus floridanus
Rhoads. .
, -
, ,
Smaller than typical cinereoargenteus, with harsher pelage

and shorter ears, tail, and hind foot; underparts fulvous.
Total length, 36 inches; tail vertebrae, 10.5 inches; hmd
foot 5 inches. Found from Florida west to eastern
Texas.
Wisconsin Gray Fox.— Urocyon cinereoargenteus ocythous
Larger than typical cinereoargenteus, with longer tail and

hind foot; general coloration not so gray, more yellowish.
Total length, 41 inches; tail vertebrae, i5-5 mches; hmd
144
Plate XIII
Arctic Fox
wlater
Arctic Fox
summer
Blue Fox
Gr^ Fox
GRAY FOX
foot,5.5 inches. Found in the upper Mississippi Valley

from Wisconsin south; limits of range unknown.
Arizona Gray Fox. —
Urocyon cinereoargenteus scotti (Meams).
Ears and tail longer than in typical cinereoargenteus, form
more slender, color grayer and with more yellowish fulvous.
Total length, 39 inches; tail vertebra?, 16 inches; hind foot,
5.3 inches. Found from the western half of Texas and
western New Mexico west through Arizona and southern
California, north as far as Inyo County.
Urocyon cinereoargenteus texensis Mearns = U. c. scotti
Urocyon cinereoargenteus inyoensis Elliot = U. c. scotti
^
California Gray Fox. —

Urocyon cinereoargenteus califamicus
Mearns.
Smaller than typical cinereoargenteus, ears and tail rela-
tively longer. Upperparts grizzled gray mixed with black
and general pattern very much as in cinereoargenteus. Total
length, 38 inches; tail vertebrae, 15 inches; hind foot,
5.2
mches. Found in central and southern California in Upper
Sonoran and Transition Zones, exclusive of humid coast
belt and eastern desert tracts.
Redwood Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargeîteus sequoiensis
(Dixon).
With more rufous on sides of head, neck, belly, and feet
than m californicus. Total length, 39 inches; tail verte-
brae, 16 mches; hind foot, 5.4 inches. Found in the humid
coast belt of California from Lake County south to Mon-
terey Bay.
Townsend —
Gray Fox. Urocyon cinereoargenteus townsendi
(Merriam).
Large in size; ears smaller than in californicus and with more
mtense fulvous tints, but not so intense as in sequoiensis.
5.8 mches. Found in northern California from the Mount
Shasta region to the interior of Humboldt County, in Upper
Sonoran and Transition Zones.
San Miguel Island ¥ox.— Urocyon littoralis littoralis (Baird).
Resemblmg californicus in color pattern but much smaller
m size. Total length, 29 inches; tail vertebrce, 10 inches-
hmd foot, 4.4 inches; weight about 4.5 pounds. Found
only on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara group, Cali-
fornia.
Santa Cruz Island 'Box.— Urocyon littoralis santacruzce
Merriam.
Brighter in color than typical littoralis and with different
skull characters. Total length, 28 inches; tail vertebra
10.5 inches; hind foot, 4.3 inches. Found only on Santa
Cruz Island, Santa Barbara group, California.
San Clemente Island Fox.~ Urocyon clementcB Merriam
Differing from littoralis in smaller skull, more
tapering
nasals and slender rostrum. Found only on San
Clemente
island, Santa Barbara group, California.
145
—
Santa Catalina Island Fox.- Urocyon catalincB Merriam.
Tail longer than in littoralis and with different skull charac-
ters. Total length, 30 inches; tail vertebrae, 11.4 inches;
hind foot, 4.5 inches; ear from crown, 2.5 inches. Found
from
*******
only on Santa Catalina Island, Santa Barbara group,
California,
The Gray Fox

color, but is
looks very
a trifle
much like his
Although the
longer in the leg.
red relative, aside
ranges of the Gray and Red Foxes overlap, the Gray Foxes
are more abundant in the warmer parts of North America and
even are found on deserts, while the Red Foxes show more
preference for the cool regions. The Gray Fox often climbs
up into low trees, another point in which he differs from the
Red Fox,
The Gray Fox is found in various types of environment.
In the eastern part of the United States and in parts of the
West it isa forest-dwelling mammal, but in the Southwest it
lives on the arid, open plains where it finds sufficient cover
in the cactus and other desert vegetation. It is also found in
brushy areas where thickets of low shrubbery afford hunting
and hiding places. In favorable localities in the West it
occurs in considerable numbers and is a common animal. It
is chiefly nocturnal, but may hunt by day occasionally.
The Gray Fox does not possess the cunning of the Red
Fox and not only is easier to trap but is far less suspicious of
man and easier to observe. He will not run before hounds as
vvêll as the Red Fox and "trees" when close pressed or may
seek refuge in some underground burrow. If the Dogs are

slow the Gray Fox has little difficulty in losing them in rough
and broken country. This Fox is said to have a series of
dens, which are caves, fissures in cliffs, or hollow trees.
Sometimes it digs its own burrows in the ground. These
dens are used as refuges from enemies or as places to await
the passing of severe winter weather. In the home den the
mother Fox raises a litter of three to five young which are
bom from March to April. After the young are old enough
to eat solid food the male Fox assists in bringing food to the den.
The fur of the Gray Fox does not take high rank in the fur
trade and is much inferior to that of the Red Fox,
The calls of the Gray Fox, barks or yaps, resemble those of
the Red Fox, but are a trifle coarser in timbre.
146
ARCTIC FOX
Genus Alopex
;
{ ; Premolars, | ; Molars, f =42.
Arctic Fox. —Alopex lagopus

and related forms
Names.—Arctic Fox; White Fox; Blue Fox; Polar Fox.
—
General Description. A small Fox having rather short ears,
soles of feet heavily furred, and muzzle proportionally shorter
than in Vulpes; pelage very thick and long, color varying with
the season; tail bushy. Plate XIII.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; a marked change with the
seasons.
Summer. —Upperparts dark brown to slate color, with
whitish to yellowish white on underparts, sides of neck, and
flanks.
Winter. —Everywhere clear white.
Blue phase. — color phase which
Â bears about the same
relation to the normal pattern as does the Black or Silver
phase of the Red Fox to its more common pelage. Every-
where dark, smoky gray or bluish drab, sometimes with wash
of sepia on head and feet and with a few white hairs sprinkled
on throat and face. The "blue" animals do not turn white in
winter.
Immature like adults in summer pelage.
—
Measurements. Females very slightly smaller than males.
4.5 inches; weight averaging around 10 pounds but varying
from 5 to 20.
Geographical Distribution. —Arctic regions of Northern
Hemisphere.
Food.— Small mammals, birds, eggs, fish,' carrion, sea-
urchins, etc.
Enemies. —Wolves, Polar Bears, and possibly (when young)
Snowy Owls.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Alopex.
Since there is such great similarity in color among

the
various forms of the Arctic Fox, the bases for separation
are
principally skull characters or differences in size.
147
Arctic Fox. —
Alopex lagopus lagopus (Linnaeus). Plate XIII.
As described. Restricted to Arctic regions of Europe and
Asia, but said to reach Bering Island in Bering Sea.
—
Labrador Arctic Fox. Alopex lagopus ungava (Merriam),
Distinguished from typical lagopus by differences in skull
characters. Taken at Fort Chimo, Ungava, Canada, and
south almost to 50°, thence ranging north to the Arctic
Ocean and west to meet the range of innuitus.
—
Continental Arctic Fox. Alopex lagopus innuitus (Merriam).
Slightly smaller than ungava and with broader braincase
than in typical lagoptis. Found in Arctic Alaska.
—
Greenland Arctic Fox. Alopex grwnlandicus (Bechstein).
There is some doubt as to the validity of this name for the
Greenland Fox. The original description has not been
available to me, Greenland specimens in the American
Museum are very similar to ungava.
Pribilof Fox. —
Alopex pribilofensis (Merriam).
"Largest of the lagopus group. Skull much elongated, re-
sembling that of a Red Fox more than that of the Arctic
Foxes;" (Merriam). Blue phase predominating. Found
on St. George Island and St. Paul Island, Pribilof group,
Alaska.
—
Hall Island Fox. Alopex hallensis (Merriam).
Smaller than lagopus and with shorter, broader skull.
Found on Hall Island, Bering Sea, Alaska.
—
Bering Island Fox. Alopex heringensis (Merriam).
The
*******
Nearly equal to pribilofensis in size, with skull larger than
in typical lagopus.
Islands, Alaska.
Arctic Fox, as
and
Found on Bering Island, Aleutian
its name imphes, is a Fox of the northern
range it goes as far north as any mammal,

in its
wastes,
being truly circumpolar in its distribution. It comes south
until it meets the northern tree limit and its chosen home is
the area of tundras and open, treeless lands where the winters
are long and bleak and the summers short. The assumption
of a white winter pelage is one of the adaptations with which
this Fox meets the Arctic environment.
The Arctic Fox spends the short summer along the coast
or on the open plains or rocky hillsides where bird life or small
mammals are abundant. In winter it goes out on the ice and
picks up a living on the food the sea affords. During the year
the Fox may move a considerable distance to take advantage
of the best feeding grounds and also as a response to over-
crowding as the families of young grow up at the close of the
summer. Arctic explorers report a regular migration on the
part of these Foxes.
148
COYOTE
When the Arctic Fox goes out on the ice in winter it follows
the Polar Bear and after this big hunter has fed on a Seal it
feasts on what is left. This Fox does not hibernate and
because of the difficulty of finding food the year around has
developed the habit of storing such food as can not be eaten at
once. Large numbers of Lemmings are killed and piled up in
crevices in the rocks and other food supplies are hoarded
against a day of want. The Arctic Fox will eat almost any-
thing in the way of animal life, killing what it can itself, but
taking what it finds killed for it. It is cannibalistic and does
not hesitate to eat one of its own kind that is caught in a trap
or disabled.
In disposition the White Fox is much more confiding and
friendly than its more southerly relatives. It has a weak, dog-
like bark or yelp and is not afraid to utter it when man
appears.
On the Pribilof Islands these Foxes are said to be very tame
and to approach closely to parties which visit their home
territory. This animal largely nocturnal, but in a region
is
where the normal relation of day to night runs such a wide

range, it must be active to some extent by day as well.
It is a
very easy animal to trap and since the fur is deep and soft,
it is taken in considerable numbers. The Blue Fox is es-
pecially valuable and prime skins have brought prices of $ioo
to $200 apiece in boom years. On some of the islands in
Bering Sea these Foxes are reared for the fur market.
The young are generally born in June, the full season
ranging from May to July, and number from one to eleven,
with four or five as the average. The home den is located
amongst the rocks or in burrows in sandy places.
Genus Canis^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, |; Premolars, Molars, f =42.
;
| ;
Coyote. — Canis latrans

and related forms
Names.— Coyote; Prairie Wolf. Plate XIV.
General Description.—A small, slender Wolf (total length
about 42 to 48 inches) resembling a Shepherd Dog in many
^ The Coyotes have been revised by C. H., Merriam, Proceedings
of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. xi, pp. 19-33, 1897, but the
much more abundant material on hand today would justify new revision.
149
external characters; pelage fairly long and heavy, especially so
•n winter; tail large and bushy; easily identified by yapping

howl.
Color.—Sexes colored very much alike; some seasonal
variation.
Upperparts. — Coarsely grizzled buffy, grayish, and black;
yellowish on muzzle, ears, and outer sides of legs; grizzled gray
on top of head; tail above like back, below whitish near base,
then pale yellowish, tip black.
—
Underparts. Whitish, throat with some black hairs.
Immature pelage duller and grayer than adult.
—
Measurements. Males noticeably larger than females.
Total length, females, 49 inches; tail vertebrae, 16 inches; hind
weight of males, 35-40 pounds.
foot, 7.2 inches;
—
Geographical Distribution. Western North America.
Food.— Small mammals, birds, Hzards, snakes, insects,
fruit, carrion.
—
Enemies. Speed and wariness ordinarily save the Coyote
from the large carnivores which would prey on it if they could.
The Gray Wolf, Golden Eagle, and Great Horned Owl catch
young Coyotes.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Canis
Subgenus Thos
This subgenus contains the small Prairie Wolves or Coyotes.

"The pattern of coloration is the same in all the Coyotes.
Except in the pale desert forms {pallidus and estor), in which
the fulvous tints are replaced by buff, the muzzle, backs of
the ears, outerside (sometimes the whole) of the fore and
hind feet and legs, and distal half of the underside of the
tail are some shade of fulvous. The ground color of the back
forms,
also varies from buff, or even buffy-white in the desert
to dull fulvous in the animal from southern Mexico,
and the
abundance of black-tipped hairs is usually proportionate to
the intensity of the ground color. The upperside of the
tail
is likethe back, and about one-third the distance from root

to tip it is marked by an elongated black spot.
The tip^ is
always black, although it sometimes contains a tuft of white
hairs, most often present in C. ochropus. The males are de-
cidedly larger than the females." (Merriam)
150
COYOTE
Northern Coyote; Brush Wolf; Say Coyote. — Cams latrans

Say.
As described above; the largest of the Coyotes. Found on
"Humid prairies and bordering woodlands of the northern
Mississippi Valley, in Iowa and Minnesota, and northern
edge of plains westward to the base of the Rocky Moun-
tains in the Province of Alberta." (Miller)
—
Nebraska Coyote; Prairie Coyote; Prairie Wolf. Canis ne-
hracensis nehracensis Merriam [=pallidus].
Resembling latrans but smaller and paler; buffy back of
ears instead of fulvous; no black-tipped hairs in "collar"
as in latrans. Total length, 48 inches; tail vertebrae, 15
inches; hind foot, 8.2 inches. Found on "Arid plains from
eastern Colorado to Montana and Assiniboia." (Miller).
—
Texas Coyote. Canis nebracensis texensis Bailey.
Upperparts mixed buffy ochraceous and black; muzzle rusty
reddish; top of head grizzled yellowish and gray; pale yel-
lowish on nape, ears, and crown; underparts whitish, suf-
fused with deep buffy on belly; long hairs of throat black-
tipped; legs and feet yellowish, with mixture of black on
external face; tail tipped with black. Total length, males,
46 inches; tail vertebras, 14 inches; hind foot, 7.4 inches.
Found in "Gulf region of Texas from Nueces Bay north-
ward; probably throughout the lower Sonoran area of
Texas, Oklahoma, and Indian Territory." (Miller)
—
Great Basin Coyote. Canis lestes Merriam.
"Size large (next to latrans); ears and tail large; coloration
almost as in latrans.'^ Differing in cranial characters.
Upperparts slightly paler than in latrans, "grayish buffy
mixed with black hairs." (Merriam) Total length, males
45 inches; tail vertebrae, 13 inches; hind foot, 8 inches.
Found in "Transition Zone from the dry interior of south-
ern British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon southward
over the higher lands of the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada,
and the Rocky Mountains to the plateau of northern
Arizona, and thence along the continental divide to the
Mexican boundary."
Small-toothed Coyote. — (Miller)
Canis microdon Merriam.
"Size small; coloration rather dark; upper surface of hind
foot whitish; belly sprinkled with black-tipped hairs; car-
nassial and molar teeth very small." (Merriam) Total
length, males, 43 inches; tail vertebrae, 13 inches; hind
foot, 7.4 inches; weight, 28 pounds. Found in "Arid
tropical or Tamaulipan region of northeastern Mexico
and the lower Rio Grande region of Texas. (Miller)
'
—
Mearns Coyote. Canis mearnsi Merriam.
'
"Size small; ears medium; coloration rich and bright, the

fulvous tints exceedingly bright and covering the whole of
the fore and hind legs and feet. Skull and teeth small."
(Merriam) Total length, females, 44 inches; tail verte-
brae, 13 inches; hind foot, 7.2 inches. Found in "Lower
151
Sonoran areas of northern Sonora and southern Arizona."

(Miller)
Desert Coyote. — Canis estor Merriam.
Size small; coloration pale; teeth small, Upperparts buffy,
with light sprinkling of black hairs; pale yellowish on muz-
zle; ochraceous buff on nape and ears; legs bright, deep
buff; underparts whitish, long hairs of throat black-tipped;
underside of tail ochraceous, black tip short. Total length,
males, 42 inches; tail vertebras, 12 inches; hind foot, 7.2
inches. Found in "Lower Sonoran deserts of eastern Cali-
fornia, Nevada, and Utah." (Miller)
—
San Joaquin Valley Coyote. Canis ochropus Eschscholtz.
"Externally similar to C. latrans and testes, but smaller,
darker, and much more highly colored, with very much
larger ears, and very much smaller skull and teeth."
(Merriam) Upperparts buffy ochraceous, sprinkled with
black; tawny ochraceous on ears, legs, and underside of
tail; muzzle grayish cinnamon; underparts whitish, with
some buffy tinge; long hairs of throat and breast more or
less tipped with black. Total length, males, 45 inches;
tail vertebrae, 12 inches; hind foot, 7.2 inches. Found in
"Lower Sonoran region of San Joaquin Valley, California."
(Miller)
* * * * * * *
The voice of the Coyote is one most characteristic

of the
and distinctive mammal calls heard on the North American
continent. Singly, or in twos or threes, these small Wolves
"tune up" at sunrise or sunset and send a chorus of long
howls and yapping barks on the still air. The Coyote fre-
quently howls during the night and sometimes in broad day-
light, but since he is a cautious beast, he is not so apt to adver-
tise his presence after the sun is high. There is an indescrib-
able quality in the howling of the Coyote which, to me, sets it
apart from the obnoxious disturbance of a night-howling Dog
and makes it a true voice of the wilderness.
It is granted that the stockman, the rancher, and the farmer
may call down curses on the head of the Coyote. To many,
however, who have heard this ecstatic little Prairie Wolf
greet their camp-fire from out of the dusk, or have arisen at
break of dawn and heard his frenzied hymn to the sun, a
West without the Coyote seems colorless and flat.
In settled districts the Coyote may become troublesome,
for he catches poultry and kills sheep. Furthermore, he
quickly learns to avoid ordinary traps and the devices of the
average hunter. Instead of retreating before the forces
152
Plate XIV
.^-
Coyote
I'M GrayWolf
I:
WOLF
of human occupation, he may merely change his habits and

mode of Hfe and remain, in spite of conditions which drive out
the less adaptive mammals. Under these circumstances the
Coyote will be seldom seen, skulking under cover in the day-
time and coming out at night. In wilder areas where he has
not been so impressed with the necessity of avoiding man, this
little Wolf may be seen trotting through the sagebrush or
watching from some slight eminence.

The Coyote bears enough resemblance to a tawny Shepherd
Dog to be easily mistaken for one at a little distance. He
can run much faster than the ordinary Dog, however, and only
the specialized strains of running Dogs can hope to overtake a
Coyote in fair chase. And once caught, he is more than a
match for any Dog which is near his own size or weight.
In various parts of the West individual Coyotes have
apparently contracted rabies and then has followed a season
of "Coyote scare." As might be expected, such animals
behave abnormally, show no fear of man, enter ranch en-
closures, and become dangerous. Normally the Coyote is
absolutely harmless, fleeing at the first suspicion of danger, and
much less to be feared than the average stray Dog.
Coyotes are prolific and have about five to seven young in a
litter. The number may vary from three to ten. The den
is generally a hole in a bank or a hole back- in the rocks, and
the young are born early in April. Only one family is raised in
a season.
Subgenus Canis. Wolves
The true Wolves of North America are all closely related
and there are no sharp dividing lines to be drawn between
them. Many names have been used and there is a great need
for a revision of the Wolves. They should probably all stand
as subspecies of mexicanus, the earliest-named North Ameri-
can Wolf.
Gray Wolf; Timber Wolf; Lobo; Loafer; Buffalo Wolf.—

Canis nubilus Say, and related species. Plate XIV.
Displaying all the characters of the genus Canis as shown in
the Coyotes, but much larger, heavier, and more powerful.
Color. —
The same in both sexes and not varying much with
the seasons, although varying much with the individual.
Usual color pattern gray sprinkled with black or dusky on
153
upperparts; muzzle with light wash of brownish; legs and

underparts yellowish white; soles of feet brownish. Indi-
viduals may be rusty red instead of grayish. Immature with
blackish on muzzle, ears, and tail, but soon taking on gray of
adult pelage.
males, 64 inches, females, 56 inches; tail vertebree, males, 16
Timber Wolf
inches, females, 12 inches; hind foot, males, 10 inches,
females, 10 inches; weight, males, 75-100 pounds average, to
150 for exceptional cases; females, 60-80 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. All of temperate and Arctic
North America except for a small area in the Southwest
(California, Nevada, and parts of Oregon, Utah, and Arizona).
Exterminated today over part of this range.
—
Food. Carnivorous by preference, feeding on Deer,
Moose, Caribou, Pronghorn, domestic stock. Jack Rabbits,
Prairie-dogs, and all of the smaller mammals and birds it can
catch; carrion; fish; rarely food of a vegetable nature.
Enemies. —Comparatively none when adult; when young,
Eagles.
Species of the Subgenus Canis
Gray Wolf; Timber WoU.— Cams nuhilus Say. Plate XIV.
As described. Limits of range unknown, but found on the
Great Plains of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, the
Dakotas, and east to the Great Lakes.
154
WOLF
—
Northern Gray Wolf. Canis occidentalis (Richardson).
A very large Wolf which is normally gray in color, but
varies and may be dark bluish gray or almost black. Found
in Mackenzie and the northwestern parts of forested Canada.
—
Eastern Timber Wolf. Caîis lycaon Schreber.
Reddish brown in color, with black- tipped hairs on back,
i'ound in eastern Canada and the northeastern United
States; limits of range unknown.
Florida Wolf. —Canis floridamis Miller.
Resembling lycaon in general cranial characters; light buffy
gray mixed with black on upperparts; rusty red tinge on
muzzle, legs and feet; also occurs as a black phase. Found
in Florida.
—
Mt. McKinley Timber Wolf. Canis pamhasileus Elliot.
Variable in color from nearly uniform black to various mix-
tures of grizzled white and black; size very large. Found
in the region of Mt. McKinley, Alaska; limits of range un-
known.
—
Texan Red Wolf. Canis rufus (Audubon and Bachman).
Smaller than the Gray Wolves; reddish brown in color with
mixture of black; tail with black tip and much black on
upper surface. Total length, 48 inches; tail vertebrae, 13
inches. Found throughout southern Texas, north at least
to 30°; limits of range unknown.
—
Oklahoma Wolf. Canis frustror Woodhouse.
A small Wolf most like rufus but not so red in color. Found
in Oklahoma; limits of range unknown.
—
Puget Sound Wolf. Canis gigas (Townsend).
A large, red Wolf. Upperparts reddish brown heavily
sprinkled with black underparts grayish tail comparatively
; ;
short and tipped with black. Found in the Puget Sound

Region; south to California (?).
White Wolf; Tundra Wolf. —
Canis tundrarum Miller.
A large, white Wolf.General color light yellowish white
with faint sprinkling of dusky on back and tail; brownish
on muzzle. Individuals may vary to almost black. Total
length, males, 66.5 inches; tail vertebras, 18.5 inches; hind
foot, 11.75 inches; height at shoulder, 28 inches, weight,
90-100 pounds. Found on the Barren Grounds and tundras
_
of Arctic America.
The Wolf has been so hunted and trapped by man that there
are very few places in North America today where it can be
readily observed. Although in the West there are regions

where this mammal is yet to be found in fair numbers, the
attempts to exterminate the Wolf have made him a very wary
creature and he knows well how to keep out of sight. In the
far North the big Arctic Wolves are probably as numerous
155
and as bold as they have ever been, for there the conditions
are different.
The presence of Wolves will be oftenest noted by their
big, dog-like tracks, occasionallyby the deep, sinister howl,
and possibly by the discovery of the kills they have made.
The Wolf is strong enough to prey upon the largest of the non-
carnivores and in some places is very destructive to domestic
stock. With the settlement of a district, the establishment of
farms and ranches, and the disappearance of the game
animals, the Wolf departs as well. He has no place in the
modern scheme and is being poisoned, trapped, and shot
throughout the western states. In most of the eastern states
the Wolf has been exterminated or is very scarce; in the
Adirondacks the last Wolf was killed in 1893, in Pennsylvania
in 1907, and in New Jersey they were all killed early in the
nineteenth century.
The hunting range of an individual Wolf is usually very
extensive. The animal is capable of traveling far and swiftly,

and it follows the larger mammals which it prefers as prey.
The Wolf frequents the plains, the broken country where
plateaus are intersected by canyons and ravines, and the
forests. It is able to adapt itself to a variety of environ-
ments, but needs either dense, inaccessible cover or a wide
expanse of territory where its speed will serve it in place of
adequate cover.
The Wolf makes its den in a cave, a hollow log, or in a hole
in the ground. The location is generally selected near a rise
of ground from which one of the Wolves can stand guard.
The young vary in number from three to thirteen, with six or
seven as the average. The young are born from early March
to the middle of April. The old Wolves are devoted parents
and the male helps the female to feed and rear the young.
When born the pups are blind and the eyes are not fully
opened until the ninth day.
Wolves hunt together, usually in small packs. These
packs may be the individuals of one family or, in winter,
several families may be represented, and at this time the packs
are larger; at other seasons large packs are unusual.
Seton gives several calls for the Wolf. The commonest
is the "long smooth howl" very much like the howl of a large
Dog but decidedly eerie, nevertheless. Another howl is on a

156
i
COUGAR
higher pitch, vibrating on two notes. A third cry is a com-

bination of a short bark and howl and is given when the Wolf
is in full cry on a hot scent.
Family Felidae. Cats

Carnivorous mammals of medium to large size;
form muscu-
lar and trim; head rounded; limbs of moderate length; feet
digitigrade, toes five in front, four behind;
claws long, sharp,
retractile; tail short to long; dentition of
shearing
type with-
out broad, crushing surfaces; carnassial teeth
highly devel-
oped; tongue with upper surface rasp-like; habit
terrestrial
but able to climb trees; pelage fairly sôrt to moderately
long.
Genus Felis
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, {; Premolars, = 30.
;
f Molars, ;
J-
Cougar, —Felis couguar'

and related forms
Names.— Cougar; Puma; Mountain Lion; Panther; Painter.
General Description.— Largest of the New World
unspotted
Cats; head proportionally rather small; body long
and lithe;
tail long and cylindrical; five toes on forefeet,
four on hind
feet, each with a long, sharp, retractile
claw; gait digitigrade;
ears well developed, not tufted; pelage soft
and rather short;'
color brownish. Plate XV.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation.
Upperparts dull yellowish brown or tawny; ears blackish
posteriorly and light-colored internally; taiflike back, dark
brown at tip; underparts paler than upperparts.
Immature yellowish brown spotted with blackish.
Measurements.— Males larger than females. Males, total
length, about 96 inches; tail vertebras, about
24-30 inches,
hind foot, 10 inches; weight, about 150 pounds.
Females
about 12 inches shorter in total length.
Geographical Distribution.— Formerly found over
prac-
tically all of North America as far north as the Great Lakes,
^ For a preliminary revision of the Pumas see C.
H., Merriam Proc
Wask. Acad. Sci., Vol. iii, pp. 577-600, 1901. This
group has not been
adequately revised, and the geographic ranges
given in this field book
are provisional.
Maine, and southern Alberta; now extinct in much of this

range.
—
Food. Chiefly the larger mammals when they can be
found, such as Deer, Wapiti, Mountain Sheep, Antelope, and
Fig. 36. Cougar
domestic stock, but preying upon almost all of the smaller
mammals, birds, and even, it is said, grasshoppers.

Enemies. — Practically none when mature.
Species and Subspecies of Cougars.
The classification of the Cougars is in a condition far from

satisfactory. Many names are in more or less current usage
and very likely that when these big Cats are revised upon
it is
the basis of large series of specimens, it will be found

that all of
the North American Cougars are races of the one

species.
Adirondack CougSiT. —Felis couguar Kerr. ^ ^ ^
As described above. Found in "Adirondack Mountams,

,
Mountains, Vermont, and until recently

New York Green
West
higher Alleghenies of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia, where a few may still occur."
(Merriam)
Florida Cougar. —
Felis coryi Bangs. . -ul •
j
Upperparts rich^
Size large; head large; legs and feet long.
yellower on sides; black on ears and spot at base ot
rusty,
158
COUGAR
whiskers; tail dark brown, a dark streak along mid-line

above, tip black; underparts buffy. Total length, 82
inches; tail vertebra), 30 inches; hind foot, 11.2 inches.
Found in Florida.
Louisiana Cougar. — Felis arundivaga Hollister.
Resembling coryi but not so reddish in color. Upperparts
grayish fawn in color, sprinkled with dusky, with a pale,
indefinite rufous stripe from nape to rump blackish on face
;
from crown to nose and on side of nose; ears blackish out-

side, whitish inside; pure white on lips and throat and
creamy white on breast; grayish on insides of legs; tail
much darker than back, with short black tip. Total
length, 84 inches; tail vertebras, 29 inches. Found in
Louisiana (Concordia Parish and Morehouse Parish);
—
Northwestern Cougar. Felis oregonensis oregonensis Ra-
finesque.
Upperparts reddish brown varying to grayish tawny, face,
back, and tail darker; ears black on convex side; white to
whitish on lips, chin, and belly; tip of tail blackish. Total
length, 85 inches; tail vertebras, 28 inches; hind foot, 10
inches. Found in Pacific coast region from Northern
California north to British Columbia.
—
Rocky Mountain Cougar. Felis oregonensis hippolestes
(Merriam).
Largest of the North American Cougars; color dull, pale
yellowish brown; tip of tail black; whitish on chin, lips,
throat, breast, and inner sides of legs. Total length, males,
102 inches; tail vertebrcC, 36 inches; hind foot, 10.6 inches;
weight up to 220 pounds. Found from North Dakota,
Montana, and Idaho south through Colorado and Utah to
New Mexico; reported from as far north as the Athabaska
River, Alberta.
California Cougar. —Felis oregonensis californica (May).
Differing from typical oregonensis in slightly paler color and
more restricted dark markings, as well as in cranial charac-
ters. Total length, 78 inches; tail vertebras, 30 inches; hind
foot, II inches. Found in California, throughout most of
the state, east to the desert areas and the Great Basin dis-
trict limits of range unknown.
;
—
Mexican Cougar. Felis oregonensis azteca (Merriam).
Smaller than hippolestes and colored like it, dull fulvous,
"but tail darker, browner, with longer black tip and no
white underneath . . . ears almost wholly black."
;
(Merriam) Total length, 90 inches; tail vertebras, 29

inches; hind foot, 11 inches. Ranges from Mexico up into
western Texas; limits of range unknown.
—
Yuma Cougar. Felis oregonensis browni (Merriam).
Paler and grayer than typical oregoneîsis; smaller than
hippolestes. Total length, 88 inches; tail vertebree, 28
159
*******
inches; weight, 170 pounds.
The Cougar or
Found along the lower Colo-
rado River, Arizona, limits of range unknown.
Puma is one of the most

Men have
difficult of wild
mammals to see under normal circumstances.
spent years in regions where the tracks of these Cats showed
the animals to be fairly common and yet have not seen the
beast itself. The Cougar has been given rather a fearsome
reputation in and as the "Catamount" or
literature,
"Painter" has figured in more than one thrilling tale. In
eastern North America especially, it seems to have been a
greatly feared animal; in the West the ranchers and settlers
have regarded it very much the same way as they have the
Wolves and Bears, that is, as harmless unless cornered.
The Mountain Lion is capable of killing an unarmed person
without risk to itself, but is normally very much afraid of
man and anxious to avoid him. When wounded, defending
young, or driven to bay, this mammal must be respected, and
there are authentic cases of unprovoked, fatal attacks upon
children, but they are very rare.
The Cougar is a widely distributed mammal and prefers
country where there is plenty of cover such as patches of
forest, thickets of brush, or the broken topography of canyons
and ravines. It hunts Deer by preference and where the
larger mammals are wanting the Cougar is absent. It is a
wide-ranging hunter and individuals may cover an area in a

radius of thirty to fifty miles from the home den. The Cougar
is a highly specialized killer and preys upon most of the
mammals about him, aside from Porcupine, Skunk, and the
large carnivores. He is especially destructive to the Deer
and kills numbers of White-tail Deer, Mule Deer, and Wapiti.
He has a habit of covering a kill with brush and returning
to for a second or third meal.
it He probably is most active
after sundown, but sometimes moves about during the day as
well.
The Cougar has many of the attributes of the small House-
cat and, like it, is said to be exceedingly playful. The scream
of the Cougar is a long, drawn-out cry, weird and startling, well
calculated to raise the hair of the timid. The observations

of many naturalists indicate that this animal has a variety
of screams, cater- waulings, and yells, some of which are terrific.
160
Plate XV
^%^
m^^.
Couda:
u*usû.a,i
JAGUAR
The Cougar is active throughout the year and does not den
up in the winter. The home den is usually in a cave or
if these are not available, it may be in
fissure in the rocks, but,
dense vegetation. The young are usually two in a litter,
but the number varies from one to five. They are generally
born in late winter or early spring, but may be born in any
month of the year.
Jaguar. —Felis hernandesii (Gray)

Names. —Jaguar; Tiger; American Leopard. Plate XV.
General Description. — Largest of the North American
Felidas; color pattern spotted. Head and body much heavier
and stronger than in the Cougar; limbs comparatively short
and powerful; tail of moderate length, thick.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; individual variation very great.
General pattern of upperparts a ground color of rich buffy
yellow or tawny marked with black spots or rosettes; under-
parts whitish spotted with black; spots of varying sizes and
in some and legs, they fuse to form
places, the back, chest,
short bars; rosettes along back and sides formed of rings
which generally enclose one or more small spots; tail heavily
marked with black, especially near tip.
—
Measurements. Males larger than females. Males, total
length, 79 inches; tail vertebras, 21 inches; hind foot, 10 inches;
height at shoulder, 28 inches; weight about 200 pounds.
Geographical Distribution. —Found only in extreme south-
ern and southwestern states, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Food.— Large and small mammals. Deer, Peccary, domestic
*******
stock, wild Turkeys,
Enemies. — None.
and smaller game as
Only the one variety of Jaguar

encountered.
it is
is found north of the Rio
Grande. To the south this big, spotted Cat has a continuous

range to almost the southern end of South America.
The Jaguar is so like the Old World Leopard in general
appearance that it is difficult to distinguish between skins
of the two animals. The presence of black spots inside the
rosettes usually marks the Jaguar, which is also a more power-
ful beast, more heavily built, than the Leopard, and has a
shorter tail. The Jaguar which reaches the United States is
161
smaller than most of the southern Jaguars and much smaller

than the big Jaguar of southern Brazil.
The Jaguar is a formidable beast of prey, quite capable of
carrying off a man, although the northern variety does not
seem to be aggressive and the only records of attack upon man
show provocation. Like most of the Cat family, this animal
is secretive and wary in habits and is seldom seen. It travels
long distances in search of prey and the fact that it has been
reported as far north as central California and Colorado would
indicate that it may roam far from its usual haunts.
This Cat is a jungle dweller and prefers dense thickets and
heavy growths of vegetation. It climbs trees upon occasion,
but probably not so given to this as the Cougar. The call
is
of the Jaguar is a hoarse cough or short roar suggestive of
great strength and power, made up of a repetition of guttural

notes, recorded as "uh, uh, uh, uh."
The young are born in April or May and number from two
to four. The cubs are more heavily spotted than the adults
and their coat is woollier.
Ocelot. —Felis pardalis grifRthii (Fischer)

Names. — Ocelot ; Tiger-cat ; Leopard-cat. Plate XVI.
—
General Description. A medium-sized, spotted or marbled
Cat, with a fairly long tail. Head and body like a large, over-
grown House-cat; limbs fairly long; tail slightly less than half
as long as body; pelage short and close; color pattern gray
and buff marked with much black.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation
but a wide range of individual variation.
Upperparts buffy to gray, heavily spotted and marked
with small rings, blotches, and short bars; underparts white
spotted with black; tail spotted and ringed with black; black
markings along back and sides, usually arranged as broken
lines or chains.
Immature generally with more black than adults.
—
males, 50 inches; females, 40 inches; tail vertebras, males, 15
inches, females, 13 inches; hind foot, males, 5.5 inches, females,
5 inches; weight about 25-35 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Of southern distribution and!
crossing into the United States only in southwestern Texas.]
162
Plate XVI
^^.^r.
Jaduarundi
V-5;
#x
^vfc
"^.^
OCELOT
—
Food. Small mammals, birds, and reptiles.
escape.
******* —
Enemies. Probably very few because of
Like the Jaguar, only the one species of Ocelot is known to

occur north of the Rio Grande. In Central and South
its ability to
America the Ocelots are a large and widely distributed group.

In the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas the tiger-cat is
'
'
rather common, with the eyra-cat, in areas densely overgrown

with thorny chaparral. Like most of the cat tribe, it is
strictly nocturnal and by day lies well hidden in its brushy
shelter. By night it wanders along trails over a considerable
territory, seeking its prey. Birds of all kinds, including
domestic poultry, are captured on their roosts, and rabbits,
wood rats, and mice of many kinds, as well as snakes and
other reptiles, are on its list of game.
"The tiger-cat is much more quiet and less fierce in dis-
position than most felines. . . .
'
' The fauna an interesting touch

tiger-cat brings within our
of the tropics and
exuberance of animal life. It is found
its
in so small a corner of our territory, however, that, despite

its mainly inoffensive habits, it is certain to be crowded out in
the near future by the increased occupation of its haunts."

(Nelson, Wild Animals of North America, p. 416.)
The scanty records on breeding habits of the Ocelot indi-
cate but two young to a litter, and the date of birth Septem-
ber or October.
Jaguarundi. —Felis cacomitli Berlandier

Names. —Jaguarundi; Cacomitl Cat; Eyra red phase); (in
Red and Gray Cat. Plate XVI.

General Description. —A small, unspotted Cat with long,
otter-like body; head comparatively small; legs short; body
slender; tail long.
— Occurring in two distinct color phases;
Color. some sea-
sonal variation.
Gray phase. — Everywhere grizzled smoky gray, a mixture
of black, buff and whitish to give pepper-and-salt appear-
ance; underparts slightly paler than upperparts but no
marked contrast between the two; winter pelage with more
black than in summer.
163
:
Red phase. —
Rather uniform rusty red sprinkled with black-
ish on back; head and legs not so reddish, browner; whitish
usually on lips and throat.
—
Measurements. Males somewhat larger than females.
Total length, about 42 inches; tail vertebrse, 20 inches; hind
foot, 5.5 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Southern in distribution and
reaching the United States only in extreme southern Texas.
—
Food. Small mammals, birds, and possibly some aquatic
life such as fish, frogs, etc.
— Probably very few because of

*******
Enemies. ability to escape
the larger carnivores.
Only one species of this group of Cats reaches the United

States, but to the southward the Jaguarundis are found
throughout Central America and a large part of South America.
Bailey, in his Biological Survey of Texas, North American
Fauna, No. 25, p. 168, quoting a letter from F. B. Armstrong,
writes
"Eyra and yaguarundi cats inhabit the densest thickets
where the timber (mesquite) is not very high, but the under-
— —
brush catsclaw and granjeno is very thick and impene-
trable for any large-sized animal. Their food is mice, rats,
birds, and rabbits. Their slender bodies and agile movements
enable them to capture their prey in the thickest of places.
They climb trees, as I have shot them out of trees at night by
'shining their eyes' while deer hunting. I captured them by
burying traps at intervals along the trails that run through

these thick places. I don't think they have any regular time
for breeding, as I have seen young in both summer and winter,
born probably in August and March. They move around a
good deal in daytime, as I have often seen them come down to
a pond to drink at midday, and often see them dart through
the brush in daytime. They are exceedingly hard to tame.
Their habitat is from the Rio Grande, 40 miles north of here
(Brownsville), as far as Tampico, Mexico. Beyond that I
don't know."
Genus Lynx
; ^; Premolars, |; Molars, | = 28.
164
PLATE XVII
^%A.
LYNX
Lynx. —Lynx canadensis

and related forms
—
Names. Lynx; Bobcat; Wildcat; Loup-cervier (French
Canadian). Plates XVII and XIX.
—
General Description. A good-sized Cat with prominent,
tufted ears; very short tail; long limbs; large, broad feet; and
rather long, loose pelage.
Color.— Sexes colored marked seasonal variation and
alike;
considerable individual variation.
Upperparts. — Grizzled gray, brown, and blackish; the pelage
pale drab at base, then buffy brown and finally tipped with
Fig. 37. Lynx
light gray,dark brown, or blackish; nose and cheeks grayish;

crown brownish; ears inside grayish white, edged with buff,
a gray spot on posterior surface; apex of ear, tuft, and lines
down margin of ear black; ruff about throat, mixed blackish,
dark brown, and gray; tail brownish, tipped with black; sides
and limbs lighter and warmer in tone than back.
—
Underparts. Mixed grayish and light buffy brown, with
occasional irregular blotches of blackish.
The above is for November skins in fresh pelage; summer
pelage is browner and when worn and ragged, as in late
165
summer, most of the colored tips of the hairs are missing and
the buffy basal pelage predominates.
Immature spotted and streaked with brown and blackish
upon a light fawn ground color.
—
Measurements." Âlales larger than females. Total length
of males, 36-39 inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot, 9.5
inches; weight, 20-25 pounds, a recorded maximum weight
of 44 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Boreal North America, south
in the eastern part of theGreat Lakes district and to Penn-
sylvania and in the west to Colorado (New Mexico?) and
Oregon {canadensis group).
—
Food. Small mam.mals, birds, sometimes snakes and frogs;
principally Rabbits, Squirrels, Mice, Partridges; known to
kill Foxes.
—
Enemies. Probably able to escape, under normal circum-
stances, from the few large carnivores capable of preying upon
it.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Lynx.
Canadensis Group
—
Canada Lynx. Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr. Plate XIX.
As described. Found in eastern Canada and northeastern
United States south to Pennsylvania, west to the Pacific
Ocean, north to the limit of trees, and south into Oregon and
Colorado in the mountains.
Arctic Lynx. —
Lynx canadensis mollipilosus Stone.
"Browner and less gray than true Lynx cajiadensis, with a
—
very dense, soft, woolly pelage." (Stone ^for November
specimen) Total length, males, 41 inches; tail vertebras,
5.2 inches; hind foot, 10.4 inches. Found from Point
Barrow, Alaska, south to British Columbia.
—
Newfoundland Lynx. Lynx suhsolanus Bangs.
Resembling canadensis in size and general color pattern,
but darker and richer in tone. Upperparts (summer)
mixed black and hazel. Found in Newfoundland.
Rufus Group
—
Bay Lynx; Wildcat; Bobcat. Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber).
Like Lynx canadensis in general appearance but feet much
smaller, ears but slightly or not at all tufted, tail not black
all around at tip; pelage brownish and spotted instead of
pale grizzled gray; hair not as long. Upperparts variable
166
PLATE XVIII
Photo by H. E. Anthony
Immature Eastern Raccoon
(Procyon lotor lotor)
.
LYNX
but usually mixed buff and brown spotted and lined with
black or brownish black, darkest along dorsal region; sides
of legs lighter and huffier; crown streaked with black; ear
marked heavily with black on posterior side, with large
gray spot; black tuft on ear small; tail above like back,
tipped with black, below like belly and without black tip;
underparts whitish, washed with buffy on neck, and heavily
spotted with black; ruff on chin small. Paler in winter
than in summer. Total length, 36 inches; tail vertebrae,
7 inches; hind foot, 7 inches. Found in eastern United
States from Maine to southern Georgia and west to North
Dakota. Plates XVII and XIX.
—
Florida Bobcat. Lynx rufus floridanus (Rafinesque)
Darker than typical rufus and more lightly built in propor-
tion to its size; feet smaller; upperparts with heavy mixture
of black and lacking the reddish brown tinge of typical
rufus. Total length, 39 inches; tail vertebrce, 7 inches;
hind foot, 7.5 inches; weight, 17.5 pounds (male, not fat).
Found in Florida, north to Georgia, west to Louisiana.
—
Texas Bobcat. Lynx rufus texensis (Allen).
Rather richer in color than typical rufus, heavily spotted.
Upperparts (Brownsville specimen) rich tawny rufous with-
out any blackish along dorsal area; underparts thickly
spotted. Found in southern and eastern Texas.
California Bobcat. — Lynx rufus californicus Mearns.
Browner and less spotted than texensis. Reddish bro.wn
above heavily mixed with gray and blackish, darkest along
dorsal area; sides and limbs rich buffy; broad collar of pale
rusty gray spotted with black. Total length, males, 34
inches; females, 32 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 6.8 inches,
females, 6 inches; hind foot, males, 6.7 inches, females,
6.4 inches. Found throughout most of California west of
the desert areas and east of the northern coast belt, reaching
to coast throughout southern three-quarters of the state.
Lynx fasciatus oculeus Bangs = Lyîx rufus californicus, ac-
cording to Grinnell and Dixon.
—
Desert Bobcat. Lynx rufus eremicus Mearns.
Upperparts pale yellowish brown grizzled with gray and
black, lightly spotted and striped with brown to blackish;
underparts white; tail with about seven transverse black
bars on upperside; other details of coloration about as in
typical rufus, but paler in tone. Total length, 2t7 inches;
tail vertebrae, 7 inches; hind foot, 7.5 inches. Found in
the desert areas of California from the Needles in the
north and San Bernardino County in the west, south into
Arizona.
—
Mountain Bobcat. Lynx uinta Merriam.
Largest of the rufus group, hind foot very large; tail very
long and with two black bands on upper surface in front
of black tip. Upperparts mixed buffy, gray, and black,
without distinct spotting or markings; underparts white
167
spotted with black; pale yellowish brown on throat. Total

length, 41 inches; tail vertebrae, 7.8 inches; hind foot, 8
inches; weight 31 pounds (male, not fat). Found in the
mountains of Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico.
—
Bailey Bobcat; Plateau Bobcat. Lynx baileyi Merriam.
Color pattern made up of soft grays and buffy browns
somewhat suggestive of Canada Lynx; summer pelage
sometimes with strong rufous tinge; winter pelage grayer;
tail with one blackish and one fulvous dorsal band in front
of black tip. Total length, males, 36 inches; females, 34
inches; tail vertebrae, males, 7.2 inches, females, 6.8 inches;
hind foot, males, 7.6 inches, females, 7 inches. Found in
the southern half of California (eastern portions), Arizona
and New Mexico, north into Colorado, and east into Texas
and Oklahoma.
—
Barred Bobcat. Lynx fasciatus fasciatus Rafinesque.
A richly colored Wildcat; upperparts chestnut-brown to
rusty, with grizzling of black on dorsal area; legs barred
with dark brown and blackish sides paler than back under-
; ;
parts white, heavily marked with black, terminal third of

tail black. Total length, males, 34.5 inches, females, 32
inches; tail vertebrse, males, 6.8 inches, females, 6.5 inches;
hind foot, males, 6.8 inches, females, 6.6 inches. Found in
northwestern (coastal) California, in Oregon, Washington,
and southwestern British Columbia; in humid coastal strip
throughout.
Pallid Barred Bobcat. —
Lynx fasciatus pallescens Merriam.
Smaller and paler than typical /a5aa/«5, especially on head
and face; black on ear restricted and gray patch large
(winter) general color hoary gray. Total length, females,
;
32 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.6 inches; hind foot, 6 inches.

Found in "Northeastern California (in Lassen, Modoc, and
eastern Siskiyou counties) east across northern Nevada and
northern Utah to Colorado; also north through eastern
Oregon and eastern Washington, and thence east through
Idaho into Wyoming and perhaps farther." (Grinnell and
Dixon)
—
Nova Scotia Bobcat. Lynx gigas Bangs.
"Very stout and powerfully built; size very large; colors
rich with much black on upperparts; triangular spot of
gray on ear very small; skull large and strong." (Bangs)
Upperparts (winter) mixed cinnamon, gray and blackish;
tail above, dull cinnamon tipped with black; below, whitish,
throat patch dull cinnamon; soles of feet_ blackish. Total
length, males, 40 inches; tail vertebrae, 7 inches; hind foot,
8 inches. Found in Nova Scotia; limits of range unknown.
The Lynx is in many respects a big, overgrown House-cat,

with greater potentialities for killing its prey. It is unlike
168
I
Plate XIX
"'^% ^'r*^"^^"
P.
^0 ^^.^^
Canada b/r
LYNX AND BOBCAT
the Common Cat in its long legs, big feet, and short tail,
and in
some of its traits, such as a willingness to take to water.
The Lynx is a forest creature and prefers the cover of heavy
woods. It is a wary animal and difficult to observe,
mainly
nocturnal in habit but occasionally about by day. Its
chief
prey is Hares and Rabbits, although it may
extend its foraging
to take in Foxes, young or even adult Deer, and
Mountain
Sheep. In winter the broad feet enable the Lynx to
stay on
top of the snow when most of the other mammals are breaking
through and at a disadvantage. Like all of the other Cats
this animal has
no dormant period in the winter, but is active
the year around.
The Lynx has several calls all more or less like those
made by a House-cat but magnified. It mews, yowls in
search of a mate, and cater-wauls and howls when
two are
together.
The Lynx has from one to four young in a litter and they
are born from March to June, depending upon the locality.
The nest is located in a hollow log or hole in the rocks.
The Bobcat does not differ greatly from the Lynx in habits
except where it has become a dweller on the arid desert
tracts
of the Southwest. In such places the different nature of the
environment has caused some modification of behavior. The
Bobcat is more southern in its distribution than the Lynx.
There is some overlapping in range, but the Bobcat is essenti-
ally a Cat of the warmer regions while the Lynx
prefers the
cold to Arctic areas. The Bobcat has learned to live in settled
districts and does not resent the inroads of civilization as
does the Lynx.
The Bobcat is shy and furtive in its behavior and very
seldom seen. It makes full use of every bit of cover and
is
most active at night. It is an able hunter and takes toll of all
the small game of its district and even
animals the size
kills
of Sheep and Deer. In the Southwest the Bobcat does a
service to the ranchman in keeping down the
numbers of
Rabbits and small rodents.
The Bobcat has from two to four young and they are born
May.
in April or
169
Order PINNIPEDIA. SEALS and WALRUSES
Large mammals highly modified for an aquatic habitat,
but spending part of their existence on the seashore.
Limbs fin-like, with loss of the normal terrestrial function;
toes fully webbed for swimming, first toe of forefoot and
first
and fifth toes of hind foot longest; body prostrate in posture;

tail reduced and rudimentary; ears greatly reduced
or absent;
often
eyes large, cornea flat; teeth always present, dentition
highly specialized; hair varying with genera from coarse
bristles to the finest fur.
Family Otariidae. Eared Seals, Sea-lions and

Fur Seals
Active Seals with hind limbs capable of rotation forward;
forelimbs nearly as long as hind limbs; neck long; first and
fifth toes of hind foot lacking claws; webs
of feet extending
beyond toes; small external ears present; upper incisors

notched; males larger than females; pelage with or without
underfur.
The members of this family are much more active on land
than the Hair Seals. The family includes the species having
the greatest commercial value, the Fur Seals, and the
common-
est of the large Seals, the Sea-lions.
Genus Zalophus
Dentition.— Incisors, | Canines, \ Premolars, f Molars, { - 34.
; ; ;
California Sea-lion.— Zalophus californianus
General Description.— Size very large, males much larger

than females; no underfur; body form rather slender and
graceful compared with the Hair Seals; males much
thicker
through shoulders than females and with a prominent,

longi-
tudinal crest from between eyes to occiput.
170
SEA-LION
Color. — Sexes much the same; pelage moder-

colored very
ately coarse, but sleek
and shining when wet.
Yellowish brown above and below, varying sometimes
through darker shades to dull black.
Measurements.— Average male: Total length, 98 inches;
hind flippers, tip to tip outstretched, 37 inches; estimated
Fig. 38. California Sea-lion
weight, 500 pounds. Individuals may exceed this; an old

male in the New York Aquarium was weighed by Dr. C. H.
Townsend and found to scale 620 pounds.
Geographical Distribution.— Pacific coast of North America.
—
Food. Fish of many species, crustaceans and squid.
Enemies. —Killer Whales.
Species of Sea-Lions
Genus Zalophus
California Sea-lion. —
Zalophus californianus (Lesson).
As described above. Found along Pacific coast from south-
ern Mexico to northern California.
171
Genus Eumetopias
Steller Sea-lion; Northern Sea.-\ion.— Eumetopias jubata
(Schreber). .
Externally much like Zalophus cahformanus but

very
and distinguished by dental characters such as
larger in size
a noticeable space between molar and premolars; occipital
crest of males not greatly developed. Color yellowish
brown to dark brown. Estimated weight of average male,
1
^.
Sea-lions are the

*****
500- 1 800 -pounds. Found from Bering Straits south to
Farallon Islands, Cahfornia.
commonest
*
Seals along the Pacific Coast.
Along the shores of California, Oregon, Washington, and

British Columbia they outnumber the other pinnipeds, and
on the score of size and color are easily distinguished from the
other Seals.
The California Sea-lion is a common sight off the rocks
and beaches of California, while farther north this genus is

replaced by the Steller Sea-lion which is also abundant and
easily noted. Where Sea-lions are not molested they are
rather trusting and unsuspicious in the water, loafing
on the
surface within stone's throw of man or swimming quite
close if
one remains motionless. They are not so trusting when

drawn out on the shore and usually make for the water at the
first sign of danger.
Sea-lions have but a single pup at a birth.
Genus Callorhinus
Dentition: Incisors, f; Canines, {; Premolars, f; Molars,
\ or 1 = 34 or 36.
Alaska Fur Seal.— Callorhinus alascanus Jordan

and Clark
Names.—Alaska Fur Seal; Northern Fur Seal; Sea-bear.
General Description.— Seals of medium size with abundant,
in profile; occipital
soft underfur; rostrum short, wide, convex
crest not greatly developed; males much
larger than females.
Pelage composed of dense, soft underfur, hidden by

longer,
coarser hairs; underfur light yellowish brown.

Color.— Sexes differently colored.
172
FUR SEAL
—
Male. Upperparts black, gray over shoulders and front of
neck, brownish on face; flippers reddish brown; underparts
reddish brown.
—
Female. Upperparts gray; underparts rufous.
—
Immature. Glossy black above, washed with yellowish
brown below.
Measurements. — Males much larger than females. Total
length, males, 75 inches, females, 50 inches; tail vertebrae,
males, 2 inches, females, 1.5 inches; hind foot, males, 21
inches, females, 16 inches; weight, males, 300-500 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Pribilof Islands and other
Bering Sea south to shores of California, in winter.
localities in
*******
—
Food. Fish and squid.
—
Enemies.' Killer Whales.
So much has been written on the life-history of the Fur

Seal that there is quite an extended literature on the subject.
A few of the most comprehensive and easily obtainable

sources are listed at the close of this handbook.
Although Fur Seals swing far south of Alaska in winter,
they stay offshore and are not often seen. During the breed-
ing season, May to November, they are congregated on the
Pribilof Islands in large rookeries. The official government
report of 1926 gave the census of the Fur Seals on the Pribilof
Islands as 761,281. Fur Seals bear one pup, the baby Seal
arriving from June 20 to July 20.
The Alaska Fur Seal of commerce is the plucked, dressed,
and dyed pelt during which process the long, hard guard-hairs
are removed to expose the soft, dense underfur. Although a
large number of these Seals are killed each year, under govern-
ment supervision, their fur is not as popular as it has been in
former years. Hudson Seal (dressed Muskrat) has been a
large factor in driving it from popular favor, and there are
many other cheaper furs which have come to take its place.
Family Phocidae. Hair Seals or Earless Seals

Hind legs incapable of rotation forward, poorly suited for
progression on land; forelimbs smaller than hind limbs; neck
short; external ear absent; upper incisors pointed; pelage
without underfur. This family includes the commonest
small Seals of temperate waters, the Harbor Seals.
173
Genus Phoca
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, |; Premolars, |; Molars, j = 34-
Harbor Seal. —Phoca vitulina concolor

and related forms
Names.- — Harbor Seal; Hair Seal; Leopard Seal; Common
Seal.
General Description. —A small Seal with short limbs and
pelage rather coarse and hairy. Head and body typically
seal-like; color variable.
Fig. 39. Harbor Seal
Color.—Sexes colored alike; varying from yellowish gray

spotted with dark brown to almost black spotted with yellow-
ish; very young animals are white.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length about
60 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Atlantic coast from the Caro-
linas northward.
—
Food. Fish, squid, crustaceans, etc.
—
Enemies. Killer Whale; Sharks; Polar Bear.
174
—
RIBBON SEAL
Species and wSubspecies of the Genus Phoca
Subgenus Phoca
Atlantic Harbor Seal. —
Phoca vitulina concolor (DeKay).
As described. Found from the Carolinas north along
Atlantic coast into the Arctic Ocean.
Pacific Harbor Seal. Phoca richardii richardii (Gray).
ResemlDling the Atlantic Harbor Seal but characterized by
slightly different skull characters. Found on Pacific coast
from Oregon north to the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.
Pribilof Harbor Seal.—P //oca richardii pribilofensis Allen.
Differing from typical richardii in having weaker dentition.
Found about the Pribilof Islands.
California Harbor Seal. —
Phoca richardii geronimensis Allen.
*******
Larger than typical richardii and with heavier dentition.
Found along coast from Oregon south into Mexico.
The Harbor Seal is the common, small Seal found in suit-

able localities along either coast. In addition to the character
of small size, the spotted color pattern is an aid inidentification.
This Seal takes its name from its preference for the coast-
line,being found about bays, harbors, mouths of rivers, and
sand-bars. It does not go far from land nor migrate like some
of the other Seals. It may be seen in small herds, but never
in large rookeries. The young are born in early Spring.
Subgenus Histriophoca
Ribbon Seal. —Phoca fasciata Zimmerman
About the size of the Harbor Seal and like it in external
build, but color pattern quite different. Pelage brown marked
Fig. 40. Ribbon Seal

175
—
with strongly contrasted and clearly outlined bands of yellow

to ochraceous yellow about neck, shoulder, and rump; some-
times rings are confluent; females less conspicuously marked
than males and having only obscure bands. This is not a
common Seal and is found sparingly about the Aleutian Islands
and coast of Alaska.
Subgenus Pusa
Ringed Seal. —Phoca hispida Schreber

A medium- sized Harbor Seal in general
Seal quite like the
appearance but colored differently and with different cranial
characters. First digit of fore-flipper longer than any of the
others. Upperparts dark brownish to blackish brown faintly
marked with small, irregular rings or blotches of yellowish;
underparts yellowish to strong ochraceous yellow. Circum-
polar in distribution, south to Labrador on Atlantic coast,
to Bering Sea on Pacific coast.
Subgenus Pagophilus
Greenland Seal; Harp Seal; Saddle-back Seal.

Phoca groenlandica Erxleben
Somewhat larger than the Harbor Seal —length up to 72
inches, weight 600-800 pounds for old males, females a quarter
—
smaller pelage of male bright yellowish, marked with a
broad band of brown along side which crosses over shoulders
to meet its fellow from the other side; these bands may also
meet across lower back; dark brown on head and spots on
hind limbs. Females not so clearly marked with brown or
lacking
cumpolar
*******
brown completely.
seas,
Young white.
south to Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The Harp Seal is much hunted for its

Hooded Seal forms the major part of the
oil,
Found in
and with the

Seal catch of the
cir-
Newfoundland Seal fisheries. This Seal has a regular period

of migration and moves south when ice begins to close the
northern feeding grounds. About the end of September the
Harp Seal starts south and passes for upwards of nine hundred
miles to reach the Straits of Belle Isle where the stream of
176
BEARDED SEAL
animals fans out, some to work westward into the Gulf, others
to continue south along the eastern coast of Newfoundland.
Early in February the Seals begin the northern movement,
and in March the young are bom either off the Straits of Belle
Isle or in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The young are left on
drifting ice-pans, generally not over a few inches in thickness.
The old Seals make holes through the ice-sheets by which to
come and go. Captain Robert A. Bartlett gives the numbers
of Seals in the two main herds as 300,000 in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence and 500,000 off Belle Isle, and comments on the
ability of the old Seals to find their young after a day's
absence when the drift has shifted the ice for several miles.
But one young is born to a mother twins are rare.
;
After the young Seals are able to leave the ice and take to
the water, the families move north, eventually to the coast of
Greenland.
Bartlett gives the speed of the Seal as twenty miles per
hour for a limited period, and estimates the time it can re-
main under water as about twenty minutes. This animal is
known to eat fish which occur at a depth of about two hundred
feet.
Genus Erignathus
Dentition : Same as for Phoca proportionally weak.
;
Bearded Seal. —Erignathus barbatus

and related forms
—
General Description. A large, plain-colored Seal, much
larger than the Harbor Seal, reaching a length of 10 to 12
feet. Color everywhere grayish to yellowish (considerable
individual variation), darkest along back; a prominent tuft of
long, flattened bristles on each side of muzzle which gives
animal a "bearded" appearance.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found in polar seas south to
Newfoundland.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Erignathus.

Atlantic Bearded Seal. —Erignathus barbatus barbatus
(Erxleben).
As described above. Found along northeastern North
America from Newfoundland north.
177
Pacific —
Bearded SeaL Erignathus harhatus nauticiis (Pallas).
Very much like typical harhatus; differing in cranial charac-
ters,
*******
such as short nasals, wider braincase, etc.
coast of Alaska eastward.
The Bearded
the northern seas.
Seal is
It hauls
Found from
an Arctic species and is found only in

out on the ice but does not break
holes in the ice-sheets for this purpose, choosing instead to
take advantage of natural fissures or openings. It is much
hunted by the Eskimos.
Genus Halichoerus
;
\; Premolars, |; Molars, x = 34.
Gray Seal. —Halichoerus grypus (Fabricius)
—
General Description. A very large Seal of plain color
pattern. Color varying with the individual from silver or
ashy gray to dusky gray, obscure blackish spots on upperparts
and sides. Length up to lo or 12 feet.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found along Atlantic coast
from Nova Scotia to Greenland.
The Gray Seal prefers rocky localities where the water is
rough and ocean currents swirl in and out. The males fight
amongst themselves in the breeding season and often carry
scars. It is not a common Seal on the American coasts.
Genus Cystophora
Dentition: Incisors, f ; Canines, \; Premolars, |; Molars, j =30.
Hooded Seal. —^Cystophora cristata (Erxleben)

—
General Description. A fairly large Seal, dark in color,
having on the top of the head (males only) an inflatable bag
of muscular tissue; upperparts slaty black, sides lighter and
thickly spotted with whitish; length, 84-96 inches. Young
white.
—
*******
Geographical Distribution. Found from Newfoundland to
Greenland and rarely as far south as New England.
The Hooded Seal is one of the more abundant vSeals of the

North Atlantic and ranges over much the same area as the
178
HOODED SEAL
Harp Seal (see page 176). The two Seals are more or less
associated in their migrations and have somewhat similar
habits. The Hooded Seal chooses heavier and older ice
for the whelping ground, and instead of breaking a hole
through shallow sheets of ice it selects [ice-hummocks
Fig. 41. Hooded Seal
that may be approached from the open sea. This Seal does
not congregate in large, continuous herds but in small, scat-
tered groups and usually at some distance from the herds of
Harp Seal.
The Hooded Seal is more wild and quarrelsome in disposi-
tion than the Harp and when angered inflates the hood on the
head. The female Hooded Seal usually fights for its young
and will die rather than desert it.
Young Seals, after the first year, are known as "bedlamers"

in the vernacular of the sealers.
Genus Mirounga
;
l; Premolars, f Molars, x
; = 30
Elephant Seal; Sea-elephant; Northern Elephant

Seal. — Mirounga angustirostris (Gill)
General Description. —A very large Seal, the largest of the

true Seals; males much larger than females and having a long
proboscis of cavernous tissue capable of inflation, which is
somewhat suggestive an Elephant. Body huge and ponder-

of
ous; hind limbs without nails; color brownish to slaty. Males
reach maximum length of about 1 8feet, females half that length.
Geographical Distribution. — Now restricted to the Island
of Guadalupe, Mexico, southwest of San Diego, California,
179
*******
but formerly occurring along the coast and islands of southern
California as far north as Point Reyes.
The Elephant Seal is well characterized

long, pendulous nose (in the case of males).
by large size
This huge Seal
and
is
Fig. 42. Head of Elephant Seal
represented by two distinct forms, the Antarctic or Southern

Elephant Seal, and the Northern Elephant Seal, the latter
faced with extinction today. Although formerly known from
many localities along the coast and islands of Lower California
and southern California, it has been so hunted for its oil that
it is now extinct north of Mexican territory. The only known
herd, of several hundred individuals, is on Guadalupe Island
southwest of San Diego, California.
Family Odobenidae. Walruses

Seal-like, marine mammals of very large size, having greatly
elongated upper canines.
Genus Odobenus
Young, Incisors, f ; Canines, {; Premolars and
Molars, | = 30
Dentition;
Adult, Incisors, ^; Canines, {; Premolars, f;
-5 - 10
180
WALRUS
Walrus. — Odobenus rosmarus

and related species
—
General Description. A very large, seal-like mammal
with hairless (almost), wrinkled skin and large, tusk-like
upper canines. Head proportionally small muzzle blunt and
;
broad, set with coarse bristles; body gross and ponderous;
Fig. 43. Walrus
neck massive; fore-flippers with five toes bearing flat nails;

hind flippers with fifth toe longest, nails on all five toes but
those on first and fifth flat, others long and pointed; tail
vestigial; skin very thick and rugose.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; yellowish brown everywhere
except for reddish brown on base of flippers and on underparts.
—
Measurements. Males about a third larger than females;
males 10 to 11 feet in length, weighing from 2000 to 3000
pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Arctic Seas.
—
Food. Principally molluscs, bivalves, starfish, and shrimp.
—
Enemies. Polar Bear and Killer Whale.
Species of the Genus Odobenus
Atlantic Walrus; Morse; Sea-horse. —
Odobenus rosmarus
(Linnaeus).
As described. Found in the North Atlantic and adjacent
Arctic seas south to coast of Labrador.
181
Pacific Walrus.' —
Odohenus diver gens (Illiger).
Resembling the Atlantic Walrus but with longer, heavier
*******
and more divergent tusks. Found in Bering Sea north
into Arctic Ocean.
The Walrus is so well characterized

not be confused with any of the marine mam-
by its tusks and huge
size that it will
mals. It is not encountered out of northern seas and one
must go on a special expedition to encounter Walrus.
These mammals make a fierce and imposing appearance
and hunting them is said to be attended with some element of
risk. However, the Eskimos kill them from fragile skin boats,
and against modern equipment and firearms the odds are
overwhelmingly against the Walrus.
,.*-''.:.?', wt.fWr'j
^r'v';?^W^^^^'^-^^'>Sfc^
182
.
Order RODENTIA. RODENTS (exclusive of

Hares, Rabbits, and Pikas)
Placental mammals of very small to medium size; non-

volant, terrestrial, semiaquatic, fossorial or arboreal in
habit; feet with claws; dentition adapted for cutting and
grinding vegetable substances; incisors one in each jaw (two
above, two below), prominent, more or less protruding, grow-
ing from a persistent pulp; a wide diastema or space (no canine
teeth) between incisors and molar teeth which have relatively
fiat crowns; lower jaw capable of more or less longitudinal
movement; clavicle present but sometimes reduced; form
various.
Family Sciuridae. Squirrels

Form varying from slender to robust; size small to fairly
large; head rounded; tail without scales, short to long, usually
flattened, well haired; cheek-teeth at least four on each side;
molars rooted, tubercular; ribs twelve to thirteen pairs;
clavicles developed; habit terrestrial, fossorial, or arboreal.
Subfamily Sciurinae
Genus Marmota'
Dentition: Incisors, i; Canines, ^; Premolars, f; Molars, | = 22.
Woodchuck. —Marmota monax

and related forms
Names.—Woodchuck; Marmot; Ground-hog; "vSiffleur"
(French Canadian) Plate
. XX
General Description.—A large, terrestrial Squirrel with
heavy-set body and short tail. Head broad and short; nose
blunt; ears low, rounded; eyes small; tail well haired, flattened;
" For a full review

of the genus Marmota see A. H. Howell North
American Fauna, No. 37, 1915,
183
claws strong and adapted for digging; thumb small, rudimen-

tary, with flat nail; pelage long, coarse, with shorter, softer
underfur. Color above, brownish or yellowish. Living in
burrows in the ground or in piles of rock.
—
Upperparts. Brownish, with grayish or reddish wash,
having a grizzled appearance because of intermixture of
whitish, buffy, or cinnamon-colored hairs; underfur dark gray
Fig. 44. Woodchuck
at base, but tipped with ochraceous or cinnamon; longer hair

particolored, brownish tipped with light buff to white; head
darker, Vandyke-brown; whitish or buffy areas on sides of
face, nose, lips,and chin; forelegs and feet black to dark
brown; hind tawny; tail from black to dark brown.
legs
—
Underparts. Varying from, buffy whitish to tawny or
brownish, the bases of the hairs being blackish brown.
—
Young. Colors not as rich as in adults.
—
Measurements. Males larger than females. Males: total
length, 26-27 inches; tail vertebrae, 6 inches; hind foot, 3.5
184
WOODCHUCK
inches. Females: total length, 22 inches; tail vertebra, 5-6

inches; hind foot, 3 inches.
Geographical Distribution.— Most of North America from
35° in the south to 55° in the north, in the west as
far north
as Alaska.
Food.— Vegetation of various kinds, grass, clover, crops,
foliage of native species.
Enemies.—Eagles, large Hawks, Foxes, Wildcats, Moun-
tain Lions, Coyotes, Wolves, Wolverines, Bears.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Marmota

Monax Group
Southern Woodchuck.—Marmoia monax monax
(Linnseus)
As described above Found in "Middle eastern
United
States from Pennsylvania, New Jersey
(?), Ohio, Indiana
illmois, and Iowa south to the
northern parts of South
Carohna Georgia Alabama, and Arkansas; west to
eastern
Kansas. (Howell)
Woodchuck.— il/armoto monax nifescens Howell
Riifescent
Kesembhng typical 7nonax but redder above and
below
ôund m Eastern North Dakota, central and southern
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, southern
Ontario
greater part of New York (including Long
Island), and
higher parts of western Massachusetts."
(Howell)
Woodchuck.— ilfa^-moto monax preUorum
Howdr"^
Intermediate in color between typical monax
and rufes-
f^«5 smaller than either. Total length, 20 inches. Found
m Southern New England, from Connecticut to
central
Vermont and New Hampshire and southern Maine."
(Howell)
Labrador Woo dchuck.— ikfamoto monax ignava
(Bangs)
Larger than preblorum; total length, 21-22
inches; color re-
sembling that of rufescens, skull with very
broad
Known on y from vicinity of type locality [BlacknasalsBay!
"
^^^^^^°^^
'
Probably north to Hamilton
'
Inlet fHmve^ll)
Câda Woodchuck.—Jfarmoto mo7iax canadensis (Erxleben)
bmall m size, sexes approximately equal in size. Total
ength 20 inches Color strongly reddish above and be-
low. Found m Greater part of interior of Canada, from
A W.
Alberta fp^ ?^^^ f""^ ^^î" Factory south to southern
(Red Deer),
1
central Saskatchewan (Cumberland
House), northern Minnesota, northern
Wisconsin, northern
Michigan; central Ontario, southern Quebec,
wick, and Nova Scotia; northern and eastern
New Bruns-
limits of range
m Quebec unknown." (Howell)
185
British —
Coltimbia Woodchuck. Marmota monax petrensis
Howell.
Resembling canadensis but with different cranial characters,
skull larger and longer. Found in "Interior ranges of
southern British Columbia and adjacent parts of United
States, from Barkerville, British Columbia, south to Thomp-
son Pass, Idaho." (Howell)
Fig. 45. Distribution of the subspecies of Marmota monax,

after A. H. Howell
1. Marmota monax ochracea
2. Marmota monax petrensis
3. Marmota monax canadensis
4. Marmota monax ignava
5. Marmota monax rufescens
6. Marmota monax preblorum
7. Marmota monax monax
—
Ochraceous Woodchuck. Marmota monax ochracea (Swarth).
Resembling canadensis but with longer and narrower skull.
Color ochraceous above, tawny to hazel below. Found in
"Interior mountain ranges of Yukon and northern British
Columbia, from Fortymile Creek south to the Babine
Mountains (and Stuart Lake ?)." (Howell)
186
WOODCHUCK
Pig. 46. Distribution of the subspecies of Marmota flavi-

ventris, after A. H. Howell
1. Marmota flaviventris flaviventris

2. Marmota Jlaviventris sierra
3. Marmota flaviventris avara
4. Marmota flaviventris parvula
5. Marmota flaviventris engelhardti
6. Marmota flaviventris nosophora
7. Marmota flaviventris dacota
8. Marmota flaviventris luteola
9. Marmota flaviventris war rent
10. Marmota flaviventris obscura
187
Flaviventris Group
Yellow-bellied
—
Marmot. Marmota flaviventris flaviventris
(Audubon and Bachman).
Size large, total length, males, 28 inches, females 25
mches;
tail vertebrae, males, 7 inches, females, 6.8 mches; hmd
foot, males, 3.6 inches, females, 3.2 inches.
Upperparts
grizzled russet and whitish, an indistinct buffy mantle
on
fore-back; underparts ochraceous; feet ochraceous. Found
in "The Cascade Range in Oregon and the northern
Sierra
in California, south to Lake Tahoe." (Howell)
Pallid Yellow-bellied Marmot.
—
Marmota flaviventris avara
(Bangs). _ ,, .
,
Smaller and paler than typical flaviventris. Total lengtn

male 22 inches. Found in "Interior valleys and foothills
of southern British Columbia and eastern

Washington and
Oregon." (Howell)
— tt
Southern Sierra Marmot. Marmota flaviventris sierrce tiowen.
n . •
Redder than typical flaviventris and with buffy mantle

of the
absent or greatly reduced. Found in "Higher parts
southern Sierra Nevada from upper Kern River north to
vicinity of Mono Lake." (Howell)
White Mountains Marmot.
— Marmota flaviventris fortirostns
Grinnell. r 11 1
Resembling sierrce but smaller and paler; rostrum ot skul

inches, tail
short and heavy. Total length, males, 22.5
vertebrae, 6.5 inches; hind foot, 2.9 inches.
Found m the
higher parts of the White Mountains, Mono County,
Cah-
Nevada 'Marmot.—Marmota flaviventris parvula Howell.

15-
Smaller and darker than avara. Total length, male,
20 inches, the smallest subspecies of flaviventris. Found
in "Toyabe and Toquima Ranges, Nev. and
White Moun-
;
tains Cal. (occurring from about 7,800 to 10,000 feet alti-

tude) probably occupies also other desert ranges
;
cen- m
tral Nevada." (Howell) „ J.-/A11
_ ^
Engelhardt MsiTmot.— Marmota flaviventris engelhardti (Allen;.
Smaller than typical flaviventris, more dark red on
upper-
parts and on feet. Found in Beaver and Parawan
" Moun-
tains, southern Utah; also Midvale, Idaho;
exact limits of
range unknown." (Howell) _ _
Golden-mantled Maimot— Marmota flaviventris nosophora

Howell. .^
, .1
.
com-
Tail longer than that of engelhardti (6.5 inches as
pared to 6 inches) color more ochraceous above and redder
below, a golden buff mantle on anterior back.
Found m
"Rocky Mountain region of Montana, Idaho, and Wyom-
ing from Flathead Lake, Mont., south to the
Wasatch
Mountains, Utah, and east to the Bighorn Mountains,
Wyo.; altitudinal range from about 3,000 to 11,800 feet.
(Howell)
Plate XX
WKile Black-tailed
Prairie Doff
Prairie Dod
Mountain Beaver
'
WOODCHUCK
^^"^f--Marmotaflavivenlris dacota (Merriam)

^'si.'^.^f'f
|dde/ SelfTotd' ^'^^:^^t^f ^
Park U^Tmot.~Marmota flaviveîtris
luteola Howell
Reserablmg /««« ,n size but color different. Upplrmrts
«"»'«'«« Howell
m
^f^^".;^^^'""*-"^^™'"''-'^"''"'''""-"
Like dacota size but with larger skull,
dark red^ta color
r.rfiefnr*.''"'^- /°""<^ '" "Western Colorado from
"^^'^^ ^°""'^^ --' >-'S^°"
S^n;'iûi£o"w*=:.?°rHowcflf
Dusky M^rmot.—Marmota flaviventtis
obscura Howell
ivarger than dacota and equaling typical
/at;?z;e«^nV sexes
;-^ above, dark brown wSi
'^^^ ^°^^= ^°^°^
wHt^.Tf"^"^^ ^^T'
^^'? ^^^^^^jly l\ckmg any white markings
Poind fr"v^''
^PP5 ^^°P^^ °^ high peaks in northern New
l^^- \, southern
Mexico and Colorado, from'^Pecos Baldy N
north to Sierra Blanca, vicinity Mex
of Fort Garland anrWn
San Juan Range near Osier, Colo,
(formerly in the Man
zano and Datil Mountains, N
and upper Canadian Zones'from
the summits of the peaks
Mex occnr<f in PT,,L
aboiii
(13,300-13,700
•
S
fe" altituXTo
feet)/' (HoweS
•
Caligata Group
'"'(IsLcfoTt^.
"^^^f-^^rnlota cali,ata caU.ata
^^^"' ^^-5 inches, female, 27 inches-

fail" verf;h'°'^^
tail ^^T\
vertebra male, 8.5 inches, female,
foot, male,
7.6 inches hind
4 mches, female, 3.8 inches. General aoDear
ance of upperparts grizzled white
rump and lower back, black on top of
and black rich
head and face wi?h
on bX
whitish patch in front of eyes;
I
tail above buff

underparts soM
whitT h
y tipped with brown, below dark brown-
forelegs whitish, hind legs
buffy;fore-andMnd feet black
^h. Found m "Alaska and
Yukon, from the For Lnd
Canal north on the coast to Bristol
Bay, an" in the 2ite?for
189
to the Endicott Range and the mountains lying westward

of Fort Good Hope, Mackenzie." (Howell)
Glacier Marmot. — Marmota caligata vigilis (Heller).
Resembling typical caligata but darker in color, more black
and brown, variable in color. Known only from type local-
ity, west shore of Glacier Bay, Alaska.
Montague Island Marmot. —
Marmota caligata sheldoni Howell.
Smaller than typical caligata and with shorter nasals.
Total length, male, 26. 8 inches. Known only from the type
locality, Montague Island, Alaska.
—
Robson Hoary Marmot. Marmota caligata oxytona (Hollister).
More bla>.,k above than typical caligata; sexes nearly equal
in size. Total length, male, 30 inches; one of the largest of
the caligata group, as well as one of the darkest in color.
Found in "Interior of northern British Columbia, south-
western Mackenzie (?) ,and southern Yukon, from Teslin
Lake and Liard River south to Barkerville, British Colum-
bia, and the Mount Robson region, British Columbia and
Alberta." (Howell)
—
Okanagan Hoary Marmot. Marfnota caligata okanagana
(King).
Almost as dark as oxytona but averaging more white. Total
length, 28 inches for males. Found in "Gold and Selkirk
Ranges, British Columbia, and probably main range of the
Rocky Mountains in Alberta from Banff to Henry House;
exact limits unknown." (Howell)
—
Montana Hoary Marmot. Marmota caligata nivaria Howell.
Lightest colored of the caligata series, whiter than the other
subspecies. Similar in size to oxytona. Found in "Upper
slopes (at and above timberline) of high mountains of north-
western Montana and of Bitterroot and Salmon River
Mountains, Idaho (limits of range imperfectly known).
(Howell)
Cascade Hoary Marmot. — Marmota caligata cascadensis
Howell.
Size of oxytona but more white and less black above. Found
in "Cascade Range (at and above timberline) from Mount
Rainier, Wash., north to southern British Columbia."
(Howell)
Olympic Marmot.— Marmota olympus (Merriam).
Large, total length, male, 29-30 inches. Browner than the
forms of caligata; above, brownish mixed with white.
Found in "Upper slopes of the Olympic Mountains, Wash.,
above timberline (from about 4,000 feet altitude to near
summits of peaks)." (Howell)
—
Vancouver Island Marmot.^ Marmota vancouverensis Swarth.
"Entire body, legs, and tail dark Vandyke-brown, the
underfur being of the same color, the long hairs more
blackish and glossy." (Howell) Total length, male, 26-28
inches. Found on Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
190
WOOD CHUCK
'''*
""^ ^^^ 'P^^^^^ ^^^
Marmota cahgata group, after A. H.subspecies of the
^^'U^l^l^^'^'r''
Howell
Marmota caligata caligata
Marmota caligata
6. Marmota caligata cascadensis
sheldoni 1. Marmota caligata vigilis
Marmota caligata oxytona
Marmota caligata
S. Marmota olvmpus
okanagana 9- Marmota vancouverensis
Marmota caligata nivaria
191
The Woodchuck is known of the large terrestrial

the best
Because of the wide geographic distribution of the
Squirrels.
genus, nearly every one
who has spent any amount of time
come into contact with one or more of the
out of doors has
or Ground-hog.
diîerent forms of Woodchuck
states, the brownish red subspecies of momx
In the eastern
the farm and country-side where
are common creatures of
heavy-set figures are known to every f armer s
their plump,
stone-walls, in wood-piles, or in
bur-
boy Here they live in
clover field or other source of
food
rowi which they dig near a to the
have several openings
supply The burrows usually
urface so that the animal
may have a choice of more than one
occasionally climb up on
Woodchucks
entrance or exit.
stumps, or a short distance

up small trees, but habitually
the ground.
soend their existence on
for its burrow immediately
Although a Woodchuck will run
when cornered it is a good match
on the approach of a Dog,
and puts up a good fight. Where it is exposed
for a sma'l Dog
cunning and
in a farming region, it is a
to constant persecution
of itself. It may be decidedly
wary creature, able to take care
because of what it eats but be-
destructive on a farm not only
it makes, which may
be m places
cause of the large burrows cultiva-
to
of earth are obstructions
where holes and mounds
tion.
are not sociable creatures
and generally adults
Woodchucks
animals are apt to be
are found only one to a burrow, and the
a region rather than concentrated
pretty well scattered over
Prairie-dogs.
i-. one soot as is the case with ,, , , ,
foraging, the Woodchuck

Zr a long summer of successful
pelage takes on a richer and
more
becomes very fat and his
When winter sets in and food is scarce
glossy appearance. dormant
passing a long period in a
?he Woodchuck hibernates,
distinguished from death. Duringh.be.
condition not easily
he
activities are suspended and
nation the normal bodily that the
energy for his long sleep
an mal requires so little
respiration and pulse are feeb^
ZZ lay^ of fat is sufficient;
is low, and the
animal is in-
andTluggish, body temperature
sensible to is surroundings.
If gradually warmed, he W
of what goes on
sôn revive and take notice fo-'^}^-J^^
the locality, depending on
the
varies with
tiZ for hibernation Atlantic States being
in the
Cgth and severity of the winter,
j
ROCK SQUIRREL
from October to March. "Ground-hog Day," February —

—
2nd takes its name from the supposition that the Ground-
hog comes out for its first peep at weather conditions, to see
if the sun is shining. The reasoning whereby the sight of its
shadow drives the animal back for an additional six weeks'
sleep is probably that an open, warm February means
a late,
cold spring!
In the Rocky Mountain region one finds the larger, gray
Woodchucks, the Hoary Marmots, which live at high eleva-
tions. These Woodchucks, or Rock-chucks as they are some-
times called, live in the huge masses of slide-rock and are quite
different in appearance from the monax and
flaviventer forms.
They have a loud, piercing whistle and are ever on the alert,
seldom permitting a close approach. Their eyesight is keen,
for they must be on the lookout not only for
four-footed
enemies, but for the large birds of prey.
Woodchucks are not very often eaten by man, but are,
nevertheless, well flavored and deserving of more attention!
Old or very fat animals would not fall into this category.
The fur of some of the Old World Marmots figures as quite
an item in the fur trade, but skins of American species do not
seem to have been much exploited, although the fur of the
northern species is not unattractive.
Genus Otospermophilus
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, g ; Premolars, f Molars, |
; = 22
Rock Squirrel.— Otospermophilus grammurus
and related forms
Names.—Rock Squirrel; Canyon Squirrel; Gray Squirrel;
Ground Squirrel; Digger.
General Description.—A large grayish or brownish
Squirrel,
of terrestrial habits, with a long and moderately
bushy tail.'
Size about as in the true Gray Squirrels; ears
rather small
tail long, flat and bushy, but considerably narrower than the
tails of the arboreal Squirrels; first upper premolar small
and
peg-like.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation not
conspicuous.
Upperparts.- Grizzled gray, brown and dusky,
grayest
on shoulders, upper back and sides, brownest on rump
to
193
——
mid-dorsal region; gray appearing in small spots to produce

dappled effect; top of head light brownish; hands and feet
mixed gray, yellowish white and dusky,
light buffy; tail above,
below upperside but with more yellowish white; pelage
like
of upperparts blackish at base.
—
Underparts. Dirty grayish white with buffy suffusion.
Immature much like adults.
Measurements.- — Sexes of equal size. Total length, i8
inches; tail vertebr£e, 8 inches; hind foot, 2.4 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Rocky Mountain district and
western states from Colorado and the Columbia River south
into Mexico.
—
Food. Seeds, nuts, acorns, grains, fruits, green vegetation,
and some animal food.
—
Enemies. Hawks, Coyotes, Foxes, Bobcats, Weasels,
Badgers, and most of the small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Otospermophilus

Colorado Rock Squirrel. — Otospermophilus
grammurus gram-
murus (Say).
As described. Found from eastern Colorado south into
Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, west into south-
eastern California.
Utah Rock Squirrel.- Otospermophilus grammurus utah
(Merriam).
Very close to typical grammurus but smaller, ears larger,
and back much redder. Found from the Wasatch Moun-
tains of Utah eastward into Colorado.
Texas Rock Squirrel. Otospermophilus grammurus buckleyi
(Slack).
Resembling typical grammurus but with black on the an-
terior half of the dorsal surface and with much more black
elsewhere; tail more bushy. Upperparts glossy black from
nose to lower back and rump; some sprinkling of gray on
flanks and thighs; hands and feet dark brown grizzled with
gray; tail mixed gray and black; underparts light grizzled
gray and dusky. Total length, 20 inches; tail vertebrae,
8.5 inches;hind foot, 2.4 inches. Found in southern and
western Texas.
Couch Rock SquirreL Otospermophilus grammurus couchii'
(Baird).
Resembling buckleyi in having much black on upperparts;
color pattern variable; head black and usually back gray,
but sometimes entire animal is black, occasionally dark^
gray. Found in northeastern Mexico and reaching only
the southern part of Texas, in the canyons of the Rio
194
ROCK SQUIRREL
Beechey Ground Squirrel; California

Ground Squirrel
UtospermopMus grammnnis beecheyi (Richardson)
—
bhghtly smaller than typical grammurus
but resemblinR it
rather closely m external appearance.
Upperparts mixed
gray, light brown, and dusky m
mottled pattern; brownest
on rump and lower back; a dusky patch
between shoulders-
grayest on neck; two light bands of
silver-gray from neck
runnmg down about to middle of body; top
of head li^ht
gnzzled brown and dusky; ears black on
outer side?; hands
tail mixed yellowish gray
fn tonP nn^^/'^=
and black, lightS
o^ lower side; underparts dirty
tJTI
Total length,
yellowish gray.
17 inches; tail vertebra, 7 inches; hind
foot
2_2 inches Found m west-central California from San
Francisco Bay south to Ventura County;
in Sacramento
Valley east of Sacramento River
and in northern part of
San Joaquin Valley. Plate XXIII
^mmrn^..., fisheri
^^^M^Sam)^'^'"''"'"^^*""^^'''^'''"'^^^^^^
naTerSnn^r^'? ^" Sr^y ^"^ ^'^^ ^^^^^^^ coloration, but

on sides of neck and shoul-
derf'^Tt
ders not so"^""'^^'^Zfy
much black on ear. Found in the southern
San Joaquin Val ey of California, north
to Madera County
east to Panammt Mountains and ^'
south to Mexico
fJ'J.'fSrfsr)"^^ ^^^^— ^-^-

Color pattern as in beecheyi but with
a better- developed
dark shoulder patch which is blackish
or brownish bla^ck
'^'''^ J^^^^k b^^î^g °" hairs of
tal "'Tnîl'''^r
tail ij^^^y
Total length 19 inches; tail vertebrae, 8 inches-
hind
foot, 2.3 mches. Found from the Columbia River sS
^-^-^ "-
LftTof^^^Tu^^r^^^^^^ ^-^^ -^^
.
BiSermgivom beecheyi in darker color and less
brown. yellowish
Top of head and ears black, nose miêd
ochraceous; sides of neck grayish with WackTnd
prolongatSn into
^^°"^ shoulders; patch between shoulders
?ni?.H Ki^?^''^
mixed black and tawny ochraceous; tail
above and below
buff mixed with black and bordered
with black, lighterTn
tone on underside. Total length,
19 inches; tai vfrtebr^
7.5 inches; hmd foot, 2.4 inches. Found on Santa Catahna
âtalma
Island Santa Barbara Islands, California.
^^"^^^^•"^^^^^^''^^^^"^^^ grammurm p^gktns
'(Bane^'y)
Resembling couchii but lacking the black
cap on head
Upperparts dark brownish gray with considerable
over head and ears, back coarsely blackish
variegated with irregular
black-tipped white crescents or wavy crossbars Lower-
195
parts varying from soiled whitish to rusty ochraceous; feet

plain ochraceous." (Bailey) Total length, 20 inches; tail
vertebrae, 9 inches; hind foot, 2.6 inches. Found in the
Mogollon Mountains of New Mexico.
The Ground Squirrels of the genus Otospermophilus might

be easily mistaken for Gray Squirrels (genus Sciurus) at first
glance, but can be distinguished by their less busy tail and
spotted or faintly mottled pelage. Furthermore, they run
into holes in the ground, and if up a tree when danger ap-
proaches get down to the ground as soon as possible. They
climb trees to a limited extent, but do not usually go very
high. Not infrequently one will climb up a few feet to sun
itself, or watch from the top of a stump or a tall stub.
These Squirrels haunt semi-open country in the northern

parts of their range where they may be found in clearings,
about overgrown fields or wherever brush and logs give good
cover. Farther south they may occur in open forest or on
rocky hillsides and shrub-covered slopes. In some sections
they are known as Rock Squirrels because of their fondness
for cliffs and rock masses. The members of this genus have
rather a wide altitudinal range and live from plains at sea-
level up to 8,000 feet elevation or higher.
In general, the habits of Otospermophilus are those of the
genus Citellus, see page 213. These animals are very injurious
and have still other claims upon
to crops in settled districts
the attention of man
because some species, notably the Cali-
fornia Ground Squirrel, serve as host for the flea which carries
the bubonic plague. They store up food for periods of bad
weather, become very fat toward the close of summer, and
hiijernate in the colder parts of their range.
The call-note of Otospermophilus is usually a single, loud
whistle, but sometimes it utters a series of whistles in a de-
scending scale. These Squirrels are strictly diurnal as are
all our Ground Squirrels.
Genus Callospermophilus
Dentition: Incisors, {-Canines, % ; Premolars, f ; Molars, | = 22.

196
I
MANTLED GROUND SQUIRREL
Say Ground Squirrel.— Callospermophilus

lateralis
and related forms
Names.— Say Ground Squirrel, and various
qualifying
words applied to "Ground Squirrel"; Big
Chipmunk; ^Big
Striped Chipmunk; Golden Chipmunk;
Golden-mantled Chip-
munk; Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel. Plate
XXIII
General Description.-A small to
medium-sized, ground-
dwelling Squirrel, considerably larger
than the Eastern
Chipmunk (Tamias), but somewhat resembling it
in external
appearance.Body robust, heavier than that of the true
Chipmunks but not as heavily built as many
of the Sper-
mophiles iCitellus); tail about half as long
as head and body
fiat, narrowly bushy; ears of medium size; first
upper premolar
small.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; some seasonal
variation
Upperparts.— Summer: Shoulders to tail
grizzled black
grayish white and buffy; crown of head,
sides of neck and
shoulders washed more or less heavily with
rusty yellowish to
bright chestnut, this area in marked
contrast to rest of upper-
parts and forming a sort of mantle; ring
around eye and spot
back of ear whitish; a pair of sharply defined,
narrow, lateral
stripes of yellowish white or gray
extending from shoulders
to thighs; above each light stripe
a short black stripe which is
usually imperfectly developed and
may be absent entirely
below the light stripe a well-developed black
stripe; below this
lateral black stripe color of sides
blends into color of under-
parts which is yellowish to yellowish
white; upper surfaces
of hands and feet buffy; upperside of tail
mixed blackish
brown and buffy, edged with buffy; lower
side of tail light
ochraceous or deep buffy, banded with black. .
Winter pelage grayer and with mantle

much less con-
spicuous. Immature like adults but grayer and without
the bright mantle.
Measurements.— Sexes of equal size. Total
^ length ii
mches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot,
1.6 inches
Geographical Distribution.-Forested
mountain slopes
of the western states from
California, Arizona, and New
Mexico north into British Columbia.
Food.-Seeds, grains, buds, green vegetation,
insects and
their larvae, occasionally young birds, eggs, and young Mice.
197
;
—
Enemies. Hawks, Weasels, Coyotes, Foxes, Badgers, and
other small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Callospermophilus
Say Ground Squirrel; Say Mantled Ground Squirrel. —

Callospermophilus lateralis lateralis (Say). Plate XXIII.
As described. Found in the mountainous, forested parts of
Arizona and New Mexico north to Wyoming.
—
Gary Mantled Ground Squirrel. Callospermophilus lateralis
caryi Howell.
Upperparts grayer than in typical lateralis, with more
strongly contrasting black and white stripes, white of sides
and underparts clearer, and underside of tail darker; upper-
— —
parts summer vinaceous cinnamon mixed with whitish;
white dorsal stripes tinged with buff; mantle and top of
head tawny. Total length, ii inches; tail vertebrae, 3.8
inches; hind foot,
i .6 inches. Found in the Wind River and
Gros Ventre ranges of Wyoming.
Charleston Mountain Ground Squirrel. —
Callospermophilus
Goldman.
lateralis certus
"Distinguished by pale general coloration in combination
with dark russet under side of tail; ... a dark, rich russet,
instead of ochraceous-buff or ochraceous-tawny tone."
— —
Upperparts summer ^grizzled grayish brown; mantle
tawny to tawny-ochraceous; "inner black stripes broad and
distinct." (Goldman) Total length, 10 inches; tail verte-
brae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found only in the
Charleston Mountains in southern Nevada.
Nevada Mantled Ground Squirrel. —
Callospermophilus later-
alis trepidiis Taylor.
Color in summer pelage: Mantle light ochraceous, three
lateral stripes broad; dorsal area between stripes grizzled
ochraceous, black and white; sides whitish with faint brown-
ish tinge; underparts white, pelage slate-colored at base;
tail above, black sprinkled with light ochraceous, below,
darker ochraceous, banded with black. Total length, 10.8
inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found
in the Pine Forest Mountains, Humboldt County, Nevada.
—
Wortman Mantled Ground Squirrel. Callospermophilus lat-
eralis wortmani (Allen).
Similar to typical lateralis in size, but paler throughout and
usually lacking the inner pair of black stripes white lateral
;
stripe whiter mantle a much paler shade of reddish brown

;
upper surfaces of hands and feet almost white. Found from

Sweetwater County, Wyoming, south into the northwestern
corner of Colorado (Routt Co.).
—
Montana Mantled Ground Squirrel. Callospermophilus later-
alis cinerascens (Merriam).
Very similar to lateralis in size and general appearance.
Inner black stripes present but short; general tone of dorsal
MANTLED GROUND SQUIRREL
region grayish; mantle, in summer, dark chestnut-red-

tail
above, black mixed with pale buff, below, pale buff-
uiider-
parts grayish white; outer side of hind limbs pale
brownish
Total length, ii inches; tail vertebra;. 3.8 inches;
hind foot
1.6 inches. Found from Yellowstone Park north through
Montana and Idaho into Alberta.
Hollister Mantled Ground SquirTeL—Callospermophilus
later-
alis tescorum Hollister.
Larger, darker, and more richly colored than
cinerascens'
upperparts grizzled brownish gray; mantle extensive
dark
reddish brown; lateral stripes broad and well defined'
espe-
cially anteriorly; hands, feet, lower sides,
and underparts
creamy white, with buffy tinge on throat and upper foreleg
Total length, 12 inches; tail vertebrce., 4 inches; hind
foot'
1.8 inches. Found in Alberta and British Columbia in the
vicinity of the Moose Pass branch of the Smoky River.
Washington Mantled Ground SquiTreL—Callospermophilus
lateralis saturatus (Rhoads).
Differing from typical lateralis in larger size and
darker
color. Summer pelage: Mantle chestnut mixed with black-
throat, breast, sides, and thighs rusty; dorsal region
grizzled
rusty and black; underparts fulvous; tail above, blackish
mixed and edged with rusty, below, reddish yellow banded
with black. Total length, 12.2 inches; tail vertebrae
inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in the Cascade
4 s
Moun-
tains of Washington; limits of range unknown.
Chestnut-tailed Ground Squirrel.— Callospermophilns lateralis
castanurus (Merriam).
Mantle bright rusty chestnut; inner black stripe nearly as
well developed as outer; dorsal region grizzled
reddish
brown, black, and yellowish; tail above, black mixed with
yellow and reddish brown, below, deep chestnut banded
with black; underparts washed with whitish to yellowish
white. Total length, 11.5 inches; tail vertebrce,
2>-7 inches-
hmd foot, 1.7 inches. Found in the Wasatch Mountains
of Utah north into Wj'oming; limits of range unknown.
Golden Chipmunk; Sierra Mantled Ground Squirrel; Gilded
Ground Squirrel. — Callospermophilus chrysodeirus chry-
sodeirus (Merriam). Plate XXIII.
Differing from lateralis principally in having much better
developed inner black stripes. Mantle rusty chestnut
without any black mixture; dorsal region grizzled gray,
light brownish and blackish; inner black stripe well
de-
fined, as long as outer; light stripe whitish or
yellowish
white and much longer than black stripes; underparts pale
grayish white to pale yellowish white; upper surfaces of
hands and feet washed with yellowish white to ochraceous-
tail above, mixed black, yellowish, and grayish,
below, deep
ochraceous banded with black. Total length, 11.5 inches-
tail vertebra;, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches.
Found in
199
the mountains of southern and eastern Oregon south into

CaHfomia as far south as Tulare County.
Callos pernio philuschrysodeirus trinitatis Merriam = Cal-
lospermophilus chrysodeirus chrysodeirus.
—
San Bernardino Mantled Ground Squirrel. Callospermophi-
lus chrysodeirus ber?iardinus (Merriam).
Resembling typical chrysodeirus but mantle duller in tone,
and with shorter tail and hind foot. Mantle dull fulvous,
_
top of head darker; otherwise very similar to typical chry-

sodeirus. Total length, ii inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6 inches;
hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found in the San Bernardino Moun-
tains of California.
Inyo Mantled Ground Squirrel.^ — Callospermophilus
chryso-
deirus perpallidus Grinnell.
A pale desert-range race of chrysodeirus, compared with
which it has "general coloration paler; middle of back,
rump and sides, more ashy in tone, head less richly tawny,
and under surface of body whiter. As a result, the black
dorsal stripes give an impression of greater sharpness."
(Grinnell) Total length, 10.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6
inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found in the Inyo Moun-
tains and the White Mountains of California.
The Golden Mantled Ground Squirrels, or to reduce a long

name, the Mantled Ground Squirrels, look and behave very
much like big Chipmunks. They are found only in the
western part of North America and their range does not meet
anywhere with the range of the Eastern Chipmunks (Tamias),
which they most resemble. From the Western Chipmunks,
the Mantled Ground Squirrels are readily distinguished on
the basis of their much larger size, less striped upperparts,
and reddish or tawny head and shoulders.
The members of the genus Callospermophilus are true
Ground Squirrels, or Spermophiles, living on the ground and
seldom climbing any distance above it. They dig burrows
in the earth, use of crevices in the rocks or under logs,
make
and are often found living side by side with the smaller Chip-
munks {Eutamias). They are active, alert little rodents,
beautiful when in full summer pelage, and are usually rather
unsuspicious and easily observed. Where they are unmolested
they quickly become audacious and I have seen them about a
mining camp become so tame that they would come up to
take food from the hands of the men. Mantled Ground
Squirrels run about over the open ground, among the rocks
200
GROUND SQUIRREL
and bushes, and in about fallen tree trunks in their search

and can be seen at any time from sunrise to sunset.
for food,
These Squirrels hibernate, in the colder parts of their range
going below ground before the first sharp days of autumn, and
during the late summer they become exceedingly fat. They
raise but one family of young a season, usually five or six in
number. They have a chirping call-note, coarser in quality
than that of the Chipmunks, and also utter a chattering,
hurried alarm call when thoroughly frightened.
Genus Citellus
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, g; Premolars, f Molars, f
;
= 22
Ground Squirrel. — Citellus columbianus

and related forms
Names. — Ground Squirrel; Spermophile; Gopher; Digger.
General Description. —A burrowing Squirrel
terrestrial,
of large size and short tail. Head rather rounded and nose
Fig. 48. Ground Squirrel
blunt; ears low and rounded; body robust; limbs short; tail a
little more than one-quarter of total length, flat and moder-
ately bushy; claws long, slightly curved, strong; first upper
premolar of small size; living on the ground and very seldom
climbing up into trees.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation not
2onspicuous.
201
Upperparts. — Grizzled yellowish, grayish and dusky; nose,

head, fore and hind limbs rusty yellowish; tail above, rusty
yellowish or rufous, the hairs banded with black and yellowish
and tipped with rufous; underside of tail mixed grayish,
yellowish, rufous and blackish, the black predominating.
—
Underparts. Buffy to rusty yellowish, brightest on chin,
throat, and base of tail.
Immature like adults but not as brightly colored.
—
inches; tail vertebrfe, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 2.2 inches.
Geographical Distribution. Most of —
western North
America from Alaska to Mexico and from the Mississippi
Valley to the Pacific Ocean.
Food. —Seeds, nuts, grains, green vegetation, roots, insects
and their larvae, occasionally young birds and mammals,
eggs.
Enemies. — Hawks, Weasels, Badgers, Coyotes, Wolves,
Foxes, Bobcats, and most of the small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Citellus
This a very large and widely ranging group, the classi-

is
fication of which is in need of considerable revision. The

differences between closely related forms are often so slight
that they are difficult to set forth in print and the animals
must be directly compared in the hand. There are several,
more and the
or less clearly defined, groups of Spermophiles
arrangement followed in this field book
intended to show
is
this grouping. The principal types of Spermophiles are

easily distinguished from one another, but the intermediate
varieties are not as well characterized.
Columbian Ground Squirrel. — Citellus columhianus colum-

hianus (Ord).
As described. Found in the mountains from western Mon-
tana, eastern Oregon and Washington north to western
Alberta and southern British Columbia.
Citellus erythrogluteius (Richardson) = Citellus columhianus
columhianus
Alberta Ground Squirrel. —
Citellus columhianus alhertcB Allen.
Resembling typical columhianus but differing from it in
heavier and more massive skull, and slightly paler color.
Total length, 13 inches; tail vertebrce, 4.3 inches; hind foot,
2.3 inches. Found in the mountains of southern Alberta;
vicinity of Canadian National Park.
GROUND SQUIRREL
Hudson Bay Ground Squirrel.— a/f-Z/w^ parryii parryii

(Richardson).
A heavy-bodied Ground Squirrel with short tail.
large,
Upperparts mixed yellowish brown, gray, and dusky the
gray m
small, irregular spots; top of head and sides of neck
rich reddish brown to yellowish brown; sides, limbs,
and
underparts warm yellowish brown to ochraceous; tail above
mixed yellowish brown, grayish and black, with black
gradually predominating toward the tip, terminal third or
quarter of tail black; underside of tail yellowish brown
to
rufous edged with black and heavily tipped with black
at
end of tail. Total length, 17 inches; tail vertebra?
inches; hmd foot, 2.6 inches.
46
Found in the Barren Ground
region from Hudson Bay west to about 116° and from
the
Arctic coast south to about 61° latitude on the
western
shore of Hudson Bay; limits of range unknown.
Citellus parryii phaognathus {Kichsivdson) = Citellus
parryii
parryii
Mackenzie Ground S^mrieL—Citelliis parryii kennicottii
(Ross).
Much like typical parryii but paler in general color, with
less dusky on back and without such warm shades of
ochraceous or brown on head and underparts. Total
length, 17 inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches; hind foot 2 5
inches. Found on the Barren Grounds from the Copper-
mine River and Great Bear Lake west into Alaska; limits
of range unknown.
Citellus barroiuensis (Merriam) = CitellMs parryii kennicottii
Kodiak Island Ground Squirrel.— C/V^-Z/mj parryii kodiacensis
(Allen).
"A form with cinerous lower parts, less fulvous above and
more bushy tail. ..." (Allen) -Found on Kodiak
island, Alaska.
Yukon Ground Squirrel.— C//e//2/5 osgoodi (Merriam).
Size large; tail long for the group; very red on
underparts in
summer pelage. Upperparts grayish to yellowish, dorsal
area with small, irregular spots of whitish; top of head
from
nose to ears, sides of head, limbs and underparts deep
ful-
vous to rusty reddish also individuals black all over are
;
not
uncommon. Males slightly larger than females. Total
length, 18 inches; tail vertebree, 5.6 inches;
hind foot 2 =;
inches; weight, average iH

pounds. Found in Alaska
along the Upper Yukon.
Bennett Ground SquiTrel.— Citellus plesius plesius
(Osgood)
Similar to typical parryii but smaller, with less
yellowish in
general coloration; also differing in cranial and
dental
characters. Upperparts yellowish gray mixed with black-
_
ish and whitish; top of head chestnut

mixed with black-
tail above, grizzled black, yellowish,
and whitish, below
cmnamon-rufous fringed with yellowish white; underparts
limbs, and sides of neck and face cinnamon-rufous.
Totai
203
length, 14 inches; tail vertebrcE, 2,.^ inches; hind foot, 2

inches. Found from the Stikine River (about latitude 56°
N.) and the Ogilvie Range (about latitude 65°N.) in
northern British Columbia and southern Yukon.
—
Nushagak Ground Squirrel. Ci tellies plesiiis ablusus Osgood.
Larger than typical plesiiis which it resernbles in color; hairs
of the tail with two or more annulations of black (fall
pelage). Dorsal region and rump brownish spotted with
grayish white; sides of head, neck, shoulders, and nape
grayish; underparts dull grayish white with wash of creamy |
white on belly; feet creamy white; tail below, with tawny \
medial area banded with black; tip of tail grayish white
(fall pelage). Total length, 16 inches; tail vertebrae, 4
inches; hind foot, 2.4 inches. Found on the base of the
Alaskan Peninsula on the higher ground along the Nusha- ;
gak River and down to the tidal mud flats in places.

—
Stone Ground Squirrel. Citellus stonei Allen.
Very similar to plesiiis ablusus and perhaps indistinguish-
able from it. Upperparts mixed brownish, grayish, and
dusky, with small irregular spots of grayish; grayish on
sides of neck, face, and shoulders; nose to top of head hazel;
forefeet pale yellowish white; hind feet deep buffy; tail
above, mixed gray, buff and black, the hairs broadly
banded with black, underside of tail pale ochraceous banded
with black and edged with grayish; underparts grayish
washed with buffy. Total length, 14 inches; tail verte-
brse, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 2.4 inches. Found on the
Alaska Peninsula in the region of Pavlof Bay; limits of
range unknown.
Shumagin Island Ground Squirrel. —
,•
Citellus
7
nebultcola
,
Osgood.
Resembling C. parryii kodiacensis "but smaller, shorter
tailed and apparently paler colored;" (Osgood) Total
length, 14 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.3 inches; hmd foot, 2.1
inches. Found on Nagai Island, Shumagin Islands, Alaska.
Cape Lisbume Ground SquitTeL— Citellus beringensis (Mer-
riam). n . •
,
Resembling typical parryii but with more yellowish on

dorsal region, whitish spotting more distinct, and larger
nose patch. Upperparts fulvous, palest on back, with dis-
tinct spotting of buffy whitish rusty red on nose and under-
;
side of tail. In winter pelage nose patch is brighter.

Found on Cape Lisbume (Coal Veins) Alaska.
Richardson Ground Squirrel; ^lickeridiil.— Citellus nchard-
sonii (Sabine). . . •.
, v . , 1
A medium-sized Ground Squirrel of rather uniform light

yellowish to grayish coloration; tail short and not very
bushy ears very small. Upperparts buffy yellow to grayish
•
washed with buffy fine irregular light spots or wavy mottling

;
on dorsal region sides of neck, limbs and underparts vary-

;
ing from rich buffy to grayish; tail above mixed

blackish
204
PLATE XXI
XJl
o
O
Q
W
GROUND SQUIRREL
and ochraceous, fringed with buffy, beneath ochraceous.

Total length, 12 inches; tail vertebras,3 inches; hind foot,'
1.8 inches. Found from southern Saskatchewan and
Alberta to Montana and North Dakota; in North Dakota
found north and east of the Missouri River.
Uinta Ground Squirrel. — Citellus armatus (Kennicott).
A medium-sized, short-tailed Squirrel with fairly soft
pelage. Upperparts mixed gray and black with wash of
dark brown on dorsal region; brighter on shoulders and
thighs; tail above and below mixed gray and black, banded
with black and fringed with gray; underparts gray washed
with buffy. Total length, 11 inches; tail vertebrcE, 2.5
inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in the foothills and
mountains of Wyoming, IMontana, Idaho, and Utah.
Wyoming Ground Squirrel; Picket-pin QoyhQr.—Citeilus ele-
gans (Kennicott).
A small to medium-sized Squirrel with short, moderately
bushy tail, small ears, soft pelage, and uniform brownish
gray coloration. Upperparts mixed gray, buffy, and dusky
with indistinct mottling; grayish on sides of head, neck and
body, brownest along dorsal region hands and feet grayish
;
to pale buffy; tail above, mixed buffy, gray and black, be-
low, light ochraceous banded with black and fringed with
grayish; underparts light buffy. Total length, 11 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2.7 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in
Wyoming, northeastern Utah, and northwestern Colorado;
Oregon Ground Squirrel.— aVeZ/M^ oregonus (Merriam).
Resembling armatus in general coloration but underside of
tail chestnut instead of grizzled gray and black. Upper-
parts rnixed buff and dusky to give general buffy gray tone,
with faint wash of pale brownish on head and dorsal region;
hands and feet buffy; tail above, mixed gray, blackish, and
light brownish, below, chestnut with subterminal band of
black and gray edging; underparts buffy to creamy white.
Total length, 11 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot,
1.65 inches. Found in sagebrush plains of southern and
eastern Oregon and northeastern California; limits of range
unknown.
Belding Ground Squirrel. — Citellus heldingi (Merriam).
Like oregonus in size and general color but browner above.
Upperparts buffy grayish with broad, poorly defined band
of chestnut from nose to tail; sides yellower; tail above like
back, below cinnamon-brown banded with black and edged
with grayish; underparts yellowish gray to pale brownish.
foot, 1.65 inches. Found in the "Transition and Boreal
Zones on the Central Sierra Nevada, at least from Nevada
County to Eldorado County ..." California. (Grinnell)
—
Townsend Ground Squirrel. Citellus townsendi (Bachman).
Similar to heldingi and to oregonus. Upperparts mixed
205
gray and dusky with dark reddish brown wash on dorsal

region and outside of Hmbs; tail above mixed black and
yellowish white, below, reddish; underparts grayish white
to buffy. Total length, 12 inches; tail vertebriE, 3.6 inches;
hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found on the plains of the Columbia
in eastern Washington and on the Snake River plains of
Idaho; limits of range unknown.
Mollis Group
Little Gray Ground Squirrel; Soft-haired Ground Squirrel.—

Citellus mollis mollis (Kennicott). Plate XXIII.
Size very small; pelage soft; tail short and narrow; ear
small coloration gray claws weak and compressed. Upper-
; ;
parts uniform grayish in general tone, mixed silvery gray,

yellowish brown and black; tail above mixed yellowish
brown, black and whitish, below, pale ochraceous frmged
with whitish; hands and feet grayish white; underparts
silvery gray washed with pale buffy. Total length, 8
inches; tail vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot, 1.3 mches.
Found in Utah and Nevada; limits of range unknown.
—
Sagebrush Ground Squirrel. Citellus mollis artemisicB
Merriam.
Smaller than typical mollis which it resembles m general
coloration, but with tail grayer and less buffy fulvous;
bullai and teeth much smaller. Total length, 7.3 mches;
tail vertebrae, 1.5 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found m
Idaho, Fremont County to Bingham County; limits of
range unknown.
Gray Soft-haired Ground Squirrel.— Q7e//M5 mollis canus
(Merriam). j
Smaller than typical mollis, with shorter hmd foot and tail;
-i
grayer. Upperparts finely grizzled gray and dusky with-

out buffy suffusion; underparts buffy to buffy gray; tail
grayer and less fulvous than in typical mollis. Total length,
inches.
8 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.5 inches; hind foot, 1.2
Found in Wasco County and adjacent sagebrush plains of
northern Oregon limits of range unknown.
;
—
Lost River Ground Squirrel. Citellus mollis pessimus
Merriam.
Resembling artemisia but larger and darker; tail longer,
larger, and darker. Total length, 8.2 inches; tail vertebr^,
I 8 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches.
Found along lower Big
Lost River, Fremont County, Idaho; limits of range un-
known. ^. „ 7,- -T
mollis vigihs
Malheur Soft-haired Ground Squirrel.— Citellus
(Merriam). .
^ r ^1
"Similar in general to canus; color iron-gray, hnely

lined,
much as in canus, but more hoary-whitish." (Merriam)

inches; tail
Skull characters different. Total length, 8.3
GROUND SQUIRREL
1.5 inches; hmd foot, 1.2 inches.

vertebras
Found from
Malheur County, Oregon, south into northeastern
Nevada
Carson Valley Ground Squirrel.— a/e/Zz^^ mollis
washoensis
Mernam.
"Size large; coloration grizzled gray throughout,
resembling
canus. bkull large, long, and massive. ..."
(Merriam)
Total length, 10.3 inches; tail vertebras, 2 inches;
hind foot
1.4 mches. Found m
Douglas County, Nevada; limits of
range unknown.
Stephens Ground SquirreL—Citellus mollis stephensi
^
(Merriam).
Resembling typical mollis, "but in summer pelage
head
and neck to shoulders uniform pinkish buff " (Mer-
nam) Total length, 8.2 inches; tail vertebr£e, 2 inches-
hmd foot 1.3 inches. Found in Owens Valley, Esmeralda
County, Nevada; limits of range unknown.
Yakima Ground SquiTTeL—Citellus mollis yakimefisis
(Mernam).
Resembling typical mollis "in sizeand general appearance
but tail slightly shorter; color grayer and less buffy but
not so gray as canus. Nasal bones very much longer
'than
in either molks or canus." (Merriam) Total length 8 s
inches; tail vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot,
1.4 inches
lôund m
Yakima County, Washington; limits of range un-
known.
Payette Ground Squirrel.— a/eZ/w^ idahoensis Meniam
Largest of the mollis group. Similar in general to
mollis
but larger, with much stronger tendency to dappling
espe-
cially m
young; tail longer, broader, and darker- eyelids
white; antenor rim of ear usually white. Skull
large and
massive. . '\ (Merriam). Color varying from pale
_. .
hoary grayish faintly suffused with buffy and more

or less
dappled on rump, to strongly suffused with pale buffy
and
distinctly dappled on back. Total length, 10.2 inches-
tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot,
1.4 inches. Found
along Payette River and northern side of
Snake River *
-Payette County, and southwestern Idaho.
Dwyhee Ground Squirrel.— C//^////^ leurodmi Merriam
Size rather large, about equaling idahoensis from
the oppo-
site side of Snake River, but with shorter tail.
Color gray
not dappled except in the young. Teeth very large
equal-
ing maximum of idahoensis. ..." (Merriam) Total '
length, 9.5 inches; tail vertebras, 1.9 inches;

hind foot i 3
inches. Found m
extreme southwestern Idaho, Owyhee
County; limits of range unknown.
Spilosoma Group
;i Paso Spotted Ground Squirrel; Spotted Sand Squirrel.—
Litellus spilosoma arens (Bailey).
A small, spotted Squirrel with short tail, about half as long
207
as head and body; ears small; claws long and slender; tail
round, slightly bushy toward tip; pelage short and harsh;
iris hazel. Appearing in two color phases. Reddish phase:
upperparts nearly uniform cinnamon with vinaceous tinge,
spotted with small, irregular, whitish spots arranged more
or less in longitudinal series tail cinnamon like back above,
;
more yellowish below; hands and feet whitish to pale yel-

lowish; underparts and ring about eye white; iris hazel.
Grayish phase: like reddish phase but ground color rusty
brownish gray. Total length, 9.6 inches; tail vertebrae,
3 2 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches.
Found in "Sonoran Zone
in southwestern Texas and the adjacent
parts of Mexico
—the Eastern Desert Tract." (Mearns) West into Lower
Sonoran of New Mexico.
—
Padre Island Ground Squirrel. Citellus spilosoma annectens
(Merriam). ,11
"Upperparts dull grayish brown; back beset with
• 1 -n j
ill-de-
fined buffy spots, margined posteriorly with

dusky in un-
worn pelage; underparts soiled white. Eyehds white.
Tail concolor with back or a little more fulvous, its distal
half or two-thirds bordered with a subapical
black band,
beyond which the tips of the hairs are buffy ochraceous."
(Merriam) Total length, 10 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6
inches- hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found on
"Southern coast
region 'of Texas (Padre Island, Mustang Island, and ad-
jacent mainland.)" (Mearns)
Apache Ground Squirrel.— a7e//«5 sptlosoma macrosptlotus
(Merriam). . , v r,^
^^^ j< ^-
"Ground color russet-brown, mixed with a tew light-tipped
Spots large, roundish, and far apart. Tail concolor
hairs
with
with the body on its proximal half; yellow, ringed
Feet and
black on terminal half; and yellow beneath.
undersurface white." (Mearns: Mamni. Mex. Boundary)
Gray phase: drab gray ground color washed with hoary;
whitish markings crowded and tending to form
transverse
wavy bars. Total length, 8.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 3
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found
the Sonoran m
Zone in the Elevated Central Tract." (Mearns), of south-
ern Arizona; Lower Sonoran Zone of New
Mexico.
—
Large Spotted Ground Squirrel. Citellus spilosoma
major
(Merriam). ^ ., /^ j
One
.
of the largest of the subspecies of sptlosoma.

Ground
color of upperparts light brown, spots
indistinct and most
numerous on rump; nose tinged with pale fulvous; tail pale
reddish brown on proximal half above, buffy
brown on ter-
minal half, with submarginal black band,
bordered with
Total length,
pale buff below buffy; underparts white.
Q s inches; tail vertebrae, 3.2 inches;
hmd foot, 1.4 inches.
Found in Upper Sonoran Zone from eastern New
Mexico
into Colorado as far as the valley of the
Arkansas
north
River.
208
GROUND SQUIRREL
Brown Ground Squirrel. — Citellus spilosoma marginatus

(Bailey).
Differing from arens in darker color and heavier spotting
and from major in finer, sharper spotting, "Upperparts
bright cinnamon-brown, the whole back from ears spotted
with whitish, the spots conspicuously edged with black."
(Bailey) Total length, 9 inches; tail vertebra, 2.7 inches;
hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in the Upper Sonoran Zone
of the Davis Mountain plateau of Texas.
Park Ground Squirrel. — Citellus spilosoma pratensis (Aler-
riam).
Smaller than arens. Upperparts uniform russet hazel with
numerous whitish spots which have blackish posterior mar-
gins; tail above like back but mixed with yellowish and
blackish hairs on proximal half, blackish bordered with
yellowish brown on distal half, below, yellowish; underparts
dirty white. Total length, 7.9 inches; tail vertebra, 2.4
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found on the pine plateau
at north foot of San Francisco IMountain, Coconino County,
Arizona.
Dusky Spotted Ground Squirrel.— C//£'//w^ spilosoma obsidi-
an us (Merriam).
Closely resembling pratensis but with longer feet and tail
and darker coloration. Ground color of upperparts dull
sepia brown, spots whitish but with black edging not very
conspicuous. Total length, 8.2 inches; tail vertebrce, 2.7
inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in the Cedar 'belt
northeast of San Francisco Mountain, Coconino County,
Arizona; west into Upper Sonoran Zone of New Mexico.
—
Desert Ground Squirrel. Citellus cryptospilotus (Merriam).
A small, pale form with only faint traces of spotting. Upper-
parts uniform buffy brown with yellowish or vinaceous
tinge, without spots; tail above like back, below yellower,
with subterminal black band which is more or less con-
cealed; underparts whitish. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail
vertebras, 2.4 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found on the
Painted Desert, Coconino County, Arizona.
Northern Spotted Ground Squirrel; Kennicott Ground
Squirrel. — Citellus obsoletus (Kennicott).
Resembling the subspecies of spilosoma in general appear-
ance but not spotted so conspicuously. Ground color of
upperparts sandy gray with vinaceous tinge, indistinctly
spotted with grayish white; hands and feet whitish; tail
above like back, bushy at tip and banded with black, be-
low, pale ochraceous, banded with black near tip and '
fringed with yellowish underparts whitish to creamy white.

;
Total length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebrse, 2.5 inches; hind foot*
1.3 mches. Found from western Nebraska to South
Dakota, Colorado, and Utah, in sandy country; limits of
range unknown.
209
Tereticaudus Group
Yuma Round-tailed Ground SquirreL — Citellus tereticaudus

tereticaudus (Baird). Plate XXIII.
A small Squirrel with plain, unspotted color pattern, very
small ears, short, cylindrical tail and hard, coarse pelage.
Upperparts (summer) uniform cinnamon-brown to pinkish
buff, the tips of hairs whitish to give finely speckled effect;
sides of head,Hmbs, and underparts white; tail above like
back, mixed with blackish toward tip, below, yellowish
with 'some black near tip. In winter, browner, with less
cinnamon tinge. Total length, lo inches; tail vertebrae,
4 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found in California from
as far north as Needles and west as eastern San Diego
County, south into Mexico Lower Sonoran Zone.
;
Arizona Round-tailed Ground Squirrel.— Ci/g//w5 tereticaudus

arizoncB Grinnell.
Resembling typical tereticaudus but tail shorter and color
of upperparts redder —
deep pinkish cinnamon tipped with
white. Total length, 9.4 inches; tail vertebras, 3 mches;
hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found in southwestern Arizona.
—
Death Valley Round-tailed Ground Squirrel. Citellus tereti-
caudus eremonomus (Elliot).
Differing from typical tereticaudus in slightly different color
of upperparts which is cinnamon with vinaceous tmge,
darker than in typical tereticaudus, with dark color of base
of pelage showing through. Total length, 10 inches;
tail
vertebrae, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 1.4 mches. Found m

Death Vallev, Inyo County, California.
Palm Springs Round-tailed Ground SqvihreX.— Citellus tereti-
caudus chlorus (Elliot).
Resembling typical tereticaudus in size but color different.
Upperparts olive-gray with brownish tinge; upperparts of
limbs olive-gray; hands brownish, feet whitish; tail above
hke back, with mixed blackish and brown near tip, below,
10
pale brown; underparts grayish white. Total length
inches; tail vertebra?, 4 inches; hmd foot, 1.65 inches.
Found in Riverside and San Diego Counties, California;
in Lower Sonoran Zone.
—
Mohave Ground Squirrel. Citellus mohavensis (Merriam).
Resembling the subspecies of tereticaudus in size, propor-
differently.
tions, and general color pattern but colored
Upperparts uniform sandy gray with very famt tmge of
vinaceous, the hairs dusky at base and tipped with whitish
producing a finely grizzled effect; hands, feet, and under-
parts white; tail above like back, mixed with dusky
on
terminal half, below whitish near base, mixed grayish and
dusky for terminal half. Total length, 10 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found the m
Lower Sonoran Zone of southern California, from Mohave
Desert northeast to Daggett.
210
—
GROUND SQUIRREL
—
Dolans Spring Ground Squirrel. Citellus neglectus (Merriam).
Resembling typical tereticaudus but smaller and with shorter
hind feet and tail. Upperparts grizzled grayish brown;
underparts white; tail above and below like back, bordered
with black. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebras, 3 inches;
hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found at Dolans Spring, Mohave
County, Arizona.
Rio Grande Ground Squirrel. Citellus mexicanus parvidens
(Mearns). Plate XXIII.
This Ground Squirrel is more or less intermediate in charac-
ters between the spilosoma group and the tridecemlineatus
group; color pattern striped and spotted somewhat as in
tridecemlineatus; tail fairly long and moderately bushy size
;
a trifle larger than tridecemlineatus ; pelage rather coarse

and harsh as in spilosoma. Upperparts marked from nape
to base of tail with nine longitudinal stripes of whitish upon
a ground color of pale yellowish brown to olivaceous, these
white stripes more a series of broken dots than a well-defined
continuous streak; top of head grizzled yellowish, grayish
and dusky; ears small; hands and feet pale yellowish; under-
parts whitish to yellowish white; tail above, grizzled gray
and black with faint wash of brown near base, below, pale
yellowish mixed with black and grayish: iris hazel. Total
length, 12.5 inches; tail vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.7
inches. Found in southwestern Texas, in desert areas.
Tridecemlineatus Group
Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel; Thirteen-lined Ground

Squirrel; Striped Prairie Squirrel; Striped Gopher. —
Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill).
A small to medium-sized Ground Squirrel with conspicu-
ously striped and spotted color pattern. Ears very small;
body slender rather than robust; tail comparatively short;
less than half of total length, and only narrowly bushy,
upperparts heavily marked with many alternate longi-
tudinal stripes of dark brown (with slight chestnut tinge)
and whitish, the dark stripes with central rows of whitish
spots; stripes on neck to shoulders solid and unbroken by
spotting; end of nose yellowish brown; top of head indis-
tinctly striped; sides of neck, lower sides of body, forelimbs
and underparts yellowish; pelage of underparts dusky at
base; tail above, mixed black and buffy, below, buffy mixed
with black. Total length, 11 inches; tail vertebrse, 4.3
inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found from southern Illinois
and northern Missouri to northwestern Ohio, southern
Michigan and central Wisconsin and west and northwest
to North Dakota and Saskatchewan. Plates XXI and
XXIII.
Missouri Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tride-

cemlineatus hadius (Bangs).
Color of upperparts with more red than in typical tridecem-
lineatiis. Ground color of upperparts rich chestnut; light
markings buff; underparts strongly buff; tail above, chest-
nut at base, the hairs with blackish band and buffy tips,
below, deep rusty red, tipped with buff. Total length, ii
Found in Missouri and northern Oklahoma.
Black Hills Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tridecemlineatits oliva-
ceus (Allen).
About same size as typical tridecemlhieatus but different in
color. Ground color of upperparts dusky brown to blackish
without any dark reddish tinge; pale markings pale buffy
with slight olivaceous tinge; underparts strong cream buff,
the hairs not dusky at base. Total length, 10 inches; tail
vertebrce, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found in the
Black Hills, South Dakota; limits of range unknown.
—
Pale Striped Ground Squirrel. Citellus tridecemlineatus pal-
lidus (Allen).
Paler in color than typical tridecemlineatus and slightly
smaller; ground color of upperparts chestnut sparingly
mixed with black, the light markings creamy white, the
light stripes nearly as wide as the dark ones; pelage of un-
derparts pale yellowish white to base. Total length, 9
inches; tail vertebree, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches.
Found from Montana and southwestern North Dakota
southeast to Kansas and south to western Texas and eastern
New A'lexico.
Small Striped Ground —
Squirrel.- Citellus tridecemlineatus par-
vus (Allen).
Smaller and paler than typical tridecemlineatus or pallidus.
Ground color of upperparts russet with a few black-tipped
hairs; light markings grayish white to pale creamy white;
underparts grayish white. Total length, 8.2 inches; tail
vertebra, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found from
southeastern Montana through eastern Wyoming into
northeastern Utah and northwestern Colorado.
Allen Striped Ground Squirrel. —
Citellus tridecemlineatus
alleni (Merriam).
Nearly as small as parvus but with coloration as dark as in
typical tridecemlineatus ; tail darker and with less reddish
than in typical tridecemlineatus. Total length, 8.5 inches;
tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found on
the lower slopes of the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming;
—
HoUister Striped Ground Squirrel. Citellus tridecemlineatus
hollisteri Bailey.
"Smaller and darker colored than C. pallidus, larger and
darker than parvus. In general appearance much like
alleni, but with darker brown back and crown, and with
212
GROUND SQUIRREL
light stripes of back more continuous." (Bailey) Total

length, 9.3 inches; tail vertebras, 2.8 inches; hind foot, 1.3
inches. Found in Lincoln County, New
Mexico; limits of
range unknown.
Texas Striped Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tridecemlineatus
texensis (Merriam).
Smaller than typical tridecemlineatus and redder in color.
Ground color of upperparts warm chestnut; light markings
buffy with sprinkling of chestnut; tail above with tinge of
rusty red on basal half, below strongly marked with rusty
red; underparts and edging of tail buffy. Total length, 9
Found in a narrow strip, between 96° and 98° (west to 99°
in northern Texas) through Texas into Oklahoma; limits of
range unknown.
Franklin Ground Squirrel; Gray Gopher. —
Citellus franklini
(Sabine). Plate XXIII.
The only unstriped member of the tridecemlineatus group.
A fairly large species of rather uniform coloration. Upper-
parts everywhere mixed dusky, buffy and grayish white,
the general impression varying from an iron-gray pepper-
and-salt to brownish marked with small light and dark
spots; head and neck slightly darker than rest of upperparts;
hands and feet dark gray; tail mixed black and gray, moder-
ately bushy; underparts grayish to buffy. Total length, 14
inches; tail vertebrse, 5 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found
in "The central United States and Canada, from Oklahoma
and Illinois to the Athabaska River. "(Bailey)
. . .
Ground Squirrels are so named because they are terrestrial

in habit as contrasted with the arboreal or tree-dwelling
Squirrels of the genus Sciurus. Most species of Ground
Squirrels very seldom or never climb up on trees; in fact, many
of the species live on deserts or where they have
treeless plains
no opportunity for climbing. Ground Squirrels may be dis-
tinguished from Tree Squirrels by their shorter and less bushy
tails and by the fact that the animals seek a refuge under-
ground. These Squirrels are seldom far from a burrow and
run for it immediately upon the approach of danger. The
genus Citellus is large and its members possess the ability to
find a livelihood in almost any environment.
The large Arctic forms like parryii live along the river
banks and plains of the far North. They are found on the
Barren Grounds, in rocky places, and show an especial fond-
ness for sandy hillocks.
Citellus columbiafius and its immediate relatives frequent
213
mountain meadows where grasses, flowering plants, and low

shrubs grow in the openings in the forests. It has a loud,
ringing call-note or whistle and when one gives the alarm,
others take it up, for these Squirrels live in colonies of a dozen
to fifty or a hundred and more. Columbianus stands stiffly
upright and emphasizes each call with a twitch of the short
bushy tail. It is a conspicuous Squirrel because of its bright-
colored limbs and underparts, as well as its large size. It
sometimes climbs up onto logs or stumps to sun itself or to
command a better view of the terrain. By midsummer it
has become very fat and goes into hibernation very early,
while there are yet many days of good weather. In the
mountains of eastern Oregon I have found this species denned
up by the middle of August and becoming scarce much earlier
than that.
The Ground Squirrels of the sagebrush plains are typified
by armatiis, elga?is or oregonus among the larger species, and by
the mollis group for the smaller forms. These two groups may
occur together in a locality, but the larger members are usu-
ally the more abundant, noisier, and more conspicuous.
Armatus and its kin stand up like picket-pins, chirp a loud
alarm note and colonize to some extent. They become very
fat and hibernate early. Mollis and its subspecies are in-
clined to be quiet and unobtrusive in habits. The call-note is
characteristically a Ground Squirrel's, but is a comparatively
weak whistle that does not carry far. These small Squirrels
delay hibernating longer than their larger relatives.
The desert-dwelling Ground Squirrels are represented by
the spilosoma group, the members of which are light-colored
and apparently well-specialized for a life in hot and dry sur-
roundings. They have either very short periods of hiberna-
tion or, where the winter is not severe, no inactive period.
They are abundant in sandy districts, and in the hottest
deserts may be practically the only mammal moving about
while the sun is out. The call-note is a lisping whistle.
The Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrels live on the prairies
and are very easily recognized by their peculiar, much-striped,
color pattern. They prefer the plains districts and brushy
areas and do not occur in the forest or on damp ground. They
are abundant in many places but are often able to escape
observation because the long grass hides and blends with the
214
ANTELOPE GROUND SQUIRREL
striped pelage. The call-note is a long trilling whistle quite

unlike the loud, single chirp or yelp of so many of the species
of Citellus. Members of this group have long periods of
hibernation, in the northern part of the range six months or
more.
Where Ground Squirrels come into contact with agricul-
ture they may, and generally do, become an economic prob-
lem. Because of their abundance and their fecundity, the
rancher or farmer must have recourse to poison, traps, and
guns to protect the crops. The number of young in a family
of Citellus may vary from five to as many as thirteen or four-
teen. Most of the species of Citellus raise but one family a
year; possibly this holds true for all of the North American
species. Wherever there is any extended period of hiberna-

tion, a second litter of young would not have time to store up
fat for the long sleep.
Ground Squirrels store up food in their burrows, which is
used as emergency rations in the spring before other food is
available and probably for a short time after they enter the
winter den in the fall.
Genus Ammospermophilus
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, f Molars,
;
I
= 22.
Antelope Ground Squirrel. —Ammospermophilus

leucurus and related forms
—
Names. Antelope Ground Squirrel; Antelope Squirrel;
Antelope Chipmunk; White-tailed Chipmunk, Plate XXIII.
—
General Description. A small, terrestrial Squirrel, slightly
larger than an Eastern Chipmunk, having a' single, longi-
tudinal, white stripe down each side; tail short, narrow, flat,
and carried turned up over the back when running; ears
rather small.
Color.— Sexes colored seasonal variation
alike; slight,
summer pelages somewhat brighter than winter.
Upperparts. — Mixed dark brown and vinaceous cinnamon
or finely grizzled with whitish or yellowish, grayest on neck to
mid-back, brownest on crown, rump, and outer sides of
Hmbs; pelage blackish at base; a single, well-defined, white
stripe on each side from shoulder to rump and separated from
215
the white underparts by a band of cinnamon hke rump hands ;
and feet yellowish white to buffy white; tail blackish, tipped

with whitish above, white below, narrowly banded with
black.
Underparts. — Glistening white.
Immature striped like adults, but much grayer.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, 8.5
inches; vertebrae, 3 inches; hind
tail inches.
foot, 1.5
Geographical Distribution. —Arid western and southwestern
states from Oregon south into Mexico.
Food. — Seeds, grains, and green vegetation; occasionally
insects; meat when obtainable.
Enemies. — Snakes, Hawks, Coyotes, Foxes, Bobcats,
Weasels, Badgers, and most of the small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ammospermophilus

Antelope Ground Squirrel. —Ammospermophilus leucurus leu-
curiis (Merriam).
As described. Found in the Sonoran Zone from Mexico
north to Mono County, California.
Cinnamon Ground Squirrel. —Ammospermophilus leucurus
cinnamomeus (Merriam),
Resembling typical leucurus in size and color pattern, but
upperparts with a decided cinnamon-brown tone. Total
length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 1.6
inches. Found in northern Arizona, southern Utah, south-
western Colorado, and northeastern New Mexico; Oregon(?)
Ammospermophilus leucurus vinnulus (Elliot) = Ammo-
spermophilus leucurus cinnamomeus.
El Paso Ground Squirrel; Texas Antelope Squirrel. —
Ammo-
spermophilus leucuriis interpres (Merriam).
Darker and more richly colored than typical leucurus and
with more gray on head; pelage longer and more silky.
Size as in typical leucuriis. Found in the "Sonoran Zone,
in the Eastern Desert Tract of New Mexico and Texas."
(Mearns).
—
Nelson Ground Squirrel. Ammospermophilus nelsoni nelsoni
(Merriam). Plate XXIII.
Larger and paler than leucurus. Upperparts, in summer,
dull fulvous or yellowish brown, pelage blackish at base;
lateral stripe white, with ochraceous tinge; tail above, black
fringed with white, below, buffy white; underparts buffy
white. In winter, somewhat darker on upperparts. Total
length, 9 inches; tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.6
inches. Found in the Lower Sonoron Zone in California
from vicinity of Bakersfield north into Merced County,
west to San Luis Obispo County.
216
ANTELOPE GROUND SQUIRREL
Los Baiios Antelope Chipmunk. —Ammospermophilus nelsoni

am plus
Taylor.
Larger and paler than typical nelsoni and with stripes less
distinct. In summer color of upperparts light buff, almost
whitish on sides of face and nape of neck. Total length,
9.7 inches; tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches!
Found in the San Joaquin Valley, vicinity of Los Bahos,
Merced County, California.
Harris Ground Squirrel; Gray-tailed Antelope Squirrel.^ —
Ammospermophilus harrisii harrisii (Audubon and
Bachman).
Resembling leucurus in general appearance but more
strongly colored, tail longer and not white below. Upper-
parts mixed blackish and vinaceous cinnamon, finely
speckled with whitish to give pepper-and-salt appearance;
grayest on neck and shoulders; lower sides and outer sides
of limbs grizzled cinnamon; tail above, blackish, the hairs
broadly tipped with whitish, below, gray (mixed black and
white); underparts whitish. Total length, 9.2 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found in the
Sonoran Zone of Arizona and New Mexico and north to
southern Utah and Nevada.
—
Rock Squirrel. Ammospermophilus harrisii saxicola (Meams),
Paler than typical harrisii and with a longer tail light mark-
;
ings everywhere more extensive. Total length, 9.8 inches;

tail vertebras, 3.8 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found in
the bare granite mountain ranges of the Lower Sonoran
Zone of Arizona, south into Mexico.
The members genus Ammospermophilus are found on

of the
dry, arid plains, on on the lower slopes of mountain
deserts, or
ranges. They are true Ground Squirrels and Hve among the
bushes or in the rocks. They take their name of Antelope
Ground Squirrels from their habit of carrying the tail curled
up over the back, when the white underside gives the animal
the appearance of a white rump patch like that of the Prong-
horn Antelope. By this habit the Antelope Ground Squirrels
may be easily recognized. They are diurnal in habit and are
active throughout the day. Over most of their range they do
not hibernate, but where they encounter a long period of snow
they are dormant for several months.
The Antelope Ground Squirrel has a roving disposition and
wanders extensively in the course of a day's search for food.
Seeds are carried in the internal cheek-pockets and stored in
underground burrows. This Squirrel has a chirping call-note,
a sharp whistle, and a fine trilling call, to suit the various needs
217
for utterance. It sits upright like a Prairie-dog upon occasions

and often displays great curiosity. Impulsive and nervous in
behavior, it may come close up to an intruder or become
suspicious and be very difficult to observe.
These Squirrels are prolific and rear several families a year,
the young numbering from four to twelve in a litter.
Genus Cynomys ^
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, f Molars, f

; = 22.
Prairie-dog. — Cynomys ludovicianus

and related forms
Names. — Prairie-dog;Barking Squirrel; Burrowing
Squirrel; Prairie Squirrel; Wishtonwish; Petit Chien. The
Prairie-dog
name in most common usage is Prairie-dog, the other names

listed appearing, for the most part, only in journals and
narratives of early explorers, such as Lewis and Clark, Pike,
and Brackenridge.
General Description. —A heavy-bodied, robust, terrestrial
Squirrel, short- tailed, social in habit, and with characteristic
^For a full revision of the Prairie-dogs see N. Hollister, North American
Fauna, No. 40, 1916.
PRAIRIE-DOG
Fig. 50. Distribution of the subspecies of Cy?iomys ludo-

vicianiis, after Hollister
1. Cynomys hidovicianus ludovicianus
2. Cynomys ludovicianus arizonensis
219
—
"bark." About the size of a small Woodchuck; head broad

and rounded; ears low and rounded; body stout; tail very
short, well haired but flat; legs short, wrist and heel well
furred, with a tuft of hair in center of palm; forefeet with
five claws; mammse 8 to 12; cheek-pouches present; pelage
rather coarse; iris hazel. Plate XX.
Color.— Sexes indistinguishable as to color.
Upperparts. — Dark pinkish cinnamon with fine grizzling of
black and buff; whitish or buffy on sides of nose, upper lip,
and eye-ring; sides, arms, and legs pale ochraceous-cinnamon;
feet buffy; tail like back except for terminal third, which is
blackish, underside of tail paler than above.
—
Underparts. Whitish to buffy white.
Winter pelage fuller, softer, and longer than summer, grayer,
with blackish on forehead.
—
Young. Above ochraceous-cinnamon, with fewer inter-
mixed white and black hairs than adults.
Pelage is molted and replaced by new coat from March to
May, and August to November.
—
Measurements. Females very slightly smaller than males.
Males, total length, 14. 5-1 6.5 inches; tail vertebrse, 3-4
inches; hind foot, 2.5-3.3 inches. Weight, from 2 lbs. 3 oz.
for females to 3 lbs. for males.
—
Geographical Distribution. Great Plains region.
Food. —
Native vegetation and crops. Grasses and green
vegetation, roots at times more or less omnivorous.
;
—
Enemies. Large Hawks, Eagle, Raven, Coyote, Badger,
Black-footed Ferret, and occasionally other carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Cynomys
Subgenus Cynomys
Black-tailed Prairie-dog. Cynomys ludovicianus ludovicianus

(Ord). Plate XX.
The animal just described. Found in "Great Plains region
of western United States, south from near the Canadian
border in Montana to west-central Texas (Mason County
to eastern Pecos Valley) east to about the ninety-seventh
;
meridian in Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma; west to the

Rocky Mountains in central Montana, Wyoming, and
Colorado, and in extreme eastern New Mexico. Chiefly
Upper Sonoran, but also ranging into Transition and Lower
Sonoran Zones. Introduced colonies exist, or have been
220
PRAIRIE-DOG
'IG. 51. Distribution of the species of the

subgenus Leuco-
crossuromys, after HolHster
1. Cynomys leucurus
2. Cynomys parvidens
3- Cynomys gunnisoni gunnisoni
4- Cynomys gunnisoni zuniensis
^^^ ^^"^^^ ^^^ ''^''^ °f and 4 a
itltSj"' ^' 3. little too far to the
reported as formerly existing, in Sac County and at Burling-

ton, Iowa; near Monroe, Louisiana; at Seneca, South
Carolina; and on Nantucket Island, Massachusetts."
(HoUister)
—
Arizona Prairie-dog. Cynomys ludovicianus arizonensts
(Mearns). •.•1.1
Slightly larger than typical ludovicianus and more brightly
colored. Found in "Southeastern Arizona, southern and
central New Mexico, southwestern Texas, and adjacent
portions of Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. North to San
Pedro and Santa Rosa, New Mexico; east to the Pecos
Valley; west to Huachuca, Arizona; south to San Diego and
Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, and to Presidio County,
Texas." (HolHster)
Subgenus Leucocrossuromys
White-tailed —
Prairie-dog. Cynomys leucurus Merriam.
Plate XX.
More like a Ground Squirrel (Citellus) m appearance than
the forms of ludovicianus. Tail less than one-fifth of the
total length, tipped with white instead of black, hving more
in the mountains than ludovicianus, which is a plains type.
Color, above, buffy streaked with blackish, dark brown spots
above the eye and on cheek; below, clear buffy. Tail clear
white for terminal half, white banded with blackish above
for first half. Total length, 13.5-14.8 inches; tail vertebras,
1.8-2.4 inches; hind foot, 2.4-2.6 inches. Found m "Ir-
regular areas in the mountainous parts of Montana, Wyom-
ing, Utah, and Colorado. South from the Bighorn Basm,
in southern Montana, across central and southwestern
Wyoming into western Colorado and northeastern Utah;
Utah east to the Laramie Mountains, Wyoming, and into
North Park, Colorado; south into the lower Gunnison
Valley; west a few miles across the Bear River Divide into
extreme northern Utah and, farther south, into the Green
River Valley. Chiefly Transition Zone." (Hollister)
—
Utah Prairie-dog. Cynomys parvidens Allen.
Closely resembling leucurus but redder and less buffy above,
smaller. Upperparts (summer) cinnamon. Total length,
12,2-15.4 inches. Found in "Mountain valleys of central
Utah in the Sevier River region south from Nephi to Iron
;
and Garfield Counties." (Hollister) w-n^

jn •
Gunnison Vraxrie-Aog.— Cynomys gunnisoni gunnisoni (Baird).

Resembling leucurus but darker, with less buffy and less
sharply marked on cheeks; tail with less white, more like
back for first half of its length. Total length, 12.2-14.6
inches. Found in "Rocky Mountain region of central and
central-southern Colorado and northern New Mexico.
North into South Park. Colorado; east to El Paso, Fremont,
and Huerfano Counties, Colorado; south into the Sangre de
222
PRAIRIE-DOG
Cnsto and Jemez Mountains, New Mexico; west to western

Counties, Colorado, and to westeS
R
Rio Art^h.^?"^
o Arriba ^f ' New
County, v^' Mexico.
Chiefly Transition Zone,
''
"^ ^''°'^'' ^""^ ^°^"' P^^'^ °^ ^^^^^^^^
Zone (HoDfs?er)
Zuni Prairie-dog.— C3'wom3;^ gunnisoni
zuniensis
bomewhat larger than typical gimnisoni, withHollister
larger hind
^^^ cinnamon, less yellow
aJTd hl.^t^^TT^^°''^'^^°'''
15.2-15. inches; tail vertebrae,
2 2 2. ?n;hJ if-^ w^^^
^-^-^-^ '^^h^s- Weight, male
Hh^'î T- <S^
""
^T^'
Southwestern Colorado, extreme 'south:
Lstem mTv, iôythwestem and west-central New Mexico
nfi north-central
and Ji '
Arizona. North in western Colorado

to
Grande Valley Espanola and east to Pecos and the
to_
Manzano Mountams; south on the west side of the Rio
Grande Valley to Sierra
and Socorro Counties, New MexS
west m central Arizona to Prescott
and the Hualpai Indian
*******
tôTzrr-^-
The Prairie-dog
sociable habits.
^°^°^^^' ^^^ ^^- - T--^
(go'iitêry^^^^
is a fat, short-tailed
Ground Squirrel of
As part of the name implies, this animal is
a
creature of the prairies and open plains, but the
other par+of
the name is false for he is not even distantly related to the
Dog.
As may be seen from the map, the range
_ of this genus is
imited, and Prairie-dogs are found only in
western North
America. The genus is peculiar to
the New World and only
;ix species and subspecies
are comprised in the group
We
find early mention of these
Squirrels in the journals
)fLewis and Clark and other pioneer explorers.
The sight of
he large "dog-towns", covering a
great many acres in favor-
ible localities, so impressed the first settlers that the Prairie-
bg became a much-discussed feature and no geography or
•ccount of the West failed to mention the animal, generally
s part of the trinity-Prairie-dog,
Rattlesnake, and Burrow-
ig Owl.
Today the West is changing; ranching is
breaking up the
irge dog-towns"; the Prairie-dogs are being
exterminated
1 the agricultural sections; and the
belief in the interesting
:ory of the friendships between
mammal, bird, and snake is
Id y shaken by the discovery
that
the Burrowing Owl and the
lake feed on the young "Dogs " when
they are lucky enough
) catch one, and the Prairie-dog may
eat a young Owl, or
223
bury a Rattlesnake alive when he gets one down a hole.

There are still, however, many regions where the Prairie-dog
is life and there are some
a conspicuous part of the plains
of the large "towns" Bailey (N. A. Fauna, No. 25, p.
left.
90) describes a practically continuous town 100 miles wide by

250 miles long and containing 400,000,000 individuals (1901).
The Prairie-dog digs a large burrow, often with a built-up
rim about the entrance, and as he has sociable habits, all of
the Prairie-dogs of a given locality will usually be found in the
one spot. The animals are diurnal, active only by day, and
under normal circumstances a colony will have part or most
of its members scattered about feeding within the confines
of the colony or at a short distance from the outermost bur-
rows during the morning or afternoon. A few animals may,
perhaps, be especially on the lookout for enemies. If a man
approaches, the alarm note, a piercing chirp or whistle, sends
all of the Prairie-dogs scurrying to the nearest burrows.
At the verge of safety they all stop and watch, some standing
up stiff and rigid, and unless the colony has been unduly
molested many of the animals will delay the dash down the
burrow until the last possible moment. Meantime the alarm
note has been caught up and carried throughout the "town"
and as long as the intruder is in the vicinity the call will be
given. When the animals nearest the danger pop down out of
sight, those out of burrows may still keep watch and send
the alarm.
Prairie-dogs are always plump, but soon after the summer
has brought out the grasses, clover, and low- growing plants
they feed on, they become very fat. In the colder parts of
the animal's range this fat serves a useful purpose during the
short period of hibernation. Vegetation is eaten close near a
Prairie-dog "town" and when the colony is located on the
borders of a grain-field much damage is done. Aside from the
material destruction to crops the Prairie-dog proves a nuisance
because of the many large holes he digs into which a horse
may step. The Badger visits the towns and digs out the
Prairie-dogs, making even larger holes to trip a rider.
The Prairie-dogs have many enemies, but because of the
excellent watch they keep are often able to escape such
dangers as Eagles and Coyotes. The Black-footed Ferret
and the Badger go into the holes after their prey, and against
224
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
these enemies the Prairie-dog has Httle

defense. Its powers of
reproduction, however, keep its numbers
up in spite of such
attacks. The number of young in a Htter is usually four but
may run as high as six or eight, and the young are
born early in
Alay. The young are
seen about the burrows in late
first
Alay or early June in the north, early
May in Texas and
after a few weeks show a rapid
rate of growth. Bv the end
of the summer they are only slightly
smaller than the parents.
Genus Eutamias
Dentition: Incisors, Canines,
i ; 2; Premolars, f Molars,
;
22.
Western Chipmunk. -Eutamias quadrivittatus

and related forms
Names.— Western Chipmunk; Chipmunk.
General Description.-Smaller, more
Plate XXIV
slender than the
Eastern Chipmunk, with finer stripes
and lacking the bright-
FiG. 52. Western Chipmunk

colored, reddish rump and hips. Ears narrow,
erect and
covered with short hairs; head somewhat
rounded; active and
dert m behavior; terrestrial in habit.
Color.—Adults: Sexes colored alike.
Summer pelage brighter than that of winter and
spring, but
dentical m pattern and essential coloration.
225
Upperparts. —Conspicuously striped withfive dark and four
light-colored, longitudinal stripeswhich run from shoulder

almost or quite to base of tail; the dark stripes are black,
the light stripes are whitish or buffy; the median stripe,
down the mid-line of the back from crown to root of tail, is a
dark stripe, and then on either side there is a succession of
narrow, longitudinal stripes alternating light and dark; the
lightest colored stripe the lowest of the lateral stripes;
is
sides grizzled chestnut or rufous;a whitish patch back of ears,

whitish stripes above and below eye; top of head grayer than
sides of body; tail, which is about as long as head and bod3%
moderately bushy, mixed black and ochraceous buff.
Underparts. —
Everywhere whitish, the pelage slate-colored
at base and showing through to give grayish appearance to
underparts; underside of tail rufous, the hairs banded with
black and tipped with ochraceous buff.
Young.— Like adults, striped, but color pattern less con-
trasting and colors weaker.
Measurements.— Total length, 8.5-9.5 inches; tail verte-
brae,3.5-4 inches; hind foot, 1.35 inches.
Geographical Distribution.-Western North America. Un-
fortunately, detailed geographical ranges of these Chipmunks,
based upon all the available records, have not been published
and hence the distributional data given in this handbook must
be considered as provisional. Mr. A. H. Howell, of the U. S.
Biological Survey, has worked out the distribution of the
genus, based upon more than 10,000 specimens, and it is
hoped that his studies will soon be in published form.
Food.— Seeds, nuts, buds, fruit of many varieties, some
insect and animal food, such as birds' eggs.
Enemies.— Snakes, Hawks, Weasels, Foxes, Coyotes,
Badgers, and Wildcats.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Eutamias
This genus is a very large one, containing no less

than
fifty-seven forms, according to the most recent publication
of Mr. A. H. Howell. » The differences between many of
the
closely related forms are so subtle that they would be

of little
value to the laymen, and lack of space forbids setting them

I
Howell; Journ. Mamm., Aug. 1922, p. 183-185.
226
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
forth in detail.Since the essential color pattern in each of the

principal groups does not vary appreciably,
the differences
being mainly in shade or tone, the diagnosis
given for each
form is condensed, it being
assumed that the animal in
question conforms to the standard pattern
unless otherwise
stated.
The geographical ranges given are by no means
compre-
hensive, for the reason stated above,
but will serve as an
approximate key for distribution.
Quadrivittatus Group
^^^ <^^VTnunk.~Eutamias quadrivittaius

^?i5'^''v.^; ^«/g^^f°
quadrtvtttatus
As described above.
(Say). Plate XXIV
Found in forests and brushy areas in
mountains of Colorado throughout a large
part of the state
and southward into New Mexico, rangingûp
up tos
tu s 90000?
y,ooQ or
10.000 feet elevation.
Hopi Oai^mnx^.~Eutamias quadrivittatus
hopiensis (Merriam)
Lighter and brighter colored than
typical quadrivittaHci:
"P^^.^^S^^.êstnut in color; median dark stripe with
£f'^f
faint sprinkling of black; facial stripes and
ear patch whitish
"^d^^-^t^ whitish. Total
leShT.TnVhr^.'-r^ît'
iWw' P ^
'' ^^'^ ^5^^^^^' 3-5 inches; hind foot,
southwestern Colorado south into New
1.25
Zf.t'r.
Mexico andT"""^ lu
northern Arizona, north into southern Utah!
ranging up to above 7,000 feet
elevation. Plate XXIV
Uinta Lhipmunk.—Eutamias umbrinus
(Allen)
Resembling typical quadrivittatus but larger
and outer darker
stripes
reduced or obsolete; color much as in
rzvittatus Total
typical
length, 10 inches; tail vertebr^^
S-
mches; hmd 4 o
foot, 1.3 inches. Found in Wasatch
'i^citLii ana
and
Umta Mountains of Utah
Beaver Mountain Chipmunk.—E^^tomm^
adsitus Allen
""^""^ '" ^^""^^ Mountains, Mil-
Sm So'inTy,Ttr"-
Cliipmunk.-£z,tomm. ruficatidus ruficaudus
^''^Xwdl'^
Similar to umbrinus but more rufescent; head and face with
underside
unde^r'^^J; ofSt tailI'f f^"P^' ^""^ ^^^ P^^^^ g^^^îsh
dark orange-rufous. Total
length 11
white;
inches; teil vertebras,
4.75 inches; hind foot, 1.36 inches
^^'^ ''^^°" ^"^ Bitterroot Mountains,'
Montana.
Chipmunk.-£.,/am.-a^ ruficaudus simulans
^"^""Hower^
Resembling typical ruficaudus, but paler
on sides, under-
surface, and edging of tail. Total length,
9.9 inches tSl
vertebra, 4.7 mches; hind foot,
1.3 inches. ^Foundll the
^ 227
mountains of northwestern Montana (west of the main

divide), northern Idaho, northeastern Washington, and
southeastern British Columbia.
—
Gray-necked Chipmunk. Eutamias cinereicollis cinereicollis
(Allen).
Somewhat similar to umbrinus but grayer on sides of neck
and shoulders, and with brownish or blackish outer dorsal
stripes present. Total length, lo inches; tail vertebras, 4
inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in New Mexico and
Arizona, in Mogollon Mountains, San Francisco Mountains,
and White Mountains.
—
Gray Chipmunk. Eutamias cinereicollis cinereus Bailey.
Paler and grayer than typical cinereicollis, dorsal stripes
clear and sharply defined, three black, four light stripes
(2 gray, 2 white) crown, shoulders, and rump clear ashy
;
'
gray; feet buffy. Total length, 9 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6
inches; hind foot, 1.33 inches. Found in the Magdalena
Mountains, Socorro County, New Mexico.
—
Gray-footed Chipmunk. Eutamias ciîereicollis canipes Bailey.
Resembling typical cinereicollis but grayer color through-
out, not as gray as in cinereus, however. Feet clear gray,
with no tinge of yellowish. Total length, 9.2 inches; tail
vertebrae, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found in the
Guadalupe Mountains, El Paso County, Texas.
—
San Bernardino Chipmunk. Eutamias speciosus speciosus
(Merriam). Plate XXIV.
A handsome, medium-sized Chipmunk with much white or
gray on upperparts. Outer pair of light stripes broad and
white; facial stripes and ear patch well defined, whitish; ear
washed with rufous on anterior base, black on anterior half,
whitish on posterior half; dark stripes dark brown to black-
ish, outer pair of dark stripes obsolete; grayish wash on top
of head and sides of neck; light rufous wash on sides; feet
gray; tail edged with yellowish, broadly tipped with black
below. Total length, 9.3 inches; tail vertebras, 4.8 inches;
hind foot, 1.32 inches. Found in California in "High Tran-
sition and Boreal Zones on the San Jacinto and San Bernar-
dino mountains, and on the extreme southern Sierra Nevada
from Taylor Meadow (near Kern County line), Tulare
County, north at least to Kearsarge Pass, Inyo County."
(Grinnell)
Mt. Pinos Chipmunk. —Eutamias speciosus callipeplus (Mer-
riam).
Resembling typical speciosus in size and pattern of colora-
tion, but has thighs and rump yellowish instead of gray,
larger and whiter ear patches, and less black on tail. Total
inches. Found on Mt. Pinos, Ventura County, California.
—
Sequoia Chipmunk. Eutamias speciosus sequoiensis Howell.
Similar to typical speciosus but more brown and less gray
above; median pair of dark stripes with more cinnamon;
228
'
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
rump and hmd feet buffy; tail longer. Total length

inches; tail vertebrae, 4.5 inches; hind
q6
foot, 1.44 inches
lôund on the upper slopes of the southern
Sierra Nevada
M Al?>
Mt.
'°.^^^ ^° '^"^^
•^°^'^''!f r^^'^'^^t,
Whitney and Olancha Peak."
îê^ and east to
(Howell)
Inyo Chipmunk.—Eutamias speciosus inyoensis
Merriam
Resembhng typical speciosus but "facial stripes less'
oro-
nounced; post-auricular patches ill defined; rump
grizzled
golden yellowish instead of gray; middle
dorsal stripe
blacker; gray on back of neck more extensive;
black tip of
tail shorter. (Merriam) Total length, 9 inches; tail
vertebras, 4 inches; hmd foot,
1.35 inches. Found on
Boreal summits of White and Inyo mountains,
CaHfomia "
(Merriam)
Tahoe Chipmunk. — Eutamias speciosus frater (Allen)
Resembling typical speciosus but with dark colors
more pro-
nounced and less black on tail; slightly smaller
in size
lotal length, 9 mches; tail vertebra,
4.8 inches; hind foot
1.3 mches. Found m California in "Transition and Boreal
Zones on the Sierra Nevada in the vicinity
of Summit,
Placer County and Lake Tahoe, south to
vicinity of Kear-
sarge Pass, m Inyo County."
— (Grinnell)
Palmer Chipmunk. Eutamias palmeri Merriam.
About the size of typical quadrivittatus but
differing in
coloration. Dorsal stripes rather short except median
dark
stripe which reaches between ears; much
gray on upperparts-
dark stripes pale rusty, median stripe darker,
outer pair
obsolete; facia stripes faintly developed;
ear patch ill
defined whitish; tail black, edged with
yellowish above
rufous below banded with black, edged
with yellowish
Total length, 8.8 inches; tail vertebra,
I 32 inches. Found only on the summit of Charleston Peak
Clark County, Nevada.
Townsendii Group
Characterized by large size and (for most part)
dark pelage.
Very large, with dark color pattern; five dark

perparts varying with season from yellowish
stripes Un-
olive-gray to a
rich yellowish brown; dark stripes black
or brownish black-
facial stripes and ear patch grayish
; feet grizzled buffy gray
^-.^^""r}'^^ ^f""^^^
â^d^d with black and edged with
whitish, below, rufous, black and whitish; underparts white
Total length, 10 mches; tail vertebra,
4.5 inches; hind foot,
1.44 mches. Found m humid coastal region of Oregon
Washington, and southwestern British Columbia '
Cooper Chipmunk.— EMtomm^ townsendii

cooperi (Baird)
fesemUmg typxcaMownsendii, but lighter colored, grayer.
Light-colored dorsal stripes grayish
instead of brownish;
229
;;
rump grayish. Measurements about as in typical town-

sendii. Found inCascade Mountains of Washington where
it has been taken in Skamania and Kittitas Counties and
about Mt. Ranier at elevations of 4500 and 5500 feet.
—
Redwood Chipmui^k. Eutamias townsendii ochrogenys Mer-
riam.
Somewhat similar to typical townsendii, but duller colored,
with less conspicuous striping; underparts not white.
Upperparts grizzled olive-gray and golden; dark stripes
brownish black, outer pair of dark stripes very faint; outer
light stripes grayish, inner pair almost same tone as un-
striped upperparts; ear patch grayish; cheeks and sides of
nose ochraceous; underparts washed with buffy. Total
inches. Found in California in "narrow, humid northwest
coast strip (Transition and Boreal Zones) from the Oregon
line south to Cazadero, Sonoma County; interiorly as far as
Cuddeback, Humboldt County, and Sherwood, Mendocino
County." (Grinnell)
—
Siskiyou Chipmunk. Eutamias townsendii siskiyou Howell.
Differing from ochrogenys in grayer coloration; light dorsal
stripes grayish; sides of head and face with less ochraceous;
underparts only faintly washed with buff. Total length,
10.7 inches; tail vertebrae, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.46 inches.
Found in "the Siskiyou Mountain region of northern Cali-
fornia and southern Oregon, ranging north to the upper
Rogue River Valley, Oregon." (Howell)
—
Allen Chipmunk. Eutamias townsendii senex (Allen).
Resembling siskiyou but grayer, especially on rump and
thighs; underparts white. Upperparts grizzled grayish,
sides washed with fulvous or rufous; outer light stripes
grayish white, inner grizzled gray and fulvous; inner dark
stripes blackish, mixed with rufous; outer stripes rufous;
face markings rufous and whitish; ear patch gray; feet
tinged with buffy tail edged with whitish. Total length, 10
;

Found from Mariposa County, California, north along
Boreal Zone of Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges to Crook
County, Oregon.
—
Sonoma Chipmunk. Eutamias townsendii sonomce (Grinnell).
Intermediate in color of underparts between typical town-
sendii and ochrogenys; brighter above than ochrogenys, more
conspicuously striped. Upperparts bright cinnamon-rufous
median dorsal stripe black, outer dark stripes mixed with
rusty; light-colored stripes gray obscured with rusty, outer
pair of light stripes clear ashy gray sides cinnamon-rufous,
;
ear patch clear white; underparts white, sometimes with

creamy wash on mid- ventral region. Total length, 10 inches
tail vertebrae, 4.5 inches; hind foot, 1.44 inches. Found
in California in Mendocino, Solano, Sonoma, Trinity, and
Yolo counties at elevations of 500 to 6,000 feet.
230
-
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
Marin Chipmunk. —Eutamias townsendii alleni Howell

Slightly smaller than sonomcB; pelage darker
that sonomcB
but brighter than ochrogenys and more distinctly striped-
outer pair of light stripes with strong buffy tinge-
underparts
with light wash of buffy. Total length, 9.2 inches-
tail
vertebra;, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.48 inches.
Found in
Coast region of Marin County, California, from
Point
Reyes east to Mount Tamalpais." (Howell)
Long-eared Chipmunk.— £z//aw /a 5 qnadrimacidatus (Gray)
A large-eared, bright-colored species. Upperparts grizzled
grayish and rufous; three internal dark stripes well
defined
black mixed with rufous; outer pair of dark stripes
less con-
spicuous, rufous m
color; inner light stripes gray, mixed with
rufous, outer pair neariy clear whitish; broad,
facial stripes
and large ear patch white; black markings on sides of
face
and head conspicuous; feet buffy; tail above, rufous at
base
ot hairs, banded with black, edged with
whitish, below
broadly rufous, black banded, white edged;
underparts
white. Total length, 10.5 inches; tail vertebrae,
4.8 inches-
hmd foot, 1.44 inches. Found in "Upper Transition
Zone along west slope of Sierra Nevada, from Yosemite
National Park northward at least to Quincy
Plumas
County." ^ (Grinnell)
Merriam Chipmunk. — Eutamias merriami merriami (A.llen)
Size rather large; color pattern dull and
grayish. General
tone of upperparts grizzled grayish and buffy;
dark dorsal
stripes hve m number; inner pair of light stripes colored like
hanks outer pair light grayish; ear patches
inconspicuous
gray; dark stripe through eye from nose to ear;
hairs of tail
above, black, banded and tipped with buffy
to whitish
below rufous, banded with black, edged with buffy
under-
parts white. Total length, 10 inches; tail
vertebrae 46
inches; hmd foot, 1.3 inches. Found in "Upper Sonoran
and lower Transition Zones on the mountains of
the San
Diegan district, south to the Cuyamaca and Laguna
moun-
tains, San Diego County; also north and
east through the
1 ehachapi mountains and along the western foothills
of the
Sierra Nevada at least to Raymond, Madera County also
north through the coast ranges to San Luis Obispo "
County
^'
(Grinnell) Plane XXIV.
—
Santa Cruz Chipmunk. Eutamias merriami pricei
(Allen)
Resembling typical merriami in size and dull type
of color
pattern, but much browner where merriami is
gray Upper
parts mixed brown and gray; dark dorsal stripes
mixed hazel
and black, outer pair of dark stripes with very little
black
inner light stripes with very little gray;
outer pair more
conspicuously gray; sides warm tawny; underparts
white
lightly tinged with buffy on abdomen.
Total length 10
inches; tail vertebra3, 4.6 inches; hind
foot, 1.4 inches
lôund m humid Transition and Upper Sonoran in the
coast region south of San Francisco Bay,
from San Mateo
231
County to Monterey County, inclusive . . . ." (Grin-

nell)
Kem Basin Chipmunk.—Eutamias merriami kernensis Grinnell
and Storer,
Similar to typical merriami but even grayer; ashy gray on
sides of head and neck; dorsal stripes narrow; underside of
tail ochraceous tawny. Measurements same as for typical
merriami. Found in Kern and Tulare Counties, California,
at altitudes from 2,000 to 7,000 feet, Upper Sonoran and
Transition Zones.
—
Gila Chipmunk; Cliff Chipmunk. Eutamias dorsalis dorsalis
(Baird). Plate XXIV.
A good-sized form with only one prominent dark stripe.
Upperparts grizzled gray, blackish and tawny; median dark
stripe brownish black to blackish, other dark stripes so
faint as to be almost indistinguishable; light stripes only
faintly defined, mixed with general color of upperparts;
facial stripes and small ear patch well-defined light gray;
sides of neck and body tawny; tail above, mixed black,
yellowish and white, below, ochraceous tawny banded with
black and edged with white; underparts white. Total
inches. Found in mountains of western New Mexico and
of Arizona.
Utah Cliff Chipmunk. —Eutamias
dorsalis utahensis Merriam.
Resembling typical but smaller, paler, and with less
dorsalis
black in dorsal stripe. Color pattern subdued as in typical
dorsalis, stripes inconspicuous, three dark stripes and four
light ones discernible upperparts mixed gray and buff sides
; ;
tawny; underside of tail fulvous; underparts white. Total

length, 9 inches; tail vertebrae, 4.1 inches; hind foot, 1.3
inches. Found in "Utah, eastern Nevada, northern Ari-
zona, and northwestern Colorado, in the Upper Sonoran and
Transition Zones." (Warren)
Amoenus Group
Klamath Chipmunk. —Eutamias amcenus amoenus (Allen).
A conspicuously striped form with rich coloration. Five
dark and four light stripes well defined; three inner dark
stripes black, sprinkled with rufous, outer pair of dark
stripes much shorter and mixed with color of sides; inner
pair of light stripes grizzled grayish, outer pair white; facial
stripes conspicuous; ears small, ear patch dull gray; crown
of head mixed gray, rufous, and black; sides warm rufous
(richest in summer pelage); feet washed with tawny; tail
above, mixed black and warm buff, below, ochraceous black
and warm buff; underparts whitish, more or less suffused
with warm buff. Total length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebras, 3.8
inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in Transition and
Boreal Zones from northwestern California north through
central and eastern Oregon and Washington. Plate XXIV.
232
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
Ochraceous Chipmunk.— Ew/awm^ amcenus ochraceus

Howell
Larger than typical amosnus, more ochraceous above
par-
ticularly on head and rump, less blackish in
dorsal stripes
tail paler above and below. Found "only in the Siskiyou
Mountain region of northern California and southern
Ore-
gon. ..." (Howell)
Mono Chipmunk. — Etitamias amcBniis monoensis Grinnell and
Storer.
Resembling typical amcenus but general tone paler
and
grayer, light-colored stripes whiter; size as in
typical
amcenus. Found "on the arid crest and east
wall of the
central Sierra Nevada [California], where it is
characteristic
of the Canadian Zone." (Grinnell)
Buff-bellied Chi^mniik. Etitamias ~ amcenus luteiventris
(Allen).
Very similar in size and proportions to typical amcenus
and
colored very much like it; underparts with strong
suffusion
of ochraceous buff. Found in Transition and Canadian
Zones from southern Alberta south into Montana
and
Wyoming.
Bitterroot Valley Chipmunk.— Ewtowm^ amcenus vallicola
Howell.
Resembling luteiventris, "but averaging paler throughout
especially the head, upperparts of body and
under surface
of tail. Total length, 8.8 inches; tail vertebra^
4 inches-
hmd foot 1.3 inches. "This subspecies is apparently con-
fined to the Bitterroot Valley [Montana] and
the adjacent
foothills but the exact limits of its range are
not known "
(Howell)
Gray-tailed Chi^mnn^.—Eutamias amcenus canicaudus (Mer-
^
riam).
Resembling luteiveîtris but with tail edged with gray
rather
than buff; with broad, conspicuous stripes and
general tone
of upperparts vmaceous gray.
_ Total length, 92 inches-
tail vertebr^, 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.32 inches.
Found in
i ransition Zone of eastern Washington.
Columbian Chipmunk. —Eutamias ammius
affinis (Allen)
Closely reseml)ling typical amcenus and
superficially 'verv
similar to typical quadrivittatus. This subspecies is given
m Howell s list of the forms of Eutamias, but I can
discern
no descnbable external differences between it and
tvpical
amcenus. Found in Transition and Canadian
Zones of
southern British Columbia.
Hollister Chipmunk. —
Eutamias ama^nus ludibundus (Hoi
^
lister).
"A large member
of the amcenus group, nearest
to
luteiventris, but with sides of quite a
different tint -'darker
and more tawny, less bright and yellowish.
Underparts
about the yellowish color of luteiventris; tail darker
be
neath." (Hollister) Total length, 8.6 inches; tail verte-
brÊ, 3.8 inches, hmd foot, 1.36 inches.
"Found along the
^Z3
.
boundary line region between Alberta and British Columbia.

—
Mt. Baker Chipmunk. Eutamias amoeniis felix (Rhoads).
Resembling luteiventris but darker in color, with heavier
suffusion of ochraceous on sides, cheeks, and underside of
tail; loroad, heavy, black stripes; much rusty brown on
upperparts. Total length, 9.8 inches; tail vertebrcE, 4.2
inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches Found in the Mt. Baker
Range, British Columbia.
—
Olympic Chipmunk. Eutamias amcenus caurinus (Merriam)
Resembling typical amosnus but darker and with larger
hind foot; ear patch reduced; dark stripes broad and black.
Total length, 8.4 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.4 inches; hmd
foot, 1.36 inches. Found in Olympic Mountains, Washmg-
ton, up to timber-line.
—
Panamint Chipmunk. Eutamias panamintinus (Merriam).
A medium- sized species with bright, warm colorationnum-re-
sembhng speciosus superficially. Dark stripes, five m
ber, chestnut, median stripes with some admixture of
black,
outer pair merging into ochraceous suffusion of sides; inner
light stripes grizzled gray, outer pair whitish; small
ear
patch gray; facial stripes weak; feet and edging of tail
ochraceous buff; underside of tail tawny; underparts white.
Total length, 8.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.8 inches; hmd foot,
1.28 inches. Found in the Panamint Mountains, Inyo
County, California.
Minimus Group
Characterized by small size, and in most of the forms by
bright color pattern, and well-defined dorsal stripes.
Least Chipmunk. — Eutamias minimus minimus (Bachman).
Size small; striping distinct; colors pale.
Upperparts
grizzled sandy gray washed with ochraceous buff
on sides;
dark stripes well defined, mixed rufous and brownish
black;
ear patch
inner light stripes sandy gray, outer pair white;
small, inconspicuous, whitish; facial stripes
moderately
developed; feet grayish; tail above, black and
ochraceous
buff below, ochraceous buff fringed with
black and ochra-
inches;
ceous buff; underparts white. Total length, 7.2
tail vertebree, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 1.18
inches. Found on
plains and Sonoran plateaus in Wyoming
northeastern
Utah, and northwestern Colorado. Plate XXIV. _ ^
Painted Chipmunk; Sagebrush Chipmvmk.—Eutamias mini-

mus pi ctus Allen). Plate XXIV.
{
Resembling typical minimus but shghtly larger

. ^ ,
size, m
. .
Upperparts
darker in color, and more heavily striped.
dark stripes
gray mixed whitish, buffy and blackish;
\yashed with
blackish to very dark brown; sides Hghtly
warm buff;underside of tail warm buff, fringed with cream
color. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebras, 3.6 inches;
hind foot, 1 .2 inches. Found on sagebrush plains of eastern
234
—
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
Washmgton, Oregon Idaho, northeastern California,

Nevada,^ Wyoming, and Utah.
Coulee Chipmunk.—Eutamias minimus grisescens
Howell
Resembling pictus but smaller and grayer, with
less buffv
inner pair of light dorsal stripes broader,
tail paler and
grayer. Total length, 7 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.2 inches-
hmd foot I.I mches Found in the"Coulee" region, east
^^^'"' -^°^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ Counties, Washing-
ton
—
Cary Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus caryi Merriam
Resembling typical minimus but paler and
grayer
wmter pelage pale, clear gray on neck, rump, flanks,' In
inner
and
pair of light dorsal stripes; dark stripes
with less dark
brown; white ear patch fairly conspicuous. Total length
7-6 inches; tail vertebra?, 1.6 inches; hmd
foot, 1.2 inches'
Found m San Luis Valley, Costilla County, Colorado.
iâle Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus pallidus (Allen)
bimilar to typical minimus in size but slightly
paler' Color
pattern very like that of typical minimus,
but flanks a
lighter shade of buff and upperparts
grayish with very little
admixture of buffy. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebra?
3.6 inches; hmd foot, 1.24 inches. Found in Montana
and Wyoming m
Great Plains region.
Bad Lands Chipmunk.—£«/awm5 minimus cacodemus
(Cary)
Ralest of the genus Eutamias. In
summer pelage resem-
bling palidus, but even paler. Dark stripes ochraceous
butt, median stripe darker but
not black; upperparts pale
grizzled gray washed with buff on sides;
ear patch incon-
spicuous whitish; tail above, black and
whitish, below
cream color, the hairs banded with black and
tipped with
whitish; underparts white. Total length, 8.6 inches- tail
,
vertebr^ 4.2 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches.

m Found in
Bad Lands of southwestern South Dakota and the the
Hat
f uT^l''-'' ^1
^^""'^^ ""^ extreme northwestern Nebraska.
Wo ^~^^'^^^^^^ minimus consobrinus (Allen)
A? u J 1^™^^
Much darker than typical minimus which it
resembles in
size. Upperparts mixed dusky rufous and gray sides
bright
;
rufous; dark dorsal stripes black, outer

stripes black
sprinkled with rufous; inner light stripes grizzled
gray, outer
pair whitish; ear patch small, grayish white;
tail below
rufous, fringed with ochraceous buff.
Total length 76
inches; tail vertebras, 3.4 inches; hind
foot, 1.2 inches
iôund m northwestern New Mexico, western Colorado"
and eastern Utah m
mountains and plateaus of Canadian
ând Transition Zones.
Bighorn Qh.ipmunk.~Eutamias minimus
confinis Howell
Larger than consobrinus but similar to it in
color; in summer
pelage, dark dorsal stripes less blackish,
more buffv on
thighs; mwinter more buffy on upperparts. Total
length
8.2 inches; tail vertebras, 3.6 inches; hind
foot, 1.^2 inches'
i^ ound m
the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming
235
—— —
Colorado Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus operarius (Merriam).

Very similar to consobrinus and also somewhat resembling
typical amoenus. Dorsal stripes broad and conspicuous;
inner dark stripes blackish, outer pair blackish, mixed with
rufous; inner light stripes grizzled gray, outer pair white;
rest of upperparts mixed gray, blackish and fulvous; sides
washed with fulvous; small ear patch gray; tail below,
rufous, fringed with ochraceous buff. Easily confused with
quadrivittaius from which it may be distinguished by smaller
size, proportionally longer tail and grayish rump. Total
inches. Found in Colorado; chiefly east of Continental
Divide from foothills to timber-line.
Sacramento Mountain Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus atri-
striatus (Bailey).
Resembling operarius but somewhat larger and darker.
Dorsal stripes broad, five black stripes, two rusty and two
buffy whitish; sides dull grayish fulvous; abdomen with
yellowish tinge. Total length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebras, 3.8
inches; hind foot, 1.28 inches. Found in the Sacramento
Mountains, Lincoln County, New Mexico.
—
Arizona Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus arizonensis Howell.
" Similar in size and cranial characters to Eutamias minimus
atristriatus ; nearest in color to E. minimus consobrinus, but
general tone more grayish (less tawny), the shoulders fre-
quently washed with pale smoke-gray (as in Eutamias
cinereicollis); tail more bushy and color of undersurface
brighter tawny (about as in operarius) .'^ (Howell) Total
inches. Found in the White Mountains and Prieto Plateau
of eastern Arizona.
Timber-line Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus oreocetes (Mer-
riam) .
In spring pelage, somewhat resembling typical minimus.

Upperparts gray, washed with buffy yellow on sides of neck
and body; ear patch whitish; mid-dorsal stripe black, outer
dark dorsal stripes blackish and rusty; inner light stripes
whitish, outer white; feet whitish; tail below, pale fulvous,
banded with black, edged with ochraceous buff. Total
inches. Found near timber-line in mountains of Montana
and Wyoming.
Northern Chipmunk. Eutamias minimus boreal is (Allen).
About the minimus but darker in color.
size of typical
Upperparts mixed tawny, and gray; sides clear tawny,
median stripe blackish, other four dark stripes dark brown
to blackish, mixed with rufous; inner light stripes grizzled
gray, outer white; tail below, ochraceous, fringed with
ochraceous buff; underparts white, with light buffy tinge
in some specimens. Total length, 8.2 inches; tail vertebras,
3.8 inches; hind foot, 1.28 inches. Found in forests, east
236
PLATE XXII
^B.
Photo by A. A. Allen
Lyster Chipmunk
(Tamias striatus lysteri)
WESTERN CHIPMUNK
of the Rockies, from North Dakota,

South Dakota, and
Montana north to Mackenzie, Canada
Eutamias minimus neglectus = Eutamias minimus borealis
according to Howell. '
^^ Chipmunk.—£«tomm^ minimus caniceps (Os-

^^^^'oodf
Resembiing horealis but grayer, ear patch more
conspicuous
underparts clear white. Dark dorsal stripes
black and
conspicuous, outer pair with some
ochraceous mixture-
outer light stripes white, inner gray; top
of head grayish-
sides ochraceous feet yellowish white;
; tail below, clay color'
edged with gray; underparts white. Total
length 8 8
inches; tail vertebras, 4 inches; hind
foot, 1.18 inches.
fntXiS^ Smb-r °' ^'^ ^^'^^' ^^^'^ ^^^-^^' --^^

Chipmunk.— £M/amm^ minimus jacksoni
^^^Ho^^'df"^^
Resembling So/'m/^-^ '-but upperparts and tail
more intense-
ly_ tawny; head_ and facial stripes slightly
darker; median
pair of dorsal stripes more strongly tinged
with sayal brown-
tail darker, both above and below."
(Howell) Total
length, 8.4 inches; tail vertebra, 3.6
inches; hind foot i ^2
inches. Found m northern Wisconsin, ^Minnesota,'
and
"'"'"^'^^''^ '""^^ western Ontario and
east as far as
Ne^'ôr
Alpinus Group
Alpine Chii^munk.—Eutamias alpinus
(Merriam)
^^^^ Upperparts pale ashy gray,
with faint suffusion ofrPP^^-
tA,Tf^\^''^% buff on shoulders and sides- median
stripe pale rusty, with some dusky
admixture, outer dark
stripes rusty, not very long or
conspicuous; inner light
stripes narrow, grayish, outer pair
broader and whiter; facial
?:^' prominent; small ear patch
Skh-Til ""'^^f
whitish; feet gray; tail above, mixed black and
gray to
.
yellowish, below, clay color and black,

edged with gray to
yellowish; underparts white. Total length, 7.6 inches
tail vertebrae
34 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found onlv '
• m
the Boreal Zone of the southern Sierra
Nevada, Califor-
nia, Tulare County to Inyo
County.
_
The Chipmunks of the genus Eutamias are confined in their
iistribution to the western half of North America. Some of
:he forms reach as far east as Lake Superior and
Lake Huron
Dut the greatest number of species
are found in the Rockj^
Vlountam region and thence westward. In
eastern North
\menca the genus Tamias seems to take the place
of Eutamias
)ut although members of both genera go by the
name of Chip-
237
.
munk and have a rather close superficial resemblance, there is,
nevertheless, quite a distinction between the

Western and
Chipmunks. The fine striping and slender, more
Eastern
agile build of a typical Western Chipmunk readily distin-
guishes it from the broader striped, heavier bodied Tamias,
which in many characters more nearly resembles some of the
pernio philus)
small western Ground Squirrels {Callo s
The Western Chipmunks are a large and much diversified
group. In the terminology of the
mammalogist, they are said
to be very plastic; that is, there
seems to be a distinct type of
for each change of environment; and
one rather
Chipmunk
that the influences of
widely accepted explanation for this is,
environment find the Chipmunk to be an easily moulded
the
organism and have modified its characters. Regardless of
influenced by
whether one believes that animals are directly
not, no mammalogist can deny that
environmental forces or
a close correlation between the color pattern of £w- ,
there is
is found.
tamias and the type of country where it ^
coastal belt of southern
In the humid, heavily forested,
British Columbia, Washington,
Oregon, and California, we
and most somber colored of all the Chipmunks,
find the largest
large size is correlated with
the townsendii group. Here the
environment, and the
an abundant food supply and congenial
with the humidity of the atmosphere. At the other
dark color
living in the open, sun-
extreme stands the minimus group,
flooded, arid plains and deserts and well characterized by
difference in the appearance
small size and pale colors. The
two groups fully equals the contrast
of the members of these
between their respective environments.
The gap between
pale Chipmunks and the large, dark Chipmunks is
the small,
over by many variations in size and
color pattern.
bridged
association in western
There is scarcely any pecuhar ecological
peculiar form of
North America which does not have its own
the animal can find food there. This
Chipmunk, provided
species and subspecies
accounts for the great number of known
however they vary, are yet easily recognized as mem-
which,
bers of the genus Eutamias.
alert, active
Wherever it is found, the Chipmunk is a bright,
during most of the daylight hours and,
creature moving about
in most cases, easily observed.
In general, the species which
are most liable
live onthe open plains are shyest, since they
238
Plate XXIII
ouirrsl
>ay (jrn)undJSc|Uin-el Littlp. G7*<w-

-
GroLLTid .Sciuirr-cl
Nelson Groimd Scriiirrel
Round-tailed
Gt-oLuid Sauirrel
Californta Oa-CflMnd S:nj,irr-2

WESTERN CHIPMUNK
to attack and can not afford to take chances

where the hazards
of the terrain are against them. On
the other hand, the forest-
dwelling species, with avenues of escape at every turn, are
often bold, curious, and easily approached. They are also
most often heard calling or chattering.
The call-note of the Western Chipmunk does not vary
greatly throughout the genus and the observer has no difficulty
in recognizing it whether he has ever seen that particular
species before or not. The alarm note is a sharp, high-pitched
which may be frequently
chirp, generally given as a single note
repeated. In cases of extreme alarm the note may be re-
peated so rapidly as to almost run the syllables together.
Usually theie is some distinction between a scolding chirp
and one indicating unrestrained terror. Chipmunks call at
the appearance of an enemy, such as a hawk or man, and when
chasing one another. When a Chipmunk calls from some
vantage point,—a log, stump, or top of a bush,— the vocal
effort is accompanied by a nervous and energetic twitch of
the
tail.
The tail is habitually carried more or less extended and not

curved over the Ijack, as sometimes in the arboreal Squirrels.
When the animal is undisturbed and moving slowly, the tail
is slightly curved and extended, or at right angles to
the
body; when he stops or sits up to eat, it may be drawn in a
closer curve at the side or toward the back. Some of the
plains Chipmunks carry the tail straight up at right angles
when fleeing in alarm.
Chipmunks tame easily and make interesting pets. In
places where they come into contact with man and are not
molested, they very soon learn that they have little to fear, and
allow a very close approach.
In most regions Chipmunks find an abundance of food in
and during the warm months of
seeds, berries, nuts, buds, etc.,
the year need not search long for a meal. They store food in
the internal cheek-pocket and carry it to burrows or holes in
the rocks, sometimes with such a quantity in the side of the
face as to cause a very obvious swelling.
The Chipmunk makes its nest underground, burrowing into
the earth at the foot of a stump or beside a rock or log, and is
terrestrial in habit, although it climbs readily when
pressed
by an enemy, and sometimes climbs up a short distance on
239
tree trunks from choice. When feeding it often chmbs shrubs

for fruit or nuts.
It is active much and even in the cold parts of
of the year
its range may sometimes
be seen on bright sunny days in
winter. Hibernation does not seem to be as complete as with
the Eastern Chipmunk. In its southern range it is above
ground every day in the year.
The Chipmunk assumes two, sometimes three, very dis-
tinct pelages in the course of the 3êar. The brightest pelage
is that of the breeding season which appears (depending upon
the locality where the species lives), in April, May, or June.
This coat is followed by the post-breeding or summer pelage
which usually lacks some of the intensity of the late spring or
early summer coat. Finally, in October or November, appears
the winter pelage, generally the most subdued of the annual
color patterns. The winter pelage is very worn and ragged in
appearance before it is replaced by the new fur of the breeding
season. Not infrequently there is enough difference between
the worn winter and the fresh breeding pelages to make the
same animal look like two distinct forms. Most of the de-
scriptions given in this account are those of summer pelages,
unless otherwise specified, but lack of space does not allow the
listing in detail of these different patterns for so many sub-
species.
Chipmunks have only one litter of 3ôung a year, as nearly
as can gather from personal observation and records, and if

I
there is any significance in the assumption of a distinct breed-

ing pelage we should expect no more than one litter annually.
While conditions are such that no more than a single litter
could be raised in a northern summer, there is no hindrance to
prevent the successful raising of more than one litter in the
Cliipmunks' southern range where other rodents have several
litters annually. The average number of young in a litter
is four to six.
Chipmunks are subject to various parasites and I have

found them infested with ticks, the larvae of the bot-fly, and
internally with the threadworm.
Genus Tamias
Dentition: Incisors, J; Canines, 2; Premolars, \; Molars -| = 20,
240
Plate XXIV
EASTERN CHIPMUNK
Eastern Chipmunk. —Tamias striatus

and related forms
—
Names. Chipmunk; Common Chipmunk; Eastern Chip-
munk; Chipping Squirrel; Hackee. Plate XXIV.
General Description. —A small, terrestrial Squirrel, with
conspicuous dorsal stripes; flattened and hairy tail; well-
developed cheek-pouches; alert, nervous behavior; and high-
pitched, jerky call-note. Head rounded, ears prominent but
short and rounded.
Color. — Sexes alike in color some seasonal variation.
;
Upperparts. — Summer: Grizzled rusty red to reddish brown

from nose to rump, clearest and brightest on rump; five black-
FiG. 53. Eastern Chipmunk
ish stripes extending from shoulders to rump, arranged as

follows: a black median stripe running from between ears
almost to root of tail, most conspicuous from shoulders to
hips; on either side of the median stripe is a narrow band of
the grizzled reddish or chestnut body color; then on either
side are two dark stripes, shoulders to hips, separated by a
light-colored stripe, bright buffy to whitish. While these
dark and light stripes are brilliantly conspicuous along most
of their extent, they fade away more gradually into the body
color of the neck and shoulders and rump. Upperside of
tail similar to back, the hairs banded with black and tipped
241
with whitish or yellowish; ochraceous or buffy stripes above

and below the eye and a dark stripe passing through eye;
flanks and sides tawny brown or chestnut; hands and feet
ochraceous to tawny.
Underparts. — Much lighter colored than above, generally

whitish, sometimes with suffusion of buffy or ochraceous;
underside of tail rufous, bordered laterally with blackish
and fringed with gray.
Winter pelage duller and darker, with less reddish on
upperparts.
—
Young. Like adults but colors less contrasting.
—
Measurements. Total length, 9 to lo inches; tail vertebrae
3.5 to 4 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Eastern North America from
latitude 49° through northern Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Michigan, Iowa, and eastward to the Atlantic; south to about
latitude 34°.
—
Food. A great variety of seeds, grains, nuts, acorns, berries,
etc., but including some animal food such as insects, birds'
eggs, and young Mice.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Hawks, Weasels, Foxes, Wildcats,
Badgers, and other small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Tamias

Eastern Chipmunk. — Tamias striatus striatiis (Linnaeus).
As just described, found on the Atlantic seaboard from
Georgia north to southern Virginia and Ohio.
Gray Eastern Chipmunk. — Tamias striatus griseus Mearns.
Larger, grayer than typical striatus, and with more sub-
dued color pattern. Total length, 10.9 inches; tail verte-
brae, 4 inches; hind foot, 1.46 inches. Found west of the
Great Lakes, in the upper Mississippi Valley.
Lyster Chipmunk. —
Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson).
Noticeably paler than typical striatus, with rump bright
yellowish red. Total length, 9 inches;' tail vertebrae, 3.4
inches; hind foot, 1.36 inches. Found in region from 50°
north latitude south to northern New York and west to
Ontario and Michigan. Plate XXII.
—
Bangs Chipmunk. Tamias striatus venustus Bangs.
Dorsal stripes shorter, but colors brighter and more intense
than in typical striatus. Total length, 10.5 inches; tail
vertebras, 4 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found in the
extreme southwestern limits of the range of the striatus
group, Oklahoma.
242
EASTERN CHIPMUNK
Fisher Chipmunk.— raw m^ striatus fisheri Howell.

Paler and grayer than typical striatus, smaller than griseiis,
intermediate mcolor between striatus and lysteri. Total
length, 10 inches; tail vertebras, 3.6 inches; hind foot
i 4
inches Found m
the "Middle Atlantic States from the
lower Hudson Valley, New York, south to southern Virginia
*******
and extreme eastern Kentucky, and west to Ohio "
(Howell)
The Eastern Chipmunk is one of the best known of our

small eastern mammals and is familiar to every farmer's boy
and to every hunter and man who lives an out-of-door exist-
ence. Its bright coloration, alert, active behavior, and
shrill,chirping call-note readily set it apart from any other
eastern Squirrel. In the western United States, some of the
smallGround Squirrels look very much like the Eastern Chip-
munk, but differ sufficiently in detail (see Say Ground
Squirrel, page 197) to be recognized as distinct animals.
The Common Chipmunk, while a true Squirrel, belongs
to the section of the Squirrels which spend most or all of their
existence on the ground, living in holes in the earth, as dis-
tinguished from the Squirrels which live in the tree-tops. It
isperhaps not as far advanced in its terrestrial habits as the
western Ground Squirrels, and climbs up stumps and trees
on occasion. It has been seen at considerable heights feeding
in beech or elm trees, and when seeking refuge from a Dog
climbs freely, although it is by no means as capable in this
respect as is the Red Squirrel.
The Chipmunk has an inquisitive disposition and is very

apt to linger on the verge of safety to scold and chatter at an
intruder. The commonest alarm note is a shrill, chirping
,
whistle, which is accompanied by twitches of the tail or jerk-
ings of the body. When not disturbed the Chipmunk has a
distinctive call, a "chuck" or "cluck."
The Eastern Chipmunk goes into complete hibernation
when cold weather sets in and spends the winter curled up in a
ball in its nest underground. The time for the winter dis-
|appearance varies with different regions and with the severity
jof each particular season. An average time would be from
jSeptember to October, and the time of reappearance March
|to April. This animal does not become excessively fat in
Ithe autumn as do most hibernating mammals.
243
The number of young in a litter is from four to five, and I

have seen no records of more than the one brood a year.
Genus Sciurus. Tree Squirrels

Subgenus Tamia sciurus'
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, {]
; Premolars, f ; Molars, f = 22.
Red Squirrel. — Sciurus hudsonicus

and related forms
Names. —Red Squirrel; Pine Sqiiirrel; Chickaree, Plate

XXV.
—
General Description. A small, arboreal Squirrel with
flat, bushy tail; fairly long ears; no internal cheek-pockets;
incisors narrow; rudimentary first upper premolar generally
present, but sometimes absent; inner toe on forefoot very
small; pelage fairly long and soft, but not silky; manner alert;
diurnal in habit.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; a marked seasonal variation.
—
Upperparts (winter). Rusty red from top of head to tail;
sides olive-gray, lightly sprinkled with black; ears tufted with
dusky hairs; tail above, yellowish rufous, the hairs banded
near the tips with black and fringed with pale yellowish rufous,
below, yellowish gray banded and fringed much as above,
tip with a broad, subterminal bar of black.
—
Underparts. Hairs slaty at base, washed with grayish
white and tipped with black.
—
Summer. Above, pale rusty red, brightest on outer sides
of legs and feet; a narrow, black, lateral line; ears without
tufts; tail less buffy than in winter, but colored much the
same; underparts clear white.
Immature duller than adults.
—
Measurements.' Sexes of equal size. Total length, 12.5
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of forested North
America.
—
Food. Nuts, seeds, buds, berries, some insects and animal
food such as birds' eggs and fledglings.
^ For a revision of this subgenus see J. A. Allen, Bulletin Amer. Mas.

Nat. Hist., Vol. X, pp. 249-298, 1898.
244
RED SQUIRREL
—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Pine Martens, Foxes, Wildcats,
and other small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Subgenus Tamiasciurus
The Chickarees are fairly constant in general pattern

'
of coloration, although the different forms vary in color, shade

or minor details of pattern. The Chickarees are the smallest
of the tree-climbing, diurnal Squirrels.
Hudsonicus Group
Characterized by white underparts and yellow-fringed tail.
Members of this group occur in two color phases, the common
rufous phase and a rarer olivaceous phase.
Northern Red SquirreLSciurus hudsonicus hudsonicus

(Erxleben).
As described above. Found in "Cold Temperate subregion
east of the Rocky Mountains [Hudsonian zone]."
!
1
—
Bangs Red Squirrel. Sciurus hudsonicus gymnicus Bangs.
(Miller)
I
Size small; color dark. Upperparts, in winter, rich rusty
red; sides olive-gray; underparts gray, sprinkled with
!
black.
Summer pelage duller red above; black lateral line present-
underparts clear white. Total length, 12 inches; tail verte-
brae, 4.8 mches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in the spruce
belt of eastern North America, south of Labrador—
^ northern
New
York, northern New Hampshire, northern Maine
New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, northern
\ Michigan and northern Minnesota.
Southern Red SquirreL—Scitirus hudsonicus loquax Bangs.
Resembling typical hudsonicus but redder and brighter
above m
summer and winter. Underparts with less black-
tipped hairs in winter. Tail with less black. Total length,
13 inches; tail vertebras, 5.2 inches; hind foot, 1.9 inches!
Found m
"Alleghenian and Carolinian Faunae of the
Humid Province." (Allen)
Minnesota Red Squirrel.— ^c^'w^-w^ hudsonicus Minnesota
Allen.
Largest of the eastern Red Squirrels; coloration
rather
lighter than loquax. Total length, 13.8 inches; tail verte-
br:e, 5.7 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found in "Minnesota
and Wisconsin, and probably Iowa, and eastward to north-
ern Indiana." (Allen)
tSlack Hills Red SquirreLSciurus hudsonicus dakotensis
Allen.
I Larger and paler than typical hudsonicus. Upperparts
light yellowish rufous in winter, pale yellowish
J
olivaceous
:
gray m summer. Total length, 14 inches; tail vertebra,
245
K 8 inches; hind foot, 2 inches.

Found in "The Black Hills
portions of Wyoming.
of South Dakota and adjoining
haileyi Allen.
Bailev^Red SquiTTeL—Sciurus hudsonicus
Size large;resembhng typical hudsonicus but darker and
underparts
more olivaceous above in summer, and with
mches; tail
washed with pale fulvous. Totallength, 13.6
vertebrse, S.6 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Out-
Found m
lyingmountain ranges of central Wyoming and eastern
Montana, and northward into Alberta m the
eastern foot-
Its range includes the
hillsof the Rocky Mountains.
Bi-hom Pryor and Laramie Mountams m Wyoming,
and
Little Rocky Mountains m
th? Bi- Snowy, Bear Paw, and buttes
Montana, and probably other outlying, pine-covered
Red SquiTieL—Sciurus hudsojiicus
wtnd River Mount'Lins
ventorum Allen, u^..o
Resembling but darker and more olivaceous above,
haileyi
on upperside of tail and more gray on
with more black
underside of tail; underparts grayer
and without fuhûs
suffusion. Upperparts, m
winter, dark rusty red along
back sides gray, suffused with pale
yellowish; m
summer
da?k' olivaceous, with rusty wash
on outer sides of limbs;
subtermmal band of black Total
tail with fairly broad
54 mches; hmd foot, 2
leneth n2inches; tail vertebrae,
region and
inches' Found in "Wind River Mountains
northward along the eastern base of the
Rocky Mountams
to the Belt ranges
toat least Mystic Lake, and PôâHy
east of Helena, and thence
westward to the head of the
along the Idaho and
Snake River in Idaho, and south m
Wyoming boundary to the Wasatch Mountams north-
kquêX.-Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni

RichardTon ^Red
surface of tail; color of
Siif Wg'rrmuch black on upper_
dark; black subtermmal bar on tail broad^
upperpart;
sides and
wS.-Chestnut, sprinkled with black on backtail black;
brownish gray; about half terminal) of
limbs Summer.--
underpar'tHîte' sp'înkled lightly with black.
rusty red and olivaceous; rusty red
on feet and legs
Mixed
conspicuous^ black lateral line;
underparts clear white ;
tai
half to two-thirds of
above rusty red on central area for Total length,
then black fringed with yellowish
length,
vertebrce, 54 inches; hmd foot, 24 mches
Asinches; tail
Alene Mountams
Found in "The Bitterroot and Coeur d'
western border of Montana; the Lost River; Salmon
on the
m
central
Mountains
River, Pahsimeroi and Saw Tooth
and westward in the Craig and Seven Devils Moun-
Idlho
tafns to thePowder River and Blue Mountains of Oregon
thence through northern Idaho, and
west m
the mountams
to Colville, and northward
of northeastern Washington
246
— i
RED SQUIRREL
into the Kootenai District of eastern British Columbia."

(Allen)
Streator Red Squirrel. —
Sciurus hudsonicus streatori Allen.
Resembling richardsoni, but with less black on tail and more
olivaceous above in summer; tail shorter. Total length,
13 inches; tail vertebree, 5 inches; hind foot, 2.4 inches.
Found in "Central part of northern Washington, from the
Columbia River northward over central British Columbia.
It occupies the Okanagan District of Washington, from the
head of Lake Chelan northward." (Allen)
—
Vancouver Red Squirrel. Sciurus hudsonicus vancouverensis
Allen.
Resembling streatori but smaller and with underparts
washed with brownish (winter) or yellowish (summer),
otherwise colored much
as in streatori. Total length, 12.3
inches; tail 4.8 inches; hind foot, 2 inches.
vertebrae,
Found on "Vancouver Island, and the coast region of
northern British Columbia, north at least to Sitka."
(Allen)
—
Kupreanof Red SquirreL Sciurus hudsonicus picatus Swarth.
Resembling vancouvereyisis but brighter in color and with
less —
black at tip of tail. Winter. Upperparts bright chest-
nut, with hazel dorsal band; center of tail on underside
reddish. Total length, 12.5 inches; tail vertebras, 5 inches;
hind foot, 2 inches. Found in the Sitkan district of Alaska
and southward; also on Kupreanof Island and adjacent
islands south of Revillagigedo Island.
—
Alaska Red Squirrel. Sciurus hudsonicus petulans Osgood.
Larger and darker than typical hudsonicus; redder than
streatori; paler than vancouverensis. Upperparts (summer)
near raw umber; sharply defined, black, lateral line; black
in tail restricted, tail fringed with ochraceous; underparts
with yellowish wash. Winter pelage like that of typical
hudsonicus but darker, tail blacker. Total length, 12.
inches; tail vertebrae, 4.8 inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found
in the vicinity of White Pass, Alaska, limits of range im-
known.
Douglasii Group
Characterized by rusty reddish underparts and tail fringed

with yellowish or white; found west of the Rocky Mountains.
Douglas Chickaree. Sciurus douglasii douglasii Bachman.

Size about as in hudsofiicus. —
Winter. Dark rusty red
along back; sides and limbs dark brownish gray; dusky
lateral line may or may not be present; tail above, for two-
thirds its length, like back, mixed with black and fringed
with yellowish; black subterminal band broad; underparts
buffy gray to orange, mixed with black central zone of tail
;
on underside mixed rusty and black; ear tufts blackish.

247
—
Summer. Back dark olive-brown tinged with reddish; an
intensely black lateral line; underparts and feet orange.
Total length, 12.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches; hind foot,
2 inches. Found in "The immediate vicinity of the Pacific
coast in Oregon and Washington, from about Cape Blanco
to Juan de Fuca Strait." (Allen) Plate XX V^
—
Redwood Chickaree. Sciurus douglasii mollipilosus (Audu-
bon and Bachman).
Resembling typical douglasii but in winter less dark above
and sides grayer tail fringed with whitish instead of yellow-
;
ish; underparts generally paler; in summer more olivaceous

above and less rusty red, underparts paler and tail fringed
with white. Total length, 12.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.4
inches; hind foot, 2 inches. Found in "Pacific coast region
of northern California, west of the Coast Range, from
Sonoma County (Petaluma) north into Curry County (Port
Orford), Oregon." (Allen)
—
Cascades Chickaree. Sciurus douglasii cascadensis Allen.
Very similar to mollipilosus, having white-fringed tail; prac-
tically indistinguishable from it in winter pelage in summer
;
more olivaceous above and less deeply orange below. Total

inches. Found in "The Cascades region of Oregon and
Washington, north into British Columbia, including also the
coast region at the mouth of the Fraser River, and north at
least to Rivers Inlet (about 51° 30'), some fifty miles north
of Vancouver Island. In Oregon this form prevails south
in the Cascades to the vicinity of Fort Klamath; and, west
of the Cascades, to Glendale, Cleveland, Eugene, and Sweet
Home, and in Washington, to Tenino, Roy, and Snoqual-
mie Falls." (Allen)
^
—
California Chickaree.^ Sciurus douglasii alholimhatus Allen.
Similar to cascadensis; in winter slightly. paler above, under-
parts grayish white without wash of fulvous, and very little
sprinkling of black; in summer, almost indistinguishable
from cascadensis, but slightly grayer; underparts pale ful-
vous; feet and outer sides of limbs orange; tail fringed with
pure white. Total length, 13.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.5
inches; hind foot, 2. i inches. Found in "The Sierra Nevada
region of central and northern California, north in Oregon,
east of the Cascades, to the Maury Mountains and Straw-
berry Butte, over which region it prevails with little change
and may be considered typical, and nearly typical alho-
limbatus prevails westward in Oregon to the eastern base of
the Cascades, where it passes into cascadensis.'' (Allen)
Fremonti Group
Characterized by underparts always white and tail fringed

with white; found in southern Rocky Mountain states.
248
Plate XXV
Eastern I w^
DouÛ.^ THtdtaree Gray Scjuinêl ^^ W
Fox Scjuirrv^t
Western
Gray Scjuirrel
Akxii't Scjuirrel
RED SQUIRREL
Fremont Chickaree.— 5cn^m5 fremonti fremonti Audubon

and Hachman.
_
Similar to hudsonicus in size. Winter.— Upperparts gray

with pale rusty yellowish suffusion along back
and sprink-
led with black; sides and limbs grayish,
sprinkled with yel-
lowish and black; dusk-y lateral line pooriy
defined- tail
above yellowish rusty mixed with black, the hairs
banded
with black and tipped with white; tip of tail
black, fringed
with white; underside of tail yellowish gray,
banded with
black, fringed with white; small, dusk-y
ear tufts; under-
parts grayish white, sprinkled with dusky.
Above, yellowish gray; ochraceous on feet and
Summer —
limbs- a
conspicuous black lateral line; tail much as in winter-
under-
parts white to grayish. Total length,
13 inches; tai'l verte-
bra, 5.2 inches; hmd foot, 2 inches. Found in "The moun-
tainous portions of Colorado, reaching the extreme
southern
border of \\yoming at Woods, P. O., and Uintah
Mountains
ot Utah; also reaching the southern
boundary of Wyoming
at Fort Bndger." (Allen)
Taos Chickaree.— Sciuriis fremonti neomexicanus Allen
Resembling typical fremonti but brighter yellowish
rufous
above m winter. Total length, 12.8 inches; tail
vertebra
5.3 inches; hmd foot, 1.94 inches. Found in "Taos Ranee'
New Mexico." (Allen) ^ '
White Mountains Chickaree.— 5cmn^^ fremo7iti lychnuchus

Stone and Rehn.
Resembling 7ieomexicanus but larger and redder in
color
Upperparts (summer) dull rusty red; sides paler;
narrow
lateral line poorly defined; underparts
whitish. Total
length, 14 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.6 inches;
hind foot 22
"^^^^^ Mountains of Lincoln County
^S^ .. -"^^^^ ^^ ^^^
New Mexico.. •^'
Arizona Chickaree.—Scnmis fremoitti mogollonensis

(Mearns)
Colored m.uch as m
neomexica?ius but larger. Total length
14 inches; ^tail vertebra, 5.7 inches; hind foot, 2.1 inches'
-bound m The higher mountains and plateaus of central
Arizona, from the Douglas fir belt to timber line."
(Allen)
Chickaree.— 5c2Mrz.^ fre7?zonti grahamensis
^""fJii^?^^"^
(Allen).
Resembling mogollonensis but "vellower and less
rufescent
above (m summer pelage), with the central area
of the
taU ochraceous above and nearly white below."
Found
/^Mi
(Allen)
*******
.
^^ ^°^^ °^ ^^^ summit of Mt. Graham, Arizona "
The Chickaree or Red Squirrel is usually the commonest

tree Squirrel of most regions where it occurs,
although in some
of the eastern states it is outnumbered by
the Gray Squirrel.
Its size and coloration, scolding chatter,
and alert, inquisitive
249
behavior serve to distinguish it from its larger and more

cautious relatives, the Gray and Fox Squirrels, Although
Chickarees are found from coast to coast in practically every
forested area, and vary to some extent in size, color, and other
external characters, they do not change enough to conceal
their true relationships and one may recognize the Chickaree
for what he is wherever you find him.
Chickarees are forest Squirrels and are not found out of
timbered areas. In some places these Squirrels may leave
heavy forest and wander through scrub growths such as
follow a water-course, but they are essentially denizens of
evergreen forests.
These Squirrels are active throughout the year and if winter
weather temporarily drives them into shelter they come out
with the return of sunshine. Like most other Squirrels they
are dependent upon a diet of plant and tree products such as
nuts, seeds, buds, etc., and store up part of the food they find
in times of abundance for the winter season. It has been
stated that the Chickaree may be an important reforestation
agent because of this habit, since seeds of forest trees which
the animal fails to dig up will sprout when conditions are
favorable. The Douglas Fir is one of the trees which gains
more than it loses by the presence of Squirrels, strange as this
may seem. In other sections. Red Squirrels may dig up seed
which has been set out for reforestation purposes and become a
decided economic pest.
Red Squirrels arc diurnal and do not move about at night.
They have several distinctive calls, a harsh, scolding, continu-
ous chatter, or whicker, when an enemy is in plain sight, and a
loud call, not continuous but given once or twice and repeated
at intervals, when the Squirrel is not greath^ excited. The
home nest is usually in a tree cavity, a decayed hollow, or an
old Woodpecker's nest, or is built of twigs and leaves upon
some convenient crotch in the limbs. Chickarees are good

swimmers and have been known to cross bodies of water a mile
in extent.
Red Squirrels have gained an unsavory reputation as
robbers of birds' nests, suckers of eggs, and eaters of fledglings,
and many naturalists have written accounts of how the
animals were caught in the act. They appear to be the most
carnivorous of our Squirrels.
250
EASTERN GRAY SQUIRREL
The unquenchable curiosity of these Squirrels makes them a

conspicuous mammal. Upon the appearance of a man or a
Dog they begin a violent harangue and scold and chatter
for long periods of time. Instead of being shy and secretive,
like most wild mammals, they attract attention and seem to
feel that nothing on the ground will be able to catch them in
the trees.
Four or five young form the average Red Squirrel litter and
they are born in late spring. May to June. Only one litter
is raised each season.
Subgenus Sciurus
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, f; Molars, f = 22.
Eastern Gray Squirrel. — Sciurus carolinensis

and related forms
Names.- —Eastern Gray Squirrel; Gray Squirrel; Cat
Squirrel. Plate XXV.
General Description. —A large, arboreal Squirrel with long,
flat, bushy tail; ears usually without tufts; prevailing color of
upperparts grayish.
Fig. 54. Gray Squirrel
Color.—Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation not

conspicuous.
Upperparts. — Mixed gray and yellowish brown, head and
back darker and with more of a brownish tinge than sides of
limbs, neck, and rump which are grayish; ears yellowish white:
hairs of tail yellowish at base, banded with black, tipped
251
with white, the general impression being blackish overlaid

with white.
—
Underparts. Whitish.
Immature much like adults, but with less yellowish brown.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, i8
—
Geographical Distribution. Forest parts of eastern North
America from Florida to southern New Brunswick and
Ontario; from Atlantic coast west to Minnesota (for caroli-
nensisgron^).
Food. — Mainly of vegetable nature, such as nuts, fruits,
buds, seeds, grains, etc., but some animal food such as insects
and their larvae, young birds, eggs, etc.

—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Martens, Weasels, Lynxes and
most of the active carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Subgenus Sciurus
Carolinensis Group — Eastern Gray Squirrels

Southern Gray Squirrel. — Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis
Gmelin.
As described above soles of feet usually naked color pattern
; ;
not very variable. Found in "Austral Zone, from northern

Florida north about to the lower Hudson Valley, west
through the Alleghenies south of Pennsylvania to Indiana,
Missouri, Oklahoma, and the edge of the plains." (Miller)
—
Everglade Gray Squirrel. Sciurus carolinensis extimus Bangs.
Smallest of the Eastern Gray Squirrels; color lighter and
grayer than typical carolinensis; small woolly tuft at base
of ear sometimes present. Yellowish gray above with faint
grizzling of blackish; ear tufts white. Total length, 17.5
Found in "Subtropical fauna of south Florida, northward
about half way up the peninsula." (Miller)
—
Louisiana Gray Squirrel; Bayou Gray Squirrel. Sciurus car-
olinensis fuliginosus (Bachman).
Larger than typical carolinensis; upperparts darker and
richer in color; underparts never pure white. Upperparts
deep yellowish rusty mixed with black; tail dark, fringed
with white; ears with conspicuous woolly tufts at posterior
base underparts varying from grayish white to pronounced
;
dark buffy. Total length, 19 inches; tail vertebra;, 9

inches; hind foot, 2.^ inches. Found in "The bayou region
of the coast of Louisiana." (Miller)
252
EASTERN GRAY SQUIRREL
Northern Gray Squirrel. — Sciiirus carolinensis leucotis

(Gapper).
Larger and grayer than typical carolinensis; apt to occur in
black or melanistic phase; soles of feet may be hairy in
winter. Upperparts, in winter, silvery gray with faint
grizzling of yellowish brown and black; a faint wash of
yellowish brown on head, back, and upper surfaces of hands
and feet; underparts white. Summer pelage with more
rusty brown, especially along sides. Melanistic phase,
everywhere black; various degrees of intergradation between
gray and black phases may occur. Total length, 20 inches;
tail vertebrte, 9.2 inches; hind foot, 2.8 inches. Found in
"Transition Zone and locally lower edge of Canadian Zone
from the Alleghenies of Pennsylvania north through New
York and New England, to southern New Brunswick and
southern Ontario; west to Minnesota."
Merriam Gray SquirreL
_
— Sciurus
(Miller)
carolinensis hypophatis
Merriam.
Resembling but darker above and less white
leucotis in size
below; soles of feet heavily furred in winter, naked in sum-
mer; ears tufted in winter. Upperparts, in winter, dark
gray in tone, mixed white, yellowish brown and black; tail
with much black, white tips to hairs narrow; ear tufts
yellov/ish white; color of sides extends well onto underparts
and only narrow streak down center is white. Total length,
20 inches; tail vertebrce, S.S inches; hind foot, 2.7 inches!
*******
Found in The edge of the forest belt in Minnesota. Limits
'
'
of range not known." (Miller)
The Eastern Gray Squirrels are too well known to require

special attention as to distinguishing characteristics. They
are the common large Squirrel in most of the parks of the
eastern cities and they have long been one of the popular
game animals of the East. When not disturbed these animals
become very tame, but where hunted they are wild and wary
and hide at the first approach of danger.
Gray Squirrels are active only during the day. They store
up food for the times when food will be difficult to find, and
they do not hibernate although they may stay in the nest
during periods of inclement winter weather. They are
and are not found away from
strictly tree- dwelling Squirrels
forests. At times they become very abundant and when
the food supply becomes scarce in a given region they move
out in a great migration wave. In the early history of the
East these migrations took on vast proportions and unbeliev-
able numbers of Gray Squirrels hurried across the country,
253
swimming rivers and lakes and devastating any farms that

lay in the path.
The Gray Squirrel builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs
in the crotch of a limb or else chooses a hollow in some rotted
trunk. The young number from four to six and often two
litters The
are raised a year. first brood appears in March
or April.
This Squirrel has several call-notes, a loud, husky bark
and a whining whicker being the commonest. It is an excel-
lent climber, racing through the trees and making
long leaps
when chasing one another or threatened by danger. It has
an active, nervous temperament, although not to the same
extent as the Red Squirrel.
Griseus Group. — Western Gray Squirrels

Western Gray Squirrel; California Gray Squirrel; Coluiîa
—
Gray Squirrel. Sciurus griseus griseus Ord. Plate XXV.
Larger and grayer than the Eastern Gray Squirrels and with
broader tail. Upperparts pale gray, finely speckled with
white, sometimes with pale yellowish suffusion on
back;
large and
ring about eye white; ears never tufted; tail very
slate-gray
broad, hairs sometimes three inches long, color
22
tipped with white; underparts white. Total length
inches.
inches; tail vertebrae, 11 inches; hind foot, 3.2
Found in "Pine and oak forests of Transition (and upper
border of Austral) Zone from extreme southwestern
Wash-
ington through western Oregon and most of
California
northern
(except coast belt south of San Francisco) to
Lower California, Mexico." (Miller) . .
Gray Squirrel.— 5cwrM5 griseus nigripes

Black-footed
(Bryant). ...
Much darker than typical griseus, with less white grizzling
tail
on upperparts, and more or less brownish suffusion;
blackish
darker; upper surfaces of hands and feet slaty to
inches; hmd
Total length, 22.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 12
foot 3 inches. Found in the humid coast section of Cali-
County.
fornia from San Mateo County through Monterey
Anthony Gray Squirrel.— 5c«<r«5 griseus anthonyi (Mearns).
Upper-
Paler in color than either typical griseus or nigripes.
yellowish brown
parts gray with fine sprinkling of white;
with white,
patch at base of ear; tail above blackish, edged
hands
below gravish, banded with black, edged with white;
22
and feet 'iron-gray; underparts white. Total length,
inches; tail vertebra, 10 inches; hmd foot, 31
inches.
Found in the "Transition Zone of southern Cahfomia,

the Mexican boundary northwest to the
moun-
from near
tains of Ventura County." (Grinnell)
^
254
WESTERN GRAY SQUIRREL
The Gray Squirrels of the griseus group are found in

forested
areas where conifers and oaks grow.
Most of their food is
derived from these trees in the shape of
seeds. I have not
seen any records to show that they are ever found in
numbers
to compare with the Eastern Gray Squirrels in the
seasons of
their greatestabundance. My experience has been that only
a few will be seen in a given locality. Where
they occur to-
gether with the large, grayish Ground Squirrels
of the Otosper-
mophilus grammurus group, the hunters sometimes
apply the
name Silver-gray Squirrel to these tree-climbing
Squirrels.
The Western Grays have a much broader tail than
their eastern
relatives and in life are among the
handsomest of Squirrels
They spend a great deal of time running about on
the ground
and do not rely upon the aerial highways through
the branches.
They are keen of sight and hearing and take alarm
easily.
Flattened out upon a limb, they are often able
to escape obser-
vation from the ground, and if prevented from
leaving a tree by
the usual methods of descent they make daring
leaps from the
branches. They utter a hoarse bark which carries for
quite a
distance. Although severe weather may confine them to
their
nests for several days at a stretch, they do not
hibernate; and,
since most of their range lies within the
region of mild, open
winters, they do not store up large supplies
of food.
They build large, bulky nests of twigs or leaves in
which to
rear the young and also use hollows in tree
trunks as dwelling
places. The nests are usually placed well up in the trees.
The young number from one to four, two or three constituting
the averagelitter. The young may be bom any time from
April to August in the southwestern states, but
doubtless the
season is shorter toward the northern
part of their range.
Aberti Group.— Tuft-eared Squirrels

^^®^ Sqmrrel.— .Sc/«r«5 aherti aberti Woodhouse. Plate
Resembling a heavy-bodied Gray Squirrel in size and
pro-
portions, but differing in heavily tufted ears
and in rusty
red dorsal band. General color of upperparts
grizzled
gray; ear tufts blackish; broad dorsal band
of chestnut or
rusty red; a well -developed black lateral line or
band; upper
surfaces of hands and feet whitish; tail black,
broadly tipped
with white on upper surface, white on under
surface, with
basal band of iron-gray; underparts white.
Total length
21 inches; tail vertebra?, 9 inches; hind foot,
2.75 inches!
255
—
Found along the southern rim of the Grarid Canyonand

m
northern Arizona south to the Mogollon
Mountains
east into New Mexico; Umits of range
unknown.
Tuft-eared Squirrel. Sciurus aberti numus
Merriam.
" Similar to S. aberti, but gray of upperparts decidedly paler;
upperside of tail paler;
red dorsal area obsolete or nearly so;
ear tufts pale fulvous, grizzled and
tipped with black (in-
shorter /Mer-
stead of mainly black); tail apparently
vertebrae 8 6 inches;
riam) Total length, 19-5 inches; tail
hind foot, 2.8 inches. Found in the
Cimarron Mountains,
south-
Mora County, New Mexico, north into extreme
western Colorado. , ,- x n- ^
irue.
Northern Tuft-eared Squirrel.— Scturus aberti Jerreus
Differing from typical aherti in having
gray upperparts
of feet gray,
without the reddish dorsal band; uppersides
toes whitish; ear tufts black, mixed
with gray and chestnut;
tail above and below, gray
banded with black and edged
with white; underparts white. Said to
occur m a umform
tail vertebra,
dark brown phase. Total length, 19 mches;
8 ^ inches; hind foot, 2.3 inches.
Found through a narrow
just west of 105 but
strip down the center of Colorado
crosîn^ to the east of this meridian
about 39 •
Y.a.ih2Jo SQuirrel.—Sciunis
kaihaberisis Mevr^^m
aberti but un-
"Similar in size and general character to S.
derparts mainly black instead of white,
and tail mainly
only. (Mer-
white all over instead of white on underside
dorsal band rusty
riam) Upperparts dark grizzled gray;
upperpart of forelegs and
red- nose black; lower sides and
thighs nearly solid black; underparts
mixed black and gray.
side of the
Found on the top of Kaibab Plateau, north
Grand Canyon, Coconino County, Arizona. * *
* * * *
*
North American
The Tuft-eared Squirrels are unique among
tufts of long hairs on
Squirrels in the possession of conspicuous
respect the Tree Squirrels of
the ears, and resemble in this
They are the showiest of our
northern Europe and Asia.
other large
Squirrels and easily distinguished from all the
by the characters of
arboreal Squirrels of North America
tufted ears and peculiar color pattern. _
their habitat, being

These Squirrels are rather restricted in
the Rocky Mountams
found only in a narrow strip along
United States into Mexico. They live on
from the southern
the Grand Canyon of the
the high plateau through which
mountain ranges which
Colorado is cut and in the isolated
The Tuft-eared Squirrels
arise from the Colorado Plateau.
homes in the coniferous forests and their altitudmal
make their
above sea-level.
range is from about 5.000 to 9,500 feet
256
FOX SQUIRREL
They do not hibernate but may be inactive during cold

weather. They build large nests of leaves, twigs, pine-needles,
etc., and also make use of hollow trunks or
decayed knot-holes
as home sites. Besides the seeds of conifers and acorns, they
also eat the bark from the twigs, mushrooms, young birds,
and eggs.The call-note is a bark or squall not unlike that of
the Eastern Gray Squirrel.
During favorable seasons these Squirrels may be abundant
and seen in numbers. They seem to be gregarious and several
maybe noted together. The young usuallynumber three or four
in a litter and probably two families are reared each season.
Subgenus Guerlinguetus. Fox Squirrels, etc.

Dentition: Incisors, Canines, « Premolars, Molars, f = 20.
J ; ;
{;
Southern Fox SquirTeL—Sciurus niger niger Linnaeus.

A large, arboreal Squirrel of rather variable
color pattern-
much larger and heavier in build than the Eastern
Gray
Squirrels; pelage coarse and harsh; hands and
feet large,
soles naked; nose and ears always white. '* Typical Sciuru's
niger is subject to great variation in color and exhibits
three
well-marked color phases. These may be called the gray
phase, the buff phase, and the black or melanistic
phase.
Ihe gray phase, m its extreme form is pale smoke gray
above, mcludmg the tail, and white beneath. The crown
IS black or blackish and the nose,
ears, and feet white
Some specimens in this phase have the feet and underside
of tail buff, thus approaching the next darker phase.
In the
buff phase, the general tone of the upperparts is
pinkish
buff, the underparts, feet, and underside of tail
rich cinna-
mon-buff or clay color. Numerous intermediate specimens
connect this phase with the gray phase. The black
or
melanistic phase— well-known as occurring frequently
in
many species of squirrels— is wholly or partly black or dark
brown, except the nose and ears, which are white."
(Howell) Total length, 27 inches; tail vertebra, 12 inches-
hmd foot, 3.5 inches. Found in "Florida and the south-
eastern states." (Miller) Plate XXV.
Mangrove Fox ^qnirreLSciurus niger avicennia Howell.
''Similar to Sciurus niger niger but decidedly smaller;
colora-
tion much darker (more tawny) both above and below;
feet
clearer white (less tinged with buff)." (Howell) Total
length, 21.4 inches; tail vertebrae., 10.4 inches; hind foot,
^
inches. Found in the "Mangrove forests on the south-
west coast of Florida." (Miller)
—
Northern Fox Squirrel. Sciurus niger neglectus (Gray).
Similar to typical niger but color usually less rusty in hue,
underparts generally whitish; ears never white; nose some-
257
——— .
times white. Total length, 23 inches; tail vertebrae, il

inches; hind foot, 3 inches. Found from " Central Virgima
and West Virginia to Pennsylvania." (Miller)
Bryant Fox Squirrel.— 5ci«rw5 niger bryanti H. H. Bailey.
Said to be distinctly larger than typical niger.
"Above
bluish gray, thickly grizzled with black, ends tipped
with
white, sides similar; below white. Nose white.^^ Tail with
(Bailey)
a pronounced black stripe on outer edges."
Found in Dorchester County, Maryland.
Western Fox Squirrel. Sciurus niger rufiventer (Geoffroy).
Much smaller than typical niger and but little larger than
the Northern Gray Squirrel; color pattern variable
but usu-
ally tawny brown grizzled with gray above
and pale rufous
or yellowish brown below; nose and ears
never white; tail
mixed black and tawny rufous. Total length, 21 inches;
tail vertebra), 9.5 inches; hind foot, 2.8
inches. Found m
"Greater part of the Mississippi Valley, from northern
Louisiana to southern Wisconsin." (Miller)
Bachman Fox Squirrel. Sciurus niger texianus (Bachman;.
Intermediate between typical niger and rufiventer; larger
nose
than rufiventer and of same rusty type of coloration;
and ears whitish but less so than m ?iiger. Total length,
inches; hmd foot, 3 mches.
2S inches- tail vertebras, 11
Found in the "Coast region of Louisiana and Mississippi.
(Miller) ,. ,^
. .,, .
Texas Fox Squirrel. Sciurus mger hmitts (Baird)

paler in color and
smaller. Upper-
Similar to rufiventer but
underparts
parts yellowish gray mixed with blackish;
occur, total
orange-buff; black individuals said not to
length IQ.S inches; tail vertebrae, 9.5 inches;
hmd foot, 2.7
inches! Found in "Western Texas and northeastern
Mexici." (Miller)
Apache Squirrel.— Scturus apache AUen. ^ .
^ ,
In sum-
Similar in general appearance to a Fox
Squirrel.
above grizzled with dusky and
mer pelage yellowish brown
merging into
gray along the dorsal region; sides brighter and
long and -
ochraceous underparts; limbs ochraceous; tail
with whitish |
moderately bushy, blackish brown fringed
above deep ochraceous bordered with black
and edged with 1
blackish dorsal
whitish below. In winter pelage, with a broad
naked, lotal
band from crown to root of tail. Soles of feet
inches; hmd foot 3- 1
length, 22 inches; tail vertebrae, 11 |
inches Mainlv Mexican in its distribution, but reaching |
of the Chiricahua Mountains of 1
the pine and oak forests
southern Arizona. . . /^ •
^c.
anzonensts (ôues. « T
Arizona Gray SquineL— Sciurus anzonensis
member of the same subgenus with the Fox
Although a
Squirrels, the Arizona Gray Squirrel
most resembles the
General color ot ^PPev-
true Gray Squirrels in appearance.
parts gray, mixed black and white,
with broad yellowish
sides clearer
brown dorsal band from crown to root of tail;
258
FOX SQUIRREL
gray; spot back of ear yellowish brown; tail above black

fringed with white, hairs yellowish brown at base, below
light ochraceous, banded with black and fringed with
white-
underparts white. Dorsal band of fulvous most prominent
in winter pelage and almost absent in summer.
Total
length, 22 inches; tail vertebree, 12 inches; hind foot
29
inches. Found in Arizona and New Mexico ; limits of range
unknown.
Huachuca Gray Squirrel.— Sciurus arizonensis Jmachuca
Allen.
Resembling typical arizonensis but with less vellowish brown
on the dorsal region and on basal pelage" of tail. Total
length, 21 inches; tail vertebrce, 10 inches; hind
foot, .3
inches. Found from the Huachuca Mountains of southern
Arizona south into Mexico. This Squirrel feeds upon wal-
nuts and may become so stained by walnut juice as to lose
the true color pattern on the hands, feet, and underparts.
The Fox Squirrel is the largest of North American Tree

Squirrels and is also the most variable in color. Not only do
the various forms of Fox Squirrels differ noticeably from
one
another, but individuals of the same subspecies show
a wide
range of variation. The large size, heavy body, and rusty to
blackish coloration serve to distinguish these Squirrels
from
their kin.
Fox Squirrels are usually not as abundant as Gray Squirrels.
In many of the states the two occur together, but in no region
have the Fox Squirrels ever been noted in such numbers as
have been reported for the Grays in the areas of their greatest
abundance.
Fox Squirrels spend a great deal of the time on the ground
searching for food, but are true Tree Squirrels, nevertheless,
and always seek refuge aloft when imminent danger threatens!
These Squirrels are not found away from trees. In the north
they live in the hardwoods and in the south they are found
in
pine woods, live oaks or cypresses. They do not migrate
like
the Grays and in many places are on the verge of
extinction.
The Fox Squirrel
a favorite with the hunter both because
is
of its size and because
it becomes fat in the fall.
This Squirrel utters a hoarse bark and also has a chucking
call-note.It is active only by day and does not
hibernate,
although remaining in a nest during severe cold or stormy
periods. It builds nests in hollows or cavities in
the trees
and also constructs large nests of twigs, leaves,
and bark in
259
Individuals use the same tree

the crotches of the limbs.
season after season if unmolested.
young number two to four, the usual number
bemg
The
three, and there is not much evidence to indicate definitely
raised a season. The young are
that more than one litter is
born in March or April.
Subfamily Pteromyinae
Genus Glaucomys'
A; Canines, g; Premolars, f Molars, | = 22.
Dentition: Incisors, ;
Flying SquirreL— Glaucomys volans

and related forms
of small to me-
General Description.—An arboreal Squirrel
eyes,
dium almost entirely noctural in habit, with large
size
folds of skin extendmg
very soft pelage, and broad, lateral
FiG. 55. Flying Squirrel
cartilaginous
:rom wrists to ankles which enclose a slender,
stiffening rod arising from the wrist; tail fiat and
process or
broad, tip rounded. Plate XXV.
^
Upperparts.—Varying with the individual, from drab

to
cinnamon, washed with pinkish buff along sides; fur

pinkish "
Squirrels see Arthur
1
For a full review of the American Flying
iQiS.
Howell. North American Fauna, No. 44,
description the colo^
2
Very difficult to convey in a short, written
differences between these forms. Often the individual range of va,
subspecies covers the same shades of color as
commonly
ation within a
characterize other subspecies.
260
FLYING SQUIRREL
slate-colored at base; head grayish, ears light brown; tail

above, similar to back, but without pinkish suffusion, below,
light pinkish cinnamon; hind feet hair-brown, toes white.
—
Underparts. White to roots of hairs, underside of flying
membrane edged with pinkish cinnamon.
Summer specimens are usually darker and redder than
winter animals.
Measurements.— Total length, 9-9.5 inches; tail vertebra;,
3.6-4.4 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Geographical Distribution.—A large part of forested North
America.
Food.— Nuts, seeds, berries, buds, grain, occasional insects,
meat when can be secured.
it
—
Enemies. Owls, Martens, and Foxes; Weasels and small
carnivores on the rare occasions when it comes onto the
ground.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Glaucomys
Volans Group
Small Eastern Flying Squkr el.—Glaucomys volans volans
(Linuceus).
The animal of the preceding description. Found in
" Northeastern United States and extreme southern Canada,
from central Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, southern
Ontario, northern New York (Lewis Countv), and southern
New Hampshire south to North Carolina" (Raleigh), Ten-
nessee (Nashville), and northern Arkansas and Oklahoma
(Boston Mountains) west to eastern Nebraska (Otoe and
;
Nemaha Counties) and eastern Kansas (Douglas and Wood-

son Counties)." (Howell)
Southeastern Flying Squirrel.— G/a«cowzy^ volans saturatus
Howell,
Size of typical volans but upperparts darker, snuff-brown
to
hair-brown; toes not conspicuously white. Found in
"Southeastern United States (excepting peninsular Florida
and the coast region of Georgia) from South Carolina and
western North Carolina west to central Oklahoma and
north m the Mississippi Valley to southwestern Kentucky "
(Howell)
Florida Flying Squirrel.— G/awcomy.? volans querceti (Bangs).
Resembling typical volans; equalling it in size but darker
above and lacking white toes; soles of feet always partially
naked; not so dark in color as saturatus. Found in " Penin-
sular Florida (south at least to Fort Myers) and the
coast
region of Georgia." (Howell)
261
Texas Flying Squirrel. — Glaucomys volans texensis Howell.

Size of typical volans, but upperparts more ochraceous and
toes not conspicuously white; paler than saturatus. Upper-
parts wood-brown with yellowish tinge varying to drab.
Found in "Eastern Texas, west to Aledo, Gurley, Elgin,
and Cuero; eastern limits of range unknown." (Howell)
Fig. 56. Distribution of the subspecies of Glaucomys volans,

north of Mexico, after A. H. Howell
1. Glaucomys volans volans
2. Glaucomys volans saturatus
3. Glaucomys volans texensis
4. Glaucomys volans querceti
Sabrinus Group
Hudson Bay Flying Squirrel. —

Glaucomys sabrinus sahrinus
(Shaw).
Decidedly larger than volans. Total length, 12.5 inches;
tail vertebras, 5.5-6 inches; hind foot, 1.7 inches. Upper-
parts vinaceous cinnamon; sides of head smoke-gray; eye-
ring fuscous; tail above fuscous, below, shaded with pale
brown; toes grayish white, soles buffy white on inner side,
dral) on outer side; underparts, soiled white, washed with
pale yellowish and shaded with drab. Found in "Interior
of Canada, from Fort Simpson (possibly Fort Anderson),
262
FLYING SQUIRREL
w o
CO 5 « S ~
2 K 5o to "^
s s 5 «
H^ (^ S !v
o et-H "
o ? "s "S "~ -2 ^'
1 to Co to lo to
s s s a s s SSssSSSS
^•*-
•S-S ^.S-S.^
. !v V J!Jt C
5 -o .^ -co ô *i <> -C. "O © .o ,o > -o -o -o -o
g a a a o e a ! o c t! a
Co to to to
1^ <o to I
Co to to to
totototototococo
?-. >. ?^ >. ^« ?^ ?^ ?^ ?^ ?^ ?^ ?^
p O O O o
ssssssgs
pooooooo ssss
o o o o
f^<-(-i Q •asassssa
O oe;e;(L5e)e3e3e)e)Cj3e33c2GGSSC5
y 'A ^! fO ^ 10\0 tÔO oo
a^^'
sxi-^
263
2
Mackenzie, and lower Churchill River, west side of

Hudson Bay, south to northern Minnesota, extreme north-
western Wisconsin, southern Ontario (vicinity of Lake
Nipissing), and southern Quebec (Lake Edward)."
Howell
f j
Labrador Flying Squirrel. — Glaucomys sabrinus makkovikensis

(vSornborger).
Larger than typical sabrinus, with upperparts slightly darker
and darker face, tail, and feet. Total length, 12-13.
inches; tail vertebree, 5.1-5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.7- 1.8
inches. Found in "Coast region of Labrador and eastern
Quebec; exact limits unknown." (Howell)
M —
earns Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus macrotis
(M earns).
Smaller than typical sabrinus, but ears slightly longer, and
with whiter underparts and paler upperparts and hind feet,
Upperparts cinnamon; underparts white, with irregular
wash of light pinkish cinnamon. Total length, 10,5-11.6
inches; tail vertebras, 4.6-5.4 inches; hind foot, 1,4-1.5
inches. Found in "Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, northern Massachusetts, Boreal
portions of New York, northern Pennsylvania (?), southern
Ontario, northern part of Michigan, and northeastern Wis-
consin; west to Elk River, Minnesota." (Howell)
—
Pale Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus canescens Howell.
vSize of macrotis but paler and head grayer. Upperparts
pale pinkish cinnamon. Found in "Southern Manitoba;
eastern North Dakota; Black Hills, S, Dak.; and Bear
Lodge Mountains, Wyo. exact limits unknown." (Howell)
— ;
Bangs Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi (Rhoads).

Resembling typical sabrinus in size and color but rather
grayer, Upperparts more drab, feet grayer, underparts
never yellowish white but pinkish cinnamon. Found in
"Mountains of central Idaho, eastern Oregon, southwestern
Montana, and western Wyoming, north to the vicinity of
Flathead Lake, Montana; southern limits unknown,"
(Howell)
—
Richardson Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus alpinus
(Richardson).
Like typical sabri?ius but grayer and less vinaceous above,
with darker tail (wood-brown mixed with fuscous both
above and below). Total length, 12-13. 6 inches; tail verte-
brse, 5-6 inches hind foot i 7- 1 8 inches. Found in Rocky
_'
; , . . '
Mountain region of Alberta and British Columbia, from

vicinity of Henry House north at least to Peace River and
Babine Lake, British Columbia (limits of range unknown)."
(Howell)
—
Yukon Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus yjikonensis
(Osgood).
Larger than typical sabrinus, tail longer and hind foot
broader, Upperparts cinnamon, pinkish to vinaceous,
264
FLYING SQUIRREL

foot, inches.
1.7 Found in "Yukon River region, from
vicinity of Mayo Lake, Yukon (head of Stewart River), to
Tanana, Alaska; exact limits unknown." (Howell)
—
Alaska Coast Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus zaphcBus
(Osgood).
Resembling alpinus but browner above and darker below;
eye-ring blackish. Total length, 11. 6-12. 5 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 5.4-6.1 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found in
"Coast region of southeastern Alaska and northern British
Columbia; limits of range unknown." (Howell)
Bachman —
Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis
(Bachman).
Redder above and below than zaphcEUs, upperparts dark
reddish brown, underparts cinnamon or buff. Total length,
1 1. 8-12. 4 inches; tail vertebrae, 5-5.5 inches; hind foot, 1.5-
1.6 inches. Found in "Coast region of Oregon, Washington,

and southern British Columbia; northern and southern
limits unknown." (Howell)
—
Okanagan Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis
Howell.
Paler above and below than oregonensis. Upperparts
vinaceous cinnamon to vinaceous fawn. Total length, 12,5
Found in "Interior valleys and foothills of southern British
Columbia and northern Washington, from Shuswap Lake
and Cranbrook, British Columbia, south to Lake Chelan,
Washington." (Howell)
—
Cascade Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus
(Rhoads).
Resembling columbiensis but browner above, darker below
and less brown on tail; less rufescent than oregonensis.
Total length, 12.2-12.7 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.6-6.1 inches;
hind foot, 1.6-1.7 inches. Found in "Cascade Range, from
southern British Columbia south through Washington and
Oregon to the Siskiyou Mountains, California." (Howell)
—
Broad-footed Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus latipes
Howell.
Size very large; darker and grayer ih^n fuliginosus ; above,
drab mixed with brown. Total length, 12. 6-14. 5 inches;
tail vertebrae, 5.8 to 6.5 inches; hind foot, 1.5-1.8 inches.
Found in "Selkirk Range, and other ranges in southeastern
British Columbia, higher mountains of northern Idaho and
northwestern Montana; south to Mullan and Orofino,
Idaho." (Howell)
—
Olympic Flying Squirrel.^ Glaucomys sabrinus olympicus
(Elliot).
Darkest of American Flying Squirrels; most like oregonensis
but with less rufous and much fuscous or fuscous black
about eyes, ears, flying membranes, feet, and tail above.
265
)
hind foot, 1,4-1.6 inches. Found in " Olympic Peninsula,

Washington, and south along the coast to southern Oregon;
occurring in some localities with oregonensis." (Howell)
—
Sawtooth Mountains Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sahrinus
bullatus (Howell).
Largest of American Flying Squirrels. Total length, 13. i-
14.2 inches; tail vertebras, 5.4-6 inches; hind foot, 1.6-1.8
Fig. 58. Distribution of Glaucomys sabrimis bullatus, after

A. H. Howell
inches. Upperparts from pinkish cinnamon to cinnamon-

buff; paler on face; sides of head and neck pale smoke-gray;
tailabove, like back but mixed with fuscous and tipped
with dark gray; below, a lighter shade of cinnamon; under-j
parts creamy white washed with light pinkish cinnamonj
Found in "Sawtooth Mountains, Idaho, north to Cran-
brook, British Columbia, and west to the Blue Mountains
Oregon
.
" ( Ho well
266
FLYING SQUIRREL
Klamath Flying SquiTreL—Glaucomys sabrinus klamathensis

(Merriam).
Grayer on upperparts than fuliginosus and closely resem-
bling that form. Total length, 12-13. 5 inches; tail verte-
bra, 5.4-6.2 mches; hind foot, 1.6-1.7 inches.
Found in
Central Oregon, chiefly east of the Cascades; northern
and eastern limits miknown." (Howell)
Yellow-bellied Flying S(iniire\.—Glaucomys sabrinus
flaviven-
tns Howell.
Resembling but smaller than klamathensis, more yellow on
feet and underparts, which are whitish washed
with pale
greenish yellow merging into wood-brown along
sides
Total length, 11. 5-12. 8 inches; tail vertebra, 5-5.8 inches-
hmd foot, 1.6-1.7 inches. Found in "Northern California'
from the Trinity Mountains in Siskiyou and Trinity Coun-
ties east to the Warner Mountains, Modoc "
County ^'
^
(Howell)
Sierra Flying So^niireL—Glaucomys sabrinus lascivus
(Bangs)
Like flainventns but without yellow suffusion on underparts'
Smaller m
size. Underparts grayish white with faint wash
of light pinkish cinnamon. Total length, 11. 8-12. 8 inches-
tail vertebrae, 5-6 inches; hind foot, 1.6-1.7
inches. Found
m "Sierra Nevada Range and northward to eastern
Shasta
County, Cahforma." (Howell)
San Bernardino Flying S(\mTre\.~Glaucomys sabrinus cali-
fornicus (Rhoads).
Paler and grayer above than lascivus, with grayish
wash on
front of face; upperparts light drab to yellowish
wood-brown-
underparts soiled whitish with wash of buffy. Total length'
11.2-12.5 inches; tail vertebras, 5.1-6 inches; hind foot
i 5-
1.6 inches. Found in "San Bernardino and San Jacinto
Mountains, California." (Howell)
California Coast Flying SqmnQL—Glaucomys sabrinus
stephensi
(Merriam).
Resembling lascivus but redder above, although not so much
so as moregonensis. Above, wood-brown below whitish
;
with irregular wash of light pinkish cinnamon.

Total
length, 12-12. 5 inches; tail vertebras, 5.3-6
inches; hind
*******
toot I.5.-I-6 inches. Found in "Coast region of northern
Cahforma; limits of range unknown." (Howell)
Flying Squirrels are found widely distributed

the Northern Hemisphere.
throughout
In North America they are found
:n greatest abundance in the forests of
the colder zones and do
not occur south of Texas. The greatest
amount of diversi-
^cation in the American species is shown by
the Flying
Squirrels of western North America where quite a number of
subspecies are found.
The Flying Squirrel is the only American Squirrel which
267
sleeps during the day and moves about only at

night. Except
when disturbed, under exceptional circumstances, this
or
Squirrel is strictly nocturnal and for this reason is seldom
seen by the average observer. It has large eyes and probably
finds the bright light of day distasteful. Its favorite retreat
during the day is a hollow tree, and if such an occupied tree is
located the Squirrels may sometimes be driven out by rapping
against the trunk. Much remains to be learned of the life-
history of this beautiful and attractive mammal. Generally
the only specimens a naturalist sees are those he takes in traps
set overnight, although the Squirrels may be fairly common in
the region.
Flying Squirrels are doubtless the most strictly arboreal of
our Squirrels. The peculiar specialization for gliding is
evidence of an almost exclusive arboreal existence and these
animals are not encountered away from forests. The mode of
aerial progression can not be truly called flight, but is rather
gliding. The Squirrel throws itself out and down, and with
spread lateral membranes converts its falling into a long
gliding swoop which may turn up a short distance at the close
of the "flight." Except for some slight variation of the angle
of fall, the Squirrel has little control of its course once it is in
the air. The broad, flat tail probably functions as a depress-
ing or elevating mechanism to steepen or flatten the fall, to a
certain degree.
Flying Squirrels have a more or less omnivorous appetite
and, besides the nuts and vegetable food enjoyed by Squirrels
in general, are frequently attracted by the meat-baits of the fur
trappers, often proving a great nuisance in this respect.
These animals make their nest in natural cavities in tree
trunks and in old Woodpecker holes. The Squirrels are
active throughout the winter and do not hibernate; cold
apparently has no terror for the Flying Squirrel, for one sub-
species ranges across the Arctic Circle.
The number of young in a Flying Squirrel litter is three
to six, and I have seen no records of more than one family
of young a year.
Flying Squirrels make beautiful pets, with their soft fur
and attractive appearance, and are gentle in behavior, but
even as caged animals are not easy of observation because
they become active only in the dark.
268
WESTERN POCKET GOPHER
Family Geomyidae. Pocket Gophers

Fossorial rodents with large, strong claws on
forefeet; small
eyes and ears; external, fur-lined cheek-pouches;
broad head;
thickset body; legs short and stout; scantily haired tail, tip
suppHed with tactile nerves.
Subfamily Geomyinae
Genus Thomomys'
Dentition: Incisors, i; Canines ; Premolars, i; IMolars, f = 20.
J]
Western Pocket Gopher.— Thomomys bottse

and related forms
General Description.—A good-sized rodent, robust
in form-
mcisors strong and broad, very faintly grooved
longitudinally
on mner edge of anterior face; head broad; neck
short- legs
Fig. 59. Pocket Gopher
short; tail rather short, thick, sparsely haired; claws of forefeet

long and well developed for digging; claws of hind feet much
less specialized; a pair of capacious, fur-lined cheek-pouches
opening on sides of face; eyes and ears small; pelage rather
hne and soft; habit fossorial, seldom seen above surface of the
ground and often known to be present only through the piles
oi earth thrown out by its excavations. Plate XXVI.
Color.— Sexes colored alike. Summer pelage slightly
brighter than that of winter.
^ For a very full and complete revision of this genus see Vernon
Bailey, North American Fauna No. 39, 1915.
269
—
Upperparts (winter). Dark ochraceous, heavily sprinkled
with black-tipped hairs; pelage slate-colored at base; small
blackish patches about nose, cheek, and ear; white about
lips, on lining of cheek-pouches, and on feet; tail dusky to
brownish gray above and below.

—
Underparts. Usually somewhat lighter than upperparts,
washed with dull ochraceous, the dark-colored basal pelage
showing through.
—
Measurements. Males noticeably larger than females.
Total length, males, 10.5 inches, females, 9; tail vertebrae,
males, 3.2 inches, females, 2.8; hind foot, males, 1.3 inches,
females, i.i inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Western North America from
about 54° southward into Mexico.
—
Food. Strictly vegetable, including a wide variety of roots
and underground growths, such as bulbs, tubers, etc., as well
as surface foliage and green vegetation, occasionally bark;
destructive to crops such as potatoes, garden vegetables,
alfalfa, clover, grain, and in orchards to the roots of fruit
and fig trees.
trees, especially apple, pear,
—
Enemies. Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Coyotes, Foxes,
Badgers and Bobcats.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Thomomys
Subgenus Thomomys
Bottae Group
Characterized by coloration mainly dark or light

ochraceous; mammae in four pairs (inguinal, 2-2; pectoral,
2-2).
California Pocket Gopher. —

Thomomys hottcE hottcB (Eydoux
and Gervais). Plate XXVI.
As described above. Found in "Coast region of California
from Sonoma County (Freestone) south to San Diego."
(Bailey).
Humboldt Bay Pocket Gopher. — Tkojno?nys bott<x laticeps
(Baird).
Resembling typical hottcB, but color brighter and with less
black. Upperparts clear rusty ochraceous with few black-
tipped hairs; underparts light buffy ochraceous. Total
length, males, 10.5 inches, females, 9; tail vertebras, males,
3.5 inches, females, 3.1 hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females,
;
270
)
1.2. Found in "Coast region of northwestern California,

from Smith River south to Eel River." (Bailev)
White-toothed Pocket Gopher.- r/zomomj;^ bottce
leucodon
(Mernam).
Similar to typical bottcB, but lighter and
brighter in color
and smaller; mcisors white or tipped with white.
parts (winter) dark rusty ochraceous,
Upoer-
uniform over entire
upperparts; white on feet and often on cheek;
underparts
light buffy ochraceous, sometimes
with white spots on
upperparts, dark cinnamon,
Tnt^M^'^'fi. "'T^'" P?^^^V
total length, males, 9.8 inches; females,
7.^; tail vertebra
males, 2.8 mches, females 2.4; hind foot,
males, 13 inched'
^^ "Portions of northern California
ITa \l-^- /°Â^ Oregon, from Grants Pass, Ore., south
F^tfu S'^r
1^ airfield and Placerville, Cal." (Bailey)
to
Red Pocket Gopher.— Thomomys hotta navus (Merriam)
Smaller than typical hottcE, lighter in color.
Upperparts in
winter, light rusty ochraceous;
underparts pale buffy to '
ochraceous Brighter and more fulvous in summer

pelage.
Total length, males, 8.1 mches; females,
7.6; tail vertebra
males, 2.^ mches^ females, 2.5; hind foot,
males, i.i inches'
^^'''''^ '^ "Sacramento Valley,' Cal., from
i'^^tVr^lt
Battle Creek, Tehama County, south to Tracy
Lake, San
Joaqum Valley." (Bailey)
Digger Pine Pocket Gopher.— r/ôwowj.y hottcE
mewa (Merriam
Size smaller than typical hottcB and
color different. UpDer-
parts (winter) dull ochraceous tawny
with many glossy
black-tipped hairs; underparts bright
ochraceous; tail
7^^
ochraceous u^'^l^K^'^'F^^'.
nS.^r!
Upperparts, in summer, richer
blackish about forehead, nose, and ears.
length males, 9 mches, females, Total
7.8; tail vertebra, males
2.4 inches, females 2.1; hmd foot, males, i.i inches,
females
i.o. Found m Foothill country on east side of
San
^ ^^' ^'""^ Kemville north to Chinese "
ISy) '
Mendocino Pocket Gopher, —Thomomys bottce

minor Bailey
Smaller and darker than typical bottcE; but
little brighter in
summer than m winter. Upperparts (winter) dark
ochra-
ceous to cmnamon-brown, with much black,
especially about
nose face, and ears; underparts ochraceous
length, males 8.8 inches, females,
buff. Total
7.5; tail vertebra, males
2.9 inches females, 2.4; hind foot, males,
1.16 inches'
-^^^^^ "^°^^^ ^^gi°^^f California;
rZ
VI?,
P^nfM^^'S- i^
1?^?^ Mendocino south to Cazadero." (Bailev)
)iablo Pocket Gopher.— r/ômom3/^
hottce diaboli (Grinnell)
Size of navus, brighter in color than
typical bottce. Upper-
parts (summer) bright cinnamon-brown
only slightlv
darkened with black-tipped hairs; underparts
ceous tawny Wmter pelage
clear oSrE
darker. Total length, males
"^^^^^^^' "^^1^^' l6'inche
feLaks 2.3;
temales, hmd foot, '^\
.'/'T^"f'/-?= males, 1.2 inches, females, i.i.
;
271
;
Found on "Inner ridge of the Coast Ranges along west side

San Joaquin Valley, Cal." (Bailey)
of the
—
Los Bancs Pocket Gopher. Thomomys hottcs angulans (Mer-
riam).
Size of, but brighter than, typical hottce. Upperparts (sum-
mer) bright ochraceous buff, with only few black-tipped
hairs; black or dusky about nose, cheeks, and ears.
Winter
pelage with more black-tipped hairs. Total length, males, .
10.3 inches, females, 8.2; tail vertebrae, males, 2.3

inches, I
females, 2.6; hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females, i.i.

Found on "West side of San Joaqum Valley, Cal., from
Tracy south to Santiago Spring; also Santa Clara, San Juan,
and Salinas Valleys." (Bailey)
—
Fresno Pocket Gopher. Thomomys hotta pascalis (Memam).
,
Resembling typical hottcB in size. Upperparts (winter) dull

ochraceous, not much black on nose, face, and ear patch
underparts pale ochraceous, often irregularly spotted with
white along legs, throat, and abdomen. Summer pelage
brighter and more fulvous. Total length, males, 8.8
inches, females, 7.8 inches; tail vertebrae, males 2.9 inches,
females, 2.5; hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females, i.i.
Found along "East side of San Joaquin Valley, Cal., from
Stockton south to San Emigdio Canyon and Cuyama
(Bailey)
Valley."
— „ -m.
Grapeland Pocket Gopher. Thomomys hottcB pallescens Rhoads.
j
Nearly same size as typical bottcE, but paler in color. Upper-

parts (winter) dull ochraceous, with many black-tipped
hairs- underparts pale buffy to nearly whitish.
Summer
pelage with less black. Total length, males, 10.7 inches,
females, 8.3; tail vertebras, males, 3.4 inches, females,^ 2.6;
hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females, i.i. Found "San
'
m
Bernardino Valley, Cal. north to San Fernando. (Bailey)
Carrizo Plain Pocket Gopher.
,
—
Thomomys bottce infrapallidus
'
(Grinnell).
ResembHng typical hottcB m
. . ,.
size, but paler
1
m
color. tt
• 1
Upper-
parts (summer) dull ochraceous buff; underparts pale buffy
females, 8.2;
to whitish. Total length, males, 9.9 inches,
tail vertebrse, males, 3 inches, females, 2.8;
hmd foot, males,
1.36 inches, females, 1.16. Found on the Carrizo Plain,
California.
Stephens Pocket Gopher.
— . .
/-ni
Thomomys botta nigncans (Rhoadsj.
j n
Much like typical botta except for smaller size. Upperparts

(winter) dark ochraceous tawny, heavily sprinkled
with
black-tipped hairs; underparts rich ochraceous, but with
dark color of underfur showing through. Summer pelage
lighter and with more tawny than winter.
Total length,
males 9.3 inches, females, 8; tail vertebras, males, 3.1
females,
inches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males, 1.2 inches,
I I Found in "Southwestern California and northern
Lower California, from the San Jacinto Mountains, Cal,
south to Ubar, Lower California." (Bailey)
272
La Puerta Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys bottce puertce (Grinnell).

Resembling nigricans except for paler color. Upperparts
(summer) pale ochraceous tawny, somewhat darker along
dorsal region; underparts pale cinnamon. Winter pelage
darker and grayer. Total length, males, 8.1 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.2 inches; hind foot, i.i inches. Found in "La
Puerta and San Fehpe Valleys, Cal." (Bailey)
San Bernardino Mountain Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys altival-
lisRhoads.
A large mountain form of the hottcE group. Upperparts dull
ochraceous, with less black than in typical bottce, but darker
dorsal area faintly indicated; blackish on nose, cheeks, and
about ear; underparts soiled whitish to buffy. Summer
pelage a brighter ochraceous than winter. Total length,
males, 10.8 inches, females, 9; tail vertebra, males, 3.1
inches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males, 1.4 inches, females,
1.2. Found in "San Bernardino Mountains, Cal." (Bailey)
Alpinus Group
Characterized by dark coloration; mamm^ in four pairs

(inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
—
Mt. Whitney Pocket Gopher. Thomomys alpinus alpinus
Merriam.
Ears large and conspicuous (for a Pocket Gopher); sexes
about same size. Upperparts dull dark ochraceous, black-
ish along median dorsal region and on nose; feet whitish;
tail whitish for last two-thirds of its length; underparts
paler than upperparts, throat white. Winter pelage with
more yellow and less ochraceous. Total length, males and
females, 8.9 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 1.2
inches. Found in "Southern part of the Sierra Nevada,
Cal., at altitudes between 6,000 and 11,000 feet, frorn
Mount Whitney south to Siretta Meadows." (Bailey)
Yosemite Pocket Gopher. —
Thomomys alpinus awahnee Mer-
riam.
Smaller than typical alpinus. Upperparts (summer) dull
dark ochraceous underparts pale buffy to ochraceous, often
;
with irregular white spots and marks of white on abdomen.

Winter pelage darker, ochraceous tinged with dusky. Total
length, males, 8.8 inches, females, 7.8; tail vertebra, males,
3.0 inches, females, 2.2; hind foot, males, i.i inches, females,
1.04. Found along "Western slopes of the Sierra Nevada,
Cal., from Sequoia, Tuolumne County, south to Tehachapi
Peak." (Bailey)
—
San Gabriel Pocket Gopher. Thomomys neglectus Bailey.
Resembling altivallis in external appearance but differen-
tiated by cranial characters. Upperparts (summer) dull
ochraceous, heavily sprinkled with black-tipped hairs to
give general impression of dark gray; underparts dull buffy.
273
_ — ———
Winter pelage unknown. Total length, males, 9.2 inches,

females, 8.2; tail vertebras, males, 3.1 inches, females, 2.6;
hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females, 1.2. Has been found
only on "San Antonio Peak (Bear Flat Meadows at 6,400
feet altitude) in the San Gabriel Mountains, California."
(Bailey)
San Jacinto Pocket Gopher. Thomomys jacinteus Grinnell
and Swarth,
Superficially resembling nigricans, but more closely related
to 7ieglectus. Upperparts (summer) rich ochraceous, dark
in tone, sprinkled with black-tipped hairs which are thickest
along dorsal region underparts ochraceous, brighter in tone
;
than upperparts. Winter pelage with more black on upper-

parts. Total length, males, 9.5 inches, females, 9.3; tail
vertebra, males, 3.2 inches, females, 3.04; hind foot, males,
1.28 inches, females, 1.16. Found on "Upper slopes of San
Jacinto Mountains, Cal." (Bailey)
Perpallidus Group
Characterized by buffy or yellowish coloration (except
apache) and by mamma in four pairs (inguinal, 2-2 pectoral,
;
2—2).
Palm Springs Pocket Gopher. Thomomys perpallidus perpal-

lidus (Merriam).
Color very pale; ears small tail long. Upperparts (summer)
;
buffy to cream color; dusky about ear, grayish brown on

nose and cheeks; feet and tail whitish; underparts whitish.
Winter pelage even paler than summer. Total length,
males, 9.6 inches, females, 8.6; tail vertebrse, males, 3.4
1.20. Found in "Colorado Desert, southern California,
from Whitewater south to Salton Sea." (Bailey)
White Pocket Gopher. Thomomys perpallidus albatus (Grin-
nell).
Larger in size, paler in color than typical perpallidus. Up-
perparts pale buff to cream color; grayish brown on nose
and about ears; feet and tail with sparse, short, white hairs,
nearly naked; underparts creamy to white, with dark color
of underfur absent or much reduced. Winter pelage like
summer but with more extensive dark underfur on abdo-
men. Total length, males, 10.9 inches, females, 9.2; tail
vertebrae, males, 4.0 inches, females, 3.2; hind foot, males,
1.4 inches, females, 1.36. Found in "Southeastern Cali-
fornia and northeastern Lower California from Carrizo
Creek south to Gardner's Lagoon, Salton River." (Bailey)
Yellow-backed Pocket Gopher. Thomomys perpallidus chry-
sonotus Grinnell.
Smaller than typical perpallidus; ears very small; pelage as
in perpallidus. Upperparts (summer) pale buff to buff;
274
nose brown; underparts whitish, under-

fnfrl'.'io'^T^'Pf^'^'
Toti^l.? r^'
lotal length
i"'-
« ^-^'r
P?^^^ ^'^y^' than summer,
males, 8.7 mches, females, 8.1; tail vertebra
males, 2.9 mches, females, 2.6; hind foot,
males, 1.20 inched
females, i .08. Found in 'Southwestern Arizona and north:
'
Eh^^-berg south to near mouth of

Cofrrdo^r'"'
Colorado ^'Teast to Quitobaquito."
River, and
(Bailev)
Much darker above than typical perpallidm

shorter tail.
and with
Upperparts bright cinnamon-buff. Ligh er
than ^.r^.. and with more of a cinnamon
tinge on dorsal
area, also slightly larger. Total length, males 9.2 inches
females, 8.5 inches; tail vertebra.,
males 3 mches, females
2.6 inches; hmd foot, males, 1.2 inches,
Found along the bottom-lands of the
females, i. 6^2'
Mohav^ River San
CaHforma, and along the southerA rfm
of thf m\° ^^''t^'^'
the Mohave Desert to Los Angeles County
Gopher.-rAomo...j. perpalUdus perpes
(Merriam)
Resembling typical perpallidus but tail
shorter, ears larger
and color brighter Upperparts (summer) bright buffy
ochraceous; dusky about ear, grayish
brown on nose; under-
parts creamy white to buify, often
pure white on throat
P'll^' ^^[^'"^ ^^^ ^^"^^ than summer, grayish buff
Tnff\length,
Total males, 8.6 inches, females, 8.4; tail
males, 2.6 mches females, 2.6; hind
vertebS'
foot males, 1.14 mcheT
females, i 14. Found m "Upper
Sonoran
and mountain slopes of eastern California, d;sert\-alleys
from near head
Tntn 7^'
Yfll^y/£"th to Hesperia and Morongo Valley
into the valley of Kern River, and east
to the Providence
' ^^^ Grapevine Mountains, Nev/'
âileyT""''
Gopher.- r/;.m.m3^. perpallidus amargoscE
^""^Grinne^r^^*
Txi^n.rA^^l"
extensive
^^7"^ ^^"^ P''P''^ ^^^ser and with more
dark patch about ear. Size large for the grouo-
STn'tlf'^'^^
^"^^
total length males, 10P^-"î?^
^"^ t^î^. with yeZv!
mches, females, 8.7 inches- tail
vertebrae, males, 3.1 inches,
females, 2.7 inches; hind foo
males, 1.3 mches, females, 1.2 inches.
Found about per-
m
manent springs the Valley of the Amargosa
''River''
^^^^^^' ^^^° County, l:alifornia;în
wtl?;!Lrz?nT^
Gray Pocket Govher. —Thomomys
perpallidus canus (Bailey)
l^^g^^^.than typical perpallidus, wkh
larger f^^
wfpr '""i^^^S"'
ears and shorter
tail. Upperparts (summer pale
buffy gray nose brownish, ear patch dusky;
whitish. underparts
Winter pelage darker. Total length,
rSales 9 7
^^'''' 2.6inch'el
emaTes
lemales, 2T^hind't
2.6, hmd T'^'"'^-
l^^majes,
foot, 1.3 mches, females, 1.2.
275
— ,
Found in "Valleys of western and central Nevada, from

Flowing Springs, western Humboldt County, south to
Cloverdale and Monitor Valley, west to Honey Lake, Cal."
(Bailey)
—
Yellow Pocket Gopher. Thomomys perpallidus aureus (Allen).
Color golden buff, ear small. Upperparts (winter) bright
orange-buff, variable in shade, sometimes with dusky wash
along dorsal region; dusky to blackish on nose and about
ear; feet and tail creamy white; underparts creamy white.
Summer pelage like winter but a trifle darker. Total,
length, males, 9.6 inches, females, 8.9; tail vertebrae, males,
2.9 inches, females, 3.1; hind foot, males, 1.24 inches,
females, 1.20. Found in "Desert region of southern Nevada
southern Utah, western Colorado, central and northwestern
New Mexico, and northern and western Arizona." (Bailey)
Jicarilla Pocket Gopher. Thomomys perpallidus apache
(Bailey).
Dark in color, large in size (for this group). Upperparts dull
sooty gray, with light wash of dull ochraceous, a dark dorsal
band of blackish faintly indicated tail brownish to blackish
;
for dorsal half or three-quarters, rest white in marked con-

trast feet white underparts uniform with upper, except for
; ;
white on lips and less often on chin. Total length, males and
females, 9.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot, 1.33
inches. Found in "Transition Zone in northeastern
Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern
Colorado." (Bailey)
White Mountains Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys melanotis
Grinnell.
Color very pale and similar to that of typical perpallidus
but with more dusky nose and mouth and with more
extensive, slaty black ear patch; ear extremely small,
densely clothed with fine black hairs; general size medium.
Total length, males, 9.5 inches, females, 8.8 inches; tail
males, 1.2 inches, females, i.i inches. Found at high eleva-
tions (10,000-10,500 feet) in the White Mountains, Mono
County, California.
—
Cabezon Pocket Gopher. Thomomys cahezonce Merriam.
Resembling perpes in color but with larger ears. Upperparts
(summer) from buffy ochraceous to dull brownish dusky to
blackish on nose, lips, and about ears; underparts varying
from creamy white to buffy or salmon. Total length, males,
8.8 inches, females, 8.3; tail vertebrae, males, 3.2 inches,
females, 2.8; hind foot males, 1.20 inches, females, 1.14.
Found from "San Gorgonio Pass, southern California,
south to Cabezon." (Bailey)
Owens Lake Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys operarius Merriam.
ResembHng aureus in color but differentiated by short,
heavy rostrum and other skull characters. Upperparts pale
ochraceous to rich buff; gr^y to dark gray about ear; feet
276
and tail creamy white; underparts creamy white Total

length, males, 9 mches, females, 8.7; tail
vertebra, males 2 8
mches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males, 1.22
inches, females
y6 Found only on east side of
(Keeler, 3,600 feet altitude).
Owens Lake, Cahfornia
Painted Desert Pocket Gopher.— Thomomys
latirostris Mer-
Somewhat resembling aureus in
cranial characters but
rather unique m
most of its characters. Upperparts (sum-
mer) varying from pale buff orange to bright
buffy yellow
and lacking black-tipped hairs; dusky about
ears
brown on nose; feet and tail white; underparts grayish
white
occasionally tinged with sulphur-yellow on abdomen
length, males 9.3 inches; tail vertebra,
Total
1.3 inches A rare species known only from the Painted
JJesert of Arizona.
Phoenix Pocket Gopher or Fawn-colored
1 homomyscervinus Allen.
Pocket Gopher —
Large in size, pale fawn in color. Upperparts
pa e fawn; conspicuous blackish patch about (summer)
ear; brownish
to blackish on nose and cheeks; feet and
tail fawn, paler than
upperparts; underparts a paler shade of fawn
than upper-
parts Total length, males, 10. i inches, females,
9.8 tail
yertebr^, males, 34 inches, females,
3.1 hind foot, males,
;
^'^^' "^^"^^ ^^ ^^^ "PP^r Gila Valley,

Anzona '
Fulvous Group
Characterized by tawny color; mammae in four pairs
(inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
^Îvo^s Pocket Gopher.— r/ômomy^

fulvus fulvus (Wood-
Medium in size, tawny to chestnut in color; ears medium
Upperparts (summer) dark tawny to light chestnut, often
darker along dorsal region which may be dusky to blackish-
dusky to blackish on nose, cheeks, and about ears- feet
V.^lff'îÂ
lighter shade of same/^
^^""^f'
^''^^'''^ ^^1°^; underparts a
color as upperparts,' chin usually
whitish Winter pelage duller and darker. Total
length
males, 8.8 inches, females, 8.2; tail
vertebra, males 3 o
inches, females, 26; hmd/oot, males,
1.20 inches, females
1. 16. lôund mTransition Zone in northern and centra
Arizona from the Trumbull Mountains to
the White
m New Mexico to Sierra Grande, and the White
tarns, east
Moun
and Guadalupe Mountains; north to Fisher
Peak, south-
eastern Colorado." (Bailey)
Espanola Pocket Govhei. —Thomomys fulvus
pervagus (Mer-
nam j.
Larger in size and lighter in color than
typical fulvus. Up-
perparts (summer) uniform bright tawny,
blackish on nose,
277
cheek, and about ears; underparts pale tawny. Winter

pelage like summer but slightly duller. Total length, males,
9.6 inches, females, 9.0; tail vertebrae, males, 3.0 inches,
females, 2.7; hind foot, males, 1.30 inches, females, 1.25.
Found in "Upper Rio Grande and San Luis Valleys in
northern New Mexico and southern Colorado." (Bailey)
—
Desert Pocket Gopher. Thomomys fulvus desertorum (Mer-
riam).
Somewhat resembling typical fulvus but noticeably smaller
and brighter colored sexes about equal in size. Upperparts
;
(summer) bright orange- tawny to orange-cinnamon; dusky

on nose, cheeks, and about ears; feet and tail dirty white to
buffy; underparts creamy white or with light cinnamon
wash. Winter pelage with more yellow, duller in tone.
Total length, males and females, 7.8 inches; tail vertebree,
2.5 inches; hind foot, 1.04 inches. Found in "Detrital and
Big Sandy Valleys, northwestern Arizona; east in the Grand
Canyon to Prospect Valley." (Bailey)
—
Mountain-top Pocket Gopher. Thomomys fulvus intermedius
M earns.
Resembling typical fulvus but smaller and with well-defined
black dorsal band. Upperparts (summer) dark tawny with
darker dorsal region, brownish black to black, occasionally
forming a conspicuous black band from nose to tail; feet
dirty white; tail brown, tipped with whitish; underparts
pale tawny. Total length, males and females, 8.0 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches hind foot, i .0 inches.
; Found along
"Upper slopes of mountains in southeastern Arizona and
extreme southwestern New Mexico." (Bailey)
—
Davis Mountain Pocket Gopher. Thomomys fulvus texensis
Bailey.
Smaller than typical fulvus, lighter in color. Upperparts
(summer) tawny gray; blackish on nose, cheeks, and about
ear, gray on feet and lips; underparts tawny, brighter than
upperparts. Winter pelage darker and less bright than sum-
mer. Found only in the Davis Mountains, Texas (5,500
feet altitude).
Toltec Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys fulvus toltecus (Allen),
Resembling typical fulvus in size but paler and grayer.
Upperparts (summer) dull ochraceous tawny, brownish on
nose, blackish about ear feet whitish tail buffy gray under-
; ; ;
parts like upperparts but lighter in shade. Winter pelage

grayer on upperparts and with dusky along dorsal region.
Total length, males, 8.8 inches, females, 8.2; tail vertebrae,
females, 1.16. Found in "Lower Sonoran valleys and
deserts of southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico,
and adjacent parts of Chihuahua and Sonora, south to
Colonia Juarez, Chihuahua." (Bailey)
—
Meams Pocket Gopher. Thomomys mearnsi Bailey,
Smaller than typical /w/i;w5 and less dusky in color. Upper-
278
WESTERN POCKET GOPEER
parts (summer) dull cmnamon to light tawny,

blackish on
nose and about ear; feet whitish; tail buffy gray;
underparts
pale cmnamon. Wmter pelage with more
gray Total
length, males 8.8 inches, females, 8.0; tail
verteb/s, males
2.7 inches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males,
1.24 inches'
females, i 16. Found only in the Animas
Valley, south-
west New Mexico.
Sierra Blanca Pocket Oo^her. —Thomomys
haileyi Merriam
Upperparts (winter pelage only is known) dull
ochraceous
tawny to buffy fulvous, dusky on nose and about ear-
feet
dirty whitish; tail buffy; underparts creamy
white to' pale
salmon. Total length, males, 8.6 inches, females
8 S' tail
vertebrae males, 2.6 inches, females, 2.8; hind
foit males
1.24 inches, females, 1.16. Found in "Sierra Blanca'
western Texas, north to Tularosa, N. Mex."
(Bailey)
Lachuguilla Pocket Qo^her. —Thomomys lachugmUa
(Bailey)
bmall m size, resembling aureus in superficial
appearance*
but paler. Upperparts dull ochraceous tawny
to grayish
buff, dusky on nose and about ear; feet
whitish; underparts
pale cinnamon to dirty white. Total length,
males 8 6
inches, females, 8.1 tail vertebras, males, 2.6 inches
;
fem'ales
2.4;hmd foot, males, 1.16 inches, females, 1.04. iPound in
And Lower Sonoran mesas in extreme western Texas and
southern New Mexico, south to Casas Grandes,
Chihua-
hua. (Bailey)
Umbrinus Group
LittleGray Pocket Oovher. —Thomomys perditus Merriam
bmall m size; buffy gray to pale tawny in color. Upperparts
dark buffy gray to pale dull tawny; sides brighter
than
back; dusky on nose, lips, and about ears;
feet buffy to
creamy white; underparts like feet. Total length males
7 7
inches, females, 7.2; tail vertebra, males, 2.3 inches,
females
2.2; hmd foot, males, 1.06 inches, females,
.98. Found iii
-bastem Coahuila and western Nuevo Leon, north to
Rock
Springs and Castle Mountains, western Texas."
(Bailey)
Talpoides Group
Characterized by mammas in six pairs or more
(inguinal,
2-2; abdominal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
Saskatchewan Pocket Oovêr. —Thomomys talpoides talpoides

(Richardson).
"Size medium; ears prominent and pointed; claws
slender-
color dull and dark gray." (Bailey) Upperparts (summer)'
dull grayish brown; darker, almost black, on
nose and about
ear; feet whitish; tail whitish, often
only white-tipped-
underparts varying from buffy to dirty whitish gray
pure
white on chm and sometimes on throat and breast.
Winter
279
;
pelage much like summer. Total length, males and females,

Found on "Plains of Saskatchewan and Alberta; south in
Montana to Great Falls and the Big Snowy Mountains."
(Bailey)
Prairie Pocket Gopher or Dakota Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys
talpoides rufescens (Wied).
Larger and darker than typical talpoides. Upperparts
(summer) dull brownish gray black about ear and on ear
;
underparts buffy gray, whitish to pure white from chin to

breast. Winter pelage grayer than summer. Total length,
males and females, 9.2 inches; tail vertebras, 2.8 inches;
hind foot, 1,24 inches. Found in "Greater part of North
Dakota, eastern South Dakota, and southwestern Mani-
toba." (Bailey)
—
Coues Pocket Gopher. Thomomys talpoides clusius (Coues).
Smaller than typical talpoides, claws more slender; more
rufescent in color. Upperparts (summer) light buffy vary-
ing to hazel, washed with gray; crown brighter than sides;
gray on cheeks, blackish about ears; underparts whitish to
buffy, with occasionally white on chin. Winter pelage dull
hazel washed with grayish or buffy brown. Total length,
males and females, S.2 inches; tail vertebras, 2.5 inches;
hind foot, i.i inches. Found in "Central and southeastern
Wyoming (north to Parkman, Sheridan County), and
eastern Colorado south to Colorado Springs." (Bailey)
—
Sagebrush Pocket Gopher. Thomomys talpoides bullatus
Bailey.
Brighter in color than typical talpoides but like it in size.
Upperparts like clusius but less gray on cheeks; underparts
buffy. Winter pelage paler above than summer, light buffy
gray, underparts creamy white. Total length, males, 9.6
inches, females, 9.0; tail vertebrae, males, 3.0 inches, females,
3.1; hind foot, males, 1.20 inches, females, 1.16. Found in
"Plains of eastern Montana, northeastern Wyoming, and
western South Dakota; north to Medicine Hat, Alberta."
(Bailey)
—
Black Hills Pocket Gopher. Thomomys talpoides nebulosus
Bailey.
Resembling typical talpoides in size but pelage with more
brownish gray. Upperparts (summer) dull brownish gray;
darker on nose and about ear, dusky or blackish feet gray-
;
ish to buffy; tail like feet; underparts buffy with more or

less white on chin and breast. Winter pelage dark buffy
gray above, light buffy below. Total length, males and
females, 9.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.6 inches; hind foot, 1.26
inches. Found in "Black Hills, S. Dak., and Bear Lodge
Mountains, Wyoming." (Bailey)
—
Bighorn Pocket Gopher.^ Thomomys talpoides caryi Bailey.
Resembling clusius, slightly smaller, more rufescent, less
gray. Upperparts (summer) warm grayish brown; nose
280
and about ear darker, slate-colored to black; underparts

warm buff, chin and sometimes breast white. Winter
pelage dark buffy gray above, creamy below. Total length,
males and females, 8.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.3 inches;
hind foot, i.i inches. Found in "Canadian Zone on Big-
horn Mountains, Wyoming." (Bailey)
—
Pryor Mountain Pocket Gopher. Thomomys talpoides pryori
(Bailey).
Similar to cliisiiis in size but darker in color. Upperparts
(summer) dull walnut-brown; nose slate-colored; black
about ears; dark gray on cheeks; dirty whitish to buffy on
feet and tail. Underparts dark buff, lacking white on chin,
throat, and breast. Winter pelage grayer. Total length,
males, 8.2 inches, females, 8.0; tail vertebrae, males, 2.4
inches, females, i.i; hind foot, males, 1.16 inches, females,
1. 14. Found in "Pryor Mountains, Mont., east to the Big-
horn River near Fort Custer." (Bailey)
San Luis Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys talpoides agrcstis Mer-
riam.
Larger and paler than clusiiis. Upperparts (summer) buffy
to brownish gray, brightest along dorsal area blackish about
;
ear, grayish on nose, feet, and tail; underparts buffy,

occasionally with white spot on chin. Winter pelage lighter
and grayer. Total length, males and females, 8.8 inches;
"San Luis Valley, Colo." (Bailey)
—
Columbia Pocket Gopher. Thomomys columhianus (Bailey).
Smaller and paler than typical talpoides. Upperparts (sum-
mer) brownish gray to buffy gray black on ear and behind
;
ear; nose slate-colored; feet and tail grayish or whitish;

underparts pale buffy gray. Winter pelage grayer, but
very similar to summer. Total length, males and females,
8.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.3 inches; hind foot, i.i inches.
Found on "Plains of southeastern Washington and northern
Oregon." (BailejO
Green River Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys ociiis (Merriam).
Small in pale in color. Upperparts (summer) light
size,
buffy gray, with more buffy or brown from crown along
back; sides grayer, like cheeks, but lighter in shade; small
blackish patch about ear, dirty whitish on feet and tail;
underparts creamy to dirty whitish. Winter pelage lighter
above than summer. Total length, males, 8.2 inches,
females, 7.8; tail vertebras, males, 2.4 inches, females, 2.3;
hind foot, males, 1.04 inches, females, i.oo. Found in
"Green River Basin of southwestern Wyoming, north-
western Colorado, and northeastern Utah." (Bailey)
—
Idaho Pocket Gopher. Thomomys idahoetisis Merriam.
"Size very small; color pale yellowish gray; ears small."
(Bailey) Upperparts (summer) pale buffy gray, dull in
tone; yellowish on nose, very little dark color about ear;
feet and tail well haired, whitish to pale buffy; underparts
281
;
dirty whitish to pale buff, sometimes with white on chin.

Winter pelage unknown, but probably very pale. Total
length, males, 7.2 inches, females, 6.6; tail vertebrae, males,
2.0 inches, females, 2.0; hind foot, males, .9 inch, females,
.9. Found on "Snake River Plains, southeastern Idaho."
(Bailey)
Pygmy Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys pygmcBUs Merriam.
Smallest Pocket Gopher of the genus Thomomys; ears small;
color a rich brown. Upperparts (summer) a uniform rich
hazel-brown; nose slaty, dusky patch about ear reduced;
feet and tail whitish to buffy; underparts dull ochraceous,
only rarely with white on chin or breast. Winter pelage
paler than summer, brown more buffy. Total length, males,
and females, 6.7 inches; tail vertebra?, 2.0 inches; hind foot,
.9 inch. Found in "Southwestern Wyoming and south-
eastern Idaho (Transition Zonej." (Bailey)
Fossor Group
Characterized by mammae in five pairs (inguinal, 2-2;

pectoral, 3-3.)
—
Colorado Pocket Gopher. Thomomys fossor Allen.
Medium in size, dark and dull in color; ears large, fur long
and soft. Upperparts (summer) dull dark brown varying
occasionally to rich chestnut; blackish on nose, face, and
about ear; whitish on feet, tip of tail, often on chin and
occasionally on chest; underparts buffy to ochraceous.
Winter pelage duller and grayer. Total length, males, 8.8
inches, females, 8.8; tail vertebras, males, 2.7 inches, females,
"Mountains of western Colorado, extreme southern Wyom-
ing, northern New Mexico, eastern and southern Utah, and
northwestern Arizona." (Bailey)
Fort Bridger Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys hridgeri Merriam.
Large in size, dark in color, with large and prominent ears.
Upperparts (summer) rich brown, warm in tone; dusky
brown on nose and face; considerable black about ear; feet
and tail grayish, the latter with brownish tinge and some-
times white-tipped; underparts dark buffy to dull ochra-
ceous, sometimes with white on chin. Winter pelage dull,
dark brown above, washed with buffy below. Total length,
males, 9.5 inches, females, 9.1; tail vertebrae, males, 2.8
inches, females, 2.y\ hind foot, males, 1.36 inches, females,
1.33. Found in "Southwestern Wyoming and southeastern
Idaho (Transition Zone)." (Bailey)
Uinta Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys uinta Merriam.
jj
Almost indistinguishable from fossor externally, but skull ^

shorter and wider. Upperparts (summer) dull dark brown
dusky on nose and face, blackish on ear and back of ear;
underparts buffy to ochraceous. Winter pelage duller and
282
;
grayer. Total length, males, 9.0 inches, females, 8.2; tail

vertebras, males, 2.8 inches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males,
1.24 inches, females, 1.12. Found in "Western Wyoming^
southeastern Idaho, and northern Utah."
Dalles Pocket Gopher. — (Bailey)
Thomomys quadratus quadratus Mer-
riam.
Smaller and brighter colored th^nfossor. Upperparts (sum-
mer) light russet; blackish on nose and about ear; feet whit-
ish; tail brownish, dirty whitish at tip; underparts dark
buff, slate-colored underfur showing through. Winter
pelage grayer. Total length, males, 8.2 inches, females,
7.8; tail vertebrae, males, 2.6 inches, females, 2.5; hind foot,
males, 1.08 inches, females, 1.06. Found on "Plains of
eastern and central Oregon, northeastern California, and
north v/estern Nevada." (Bailey)
Fisher Pocket Gopher. — TJiomomys quadratus fisheri (Mer-
riam).
Smaller than typical quadratus, color paler, tail shorter.
Upperparts (summer) buffy gray, with dull russet tinge on
dorsal area; slaty on nose, blackish about ear; whitish on
feet, chin, underside of tail; tail above gray; underparts
buffy. Winter pelage very similar to summer pelage, but
slightly grayer. Total length, males and females, j.j
inches; tail vertebras, 2.3 inches; hind foot, i.o inches.
Found in "Northern, central, and western Nevada; west in
Cahfomia to Sierra Valley and Mona Lake." (Bailey)
Douglasii Group
Characterized by ears large and rounded at tips; mammae

in four pairs (inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
Douglas Pocket Gopher or Columbia Sand Rat. — Thomomys

douglasii douglasii (Richardson).
"Size medium; claws stout; ears medium with rounded tips
color nearly uniform dull hazel without dark ear patch."
Upperparts (summer) dull hazel; sides slightly paler; gray
on nose; soiled whitish on feet and tail; underparts more
ochraceous than upperparts. Total length; males, 8.6
inches, females, 8.0; tail vertebrse, males, 2.6 inches, females,
2.3; hind foot, males. 1.2 inches, females, 1.14. Found along
the Columbia River near Vancouver, Washington.
—
Oregon Pocket Gopher. Thomomys douglasii oregonus Mer-
riam.
Resembling typical douglasii in size but color brighter and
ears smaller. Upperparts (summer) clear bright hazel,
dusky on nose and cheeks and blackish about ears under- ;
parts paler, with more of an ochraceous tone. Total length,

males, 8.8 inches, females, 8.2; tail vertebrse, males, 2.8
1. 13. Found about Oregon City, Oregon.
283
;
Yelm Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys douglasii yelmensis Mer-

riam.
Resembling typical douglasii, but color duller and darker,
ears more pointed and with conspicuous black patches.
Upperparts (faded summer pelage) dull hazel dusky on nose
;
and sides of face, blackish on ears and about ears, white on

feet, tail, and sometimes white spot on breast or on side;
underparts buffy, irregularly spotted with white. Total
length, males, 8.9 inches; tail vertebrse, 2.7 inches; hind foot,
1 .28 inches. Found on "Prairies around south end of Puget
Sound, Wash." (Bailey)
—
Tacoma Pocket Gopher.' Thomomys douglasii tacomensis
Taylor.
"Darker than any others of the "pocket gophers" occupying
the lowlands of western Washington. Similar to Thomomys
douglasii yelmensis to which it appears to be most closely
related, but upperparts and face darker; postauricular black
area more extensive ..." (Taylor) Upperparts (winter)
;
cinnamon-buff grizzled with blackish; blackish on face and

back of ear; underparts pale gray. Total length, males,
8.8 inches, females, 8.5 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 2.5
inches, females, 2.6 inches; hind foot, males, 1.2 inches,
females, i 1 6 inches. Found in Pierce County, Washington
.

—
Black-headed Pocket Gopher. Thomomys douglasii melanops
(Merriam).
Similar to yelmensis but blacker on nose and head. Upper-
parts (summer) dark russet; dusky on nose and face, exten-
sively black about ears; white on feet, tip of tail, chin
(usually), and wrists; underparts ochraceous. Total length,
females, 8.2 inches; tail vertebras. 2.5 inches; hind foot, i.i
inches. Measurements of males unknown. Found in
"Olympic Mountains, Wash." (Bailey)
Rainier Pocket Gopher. —
Thomomys douglasii shawi Taylor.
Resembling limosus but larger, paler, and less intense brown.
Upperparts (August) cinnamon-buff, sides pinkish buff spot ;
back of ear slaty blackish, inconspicuous; tip of nose

usually with white spot; underparts w^hitish with wash of
buffy; tops of feet white. Total length, males, 9.1 inches,
females, 8.3 inches; tail vertebras, males, 2.9 inches, females,
2.4 inches; hind foot, males, 1.3 inches, females, 1.2 inches.
Found on the "East side of Mount Rainier National Park;
also the Cascade Mountains in the vicinity of Mount Aix,
Cowlitz Pass, and Goat Rocks. Life Zone, Hudsonian."
(Taylor)
—
White Salmon Pocket Gopher. Thomomys douglasii limosus
(Merriam).
Resembling typical douglasii, but darker in color and with
blackish ear patch. Upperparts (summer) dull chestnut;
slaty on nose, blackish about ear; feet and tail dirty white;
underparts paler than upperparts, more nearly ochraceous.
284
;
Total length, males, 9.0 inches, females, 8.6 inches; tail

vertebrae, males, 2.7 inches, females, 2.6; hind foot, males,
1.2 mches, females, i i
. Known only from 'White Salmon,'
.
'
gorge of the Columbia, KHckitat County, Washington.''

(Bailey)
—
Black Pocket Gopher. Thomomys niger Merriam.
Most resembling typical douglasii, but black in color.
''Upperparts uniform glossy black with purple and green
iridescence; underparts duller and more plumbeous; feet and
distal portion of tail white. Young, sooty black. '
(Bailey)
'
Total length, males, 9.0 inches, females, 8.6; tail vertebrse,

males, 3.2 inches, females, 2.8; hind foot, males, 1.2 inches^
females, 1.2. Found in "Coast region of west-central
Oregon." (Bailey)
Monticola Group
Characterized by ears relatively large and pointed; mammae
in four pairs (inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
California Mountain Pocket Qo^her. —Thomomys monticola

monticola Allen.
vSmall in size, ears large and pointed, feet and claws slender.
Upperparts (winter) dull hazel slaty on nose, blackish about
;
ear; tail whitish, sometimes with dusky on upper basal sur-

face; underparts dull buffy. Summer pelage brighter in
tone, tawny. Total length, males, 8.5 inches, females, 8.4;
tail vertebrcE, males, 2.8 inches, females, 2.7; hind foot,
males, i.io inches, females, 1.06. Found in "Sierra Nevada
of California and Nevada, from Lassen Peak south to Mam-
moth Pass." (Bailey)
Mazama Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys monticola mazama
(Merriam).
Darker and more richly colored than typical monticola, but
like it in size. Upperparts (summer) bright russet brown
slaty on nose, blackish about ear, whitish on feet and tail.
Underparts warmer buff to ochraceous. Winter pelage un-
known. Total length, males and females, 8.2 inches; tail
vertebras, 2.6 inches; hind foot, 1.12 inches* Found in
"Cascade and Siskiyou Mountains, Ore., south in California
to the Trinity Mountains." (Bailey)
fellow Pine Pocket Gopher. —
Thomomys monticola pinetorum
Merriam.
Resembling typical monticola, but brighter brown above and
with gray on nose and cheeks. Upperparts (summer) yel-
lowish hazel (color of yellow-pine bark) blackish about ears,
;
slaty to grayish on nose and cheeks, grayish to whitish on

feet and tail; underparts buffy. Winter pelage duller than
summer. Total length, males, 8.4 inches, females, 8.0;
tail vertebras, males, 3.0 inches, females, 2.9; hind foot,
males, 1.12 inches, females, i.io. Found in "Mountains
285
along west side of Sacramento Valley, Cal., from Sisson

south to South Yolla Bolly Mountain." (Bailey)
—
Deschutes Pocket Gopher. Thomomys monticola nasicus
(Merriam).
Like typical monticola in size, with conspicuous large ears,
and brighter color. Upperparts (summer) bright yellowish
hazel; slaty on nose and about ears, whitish on feet, tail, and
chin. Winter pelage not quite as bright as summer. Total
length, males, 8.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.8 inches; hind foot,
I.I inches. Found in "West-central Oregon (east of the
Cascades), from Farewell Bend, Deschutes River, south to
the Yamsey Mountains." (Bailey)
Heller Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys monticola helleri (Elliot).
Resembling mazama but darker in color. Upperparts
(winter) dull chestnut; ochraceous on sides, blackish on nose
and face, intense black about ears; whitish on feet (some-
times mottled with white) and tip of tail. Total length,
males, 8.1 inches, females, 7.8; tail vertebras, males, 2.2
1. 10. Found in "Coast region of southwestern Oregon."
(Bailey)
Fuscus Group
Characterized by ears relatively small and pointed ; mammae
in four pairs (inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2),
Brown Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys fuscus ftiscus (Merriam).

Small in size ears slender, pointed feet slender color light
; ; ;
brown. Upperparts (summer) light brownish; slaty on

nose, blackish about ear, dirty whitish on feet and tail;
underparts buffy. Winter pelage duller in tone than sum-
mer. Total length, males and females, 8. i inches tail verte-
;
brae, 2.2 inches; hind foot, 1.08 inches. Found in "South-

eastern British Columbia, greater part of northern and
central Idaho and western Montana, northwestern Wyom-
ing, and parts of eastern Washington and Oregon." (Bailey)
Coeur D'Alene Pocket Gopher. —
Thomomys fuscus saturatus
Bailey.
Larger "and darker than typical fuscus. Upperparts (sum-
mer) dark rich hazel; yellowish on sides, slaty on nose, black
about ear, buffy gray on feet and tail; underparts washed
with buffy, occasionally a small patch of white on chin or
throat. Winter pelage unknown. Total length, males, 9.0
inches, females, 8.6; tail vertebras, males, 3.1 inches, females,
"Higher parts of the Coeur d'Alene Mountains in Idaho and
Montana." (Bailey)
Alberta Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys fuscus loringi Bailey.
Resembling typical fuscus, slightly larger in size and duller
in color, ear small and pointed. Upperparts (winter) dull
286
russet brown; warm buff on sides, slaty on nose, blackish

about ear, dirty whitish on feet, pale buffy on tail under-
;
parts washed with rich buffy over slate-colored underfur.

Summer pelage a brighter shade of russet. Total length,
males, 8.0 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.9 inches; hind foot, 1.06
inches. "Known only from Edmonton and Moose Mountain,
Alberta." (Bailey)
Little-headed Pocket Gopher. —Thomomys fuscus myops
(Merriam).
Similar to typical fuscus in coloration and character of small
ears, but smaller in size. Upperparts (summer) light
brownish slaty on nose, blackish about ear, whitish on feet
;
and tip of tail; underparts buffy, chin white (usually).

Total length, males and females, 7.3 inches; tail vertebrae,
2.3 inches hind foot, i .0 inch. Found only near Conconully,
;
Okanogan County, Washington.

—
West Coast Pocket Gopher. Thomomys hesperus Merriam.
Small in size; ears small and pointed; color rich auburn.
Upperparts bright rich auburn; dusky on nose and cheeks,
black about ear, whitish on feet and tip of tail underparts
;
more nearly ochraceous. Total length, males, 8.4 inches;

"Coast region of northwestern Oregon." (Bailey)
Townsendii Group
Characterized by large size (exceeded only by hulbivorus) ;
dichromatic coloration (gray and black phases) mammas in

;
four pairs (inguinal, 2-2; pectoral, 2-2).
Townsend Pocket Gopher. — Thomomys townsendii townsendii

(Bachman).
Very large in size; ear small and pointed; claws medium;
occurring in two color phases, dark gray and black. Upper-
parts (gray phase) dark buffy gray to sooty gray; blackish
on nose, face, and about ear; lining of cheek-pouches black
and white; soiled gray on feet and tail; underparts with
washing of rich buff, chin white. Upperparts (black phase)
dull slaty black underparts like upperparts except for white
;
patch on chin, toes, and generally on lower feet. Summer

and winter pelages practically identical. Total length,
males, 12.2 inches, females, ii.o; tail vertebrae, males, 4.0
inches, females, 3.0; hind foot, males, 1.5 inches, females, 1.4,
Found in "Valley of Snake River in southern Idaho, from
American Falls to Weiser." (Bailey)
—
Nevada Pocket Gopher. Thomomys townsendii nevadensis
(Merriam).
Resembling typical townsendii in large size, dichromatic
coloration, but more buffy in gray phase and more slaty in
black phase. Upperparts (gray phase) light buffy gray;
slaty on nose and cheeks, pale buffy gray on feet and tail;
287
underparts pale buffy gray, throat white. Upperparts (black

phase) bluish black to plumbeous; underparts like upper
except for white on throat and usually on feet. Total
length, males, ii.o inches, females, 10.2; tail vertebras,
females, 1.4. Found in "Valleys of central and northern
Nevada and southeastern Oregon, from Austin and Love-
locks, Nev north to Alvord Lake, Greg."
, (Bailey)
Subgenus Megascapheus
Characterized by large size ; mammee in four pairs (inguinal,
2-2; pectoral, 2-2) \ and by cranial characters.
Camas Pocket Gopher or Camas Rat. — Thomomys hulbivorus

(Richardson). Plate XX VL
Very large in size, largest species of the genus; claws of front
feet relatively small and weak; external ears greatly reduced,
a mere thickened rim tail practically naked color very dark,
; ;
Upperparts (winter) dark sooty brown; blackish on nose and

ears, white on feet (in streaks or blotches), chin, throat, and
a small spot at base of tail below; underparts like upperparts,
but with darker underfur showing through. Summer pelage
like winter,but washed with rusty brown above and below.
Total length, males, 12.0 inches, females, 10.8; tail vertebras,
males, 3.6 inches, females 2>-'2,; hind foot, males, 1.7 inches,
females, 1.6. Found in "Willamette Valley, Greg., from
Portland and Forest Grove south to Eugene west to Grand ;
Ronde." (Bailey)
The Pocket Gopher is easily distinguished from other

rodents by its fur-lined cheek-pockets, broad head, strong
claws,and fossorial habit. The only other American rodents
with external cheek-pockets are the Pocket Mice and Pocket
Rats which have no such specializations for living an under-
ground existence and bear little resemblance to Pocket
Gophers.
The Western Pocket Gophers {Thomomys) differ from the
Eastern Pocket Gophers of the Mississippi Valley (Geomys)
in showing no very distinct grooving on the incisors otherwise ;
the two genera are very much alike superficially.

Pocket Gophers are abundant over much of western North
AmericH, and yet the animals themselves are seldom seen by
the average observer. This is because the Gopher spends
almost its entire existence underground and appears at the
mouth of its burrow for only an instant, when it throws out
288
Plate XXV
Lar^ Ka n d d rtm^tiS.
Califor rtia Fbckeft Gopher
Shaw Pocket Gopher

loose earth, or when it occasionally reaches out for clover or

other food. These animals are clever engineers and drive
their tunnels long distances. A single animal may construct
a widespread labyrinth of subterranean passages, a great many
feet in extent, during the course of a summer, where soil con-
ditions are favorable. These burrows are driven to new
feeding grounds, and the fresh earth thrown out every twenty-
four hours proves that the Pocket Gopher is active and ener-
getic.
Most of the digging is probably done with the foreclaws,
but the incisors are used to some extent and are broad, capable
tools. The burrows may be from a few inches to a foot or
more below the surface, and frequent short laterals or "rises"
are cut to the surface to get rid of the loosened earth. In
contradistinction to the Mole which forces the earth to one
by sheer strength, the Gopher cuts a clean
side, displacing it
burrow and brings all the debris to the surface, or to some
unused part of the runway system. Where the soil is damp
and loose and the animals can make new burrows without an
excessive amount of labor, "gopher-hills" of fresh earth may
be seen at intervals of lo to 20 feet wherever one of these
creatures is at work, A completed "hill" hides the mouth of
the burrow, because the Gopher usually leaves a plug of soil
in the last few inches of its length. Probably this is done to
keep out snakes and other enemies. It has been stated that
these animals have an aversion to light and plug up every
opening to shut out light, but the reason just given seems more
cogent. Sometimes close inspection reveals the outline of the
burrow opening where the earth has issued, but more often the
opening will be completely covered by a copious mound.
Short lateral burrows at which the Gopher is feeding are
often without very much soil at the entrance, and the open-
ing is closed between meals by only a thin plug which does not
come quite flush with the surface. Such a spot may be
revisited in an hour or two with a fair chance of seeing the
occupant at work.
Much of the Gopher's food is secured below the surface as
roots, bulbs, etc., but some is also taken immediately at the
mouth of the burrow. The animal is loathe to leave the hole
completely and stretches out only the forepart of its body,
with the tail and hind quarters in the burrow, and is prepared
289
to dart back like a flash at the

first sign of danger. The cheek-
pockets are used for food storage, and animals taken feeding
at the mouth of the burrow nearly always have the food in the
pockets, showing that no time is taken to consume the
vegetation as it is cut.
If one approaches an open burrow carefully it is possible to
get quite close to a Pocket Gopher, for the animal's sight is
poor. Vibration of the ground by careless steps will warn the
Gopher instantly, and so will a breeze blowing from the
observer toward the burrow, but if one stands motionless the
Gopher will bring out earth or gather food at a distance of only
a few feet from man. Earth is shoved up to the rim of the
hole by the chest and forelegs of the Gopher and the animal
appears for only an instant as a final push sends the load
falling down the sides of the "gopher-hill." It goes back at
once for more and may be gone for a minute or more, but is
generally back in a few seconds. Unless unduly frightened,
the Gopher will not go away for good and leave the burrow
open, so as long as the entrance is open the observer can be
sure the little digger will reappear soon. However, this animal
is very cautious and I have been deceived more than once by a
supposedly open burrow which a suspicious Gopher had plug-

ged shortly after I began to watch it, but left the plug several
inches below the surface of the ground where I would not see
it until directly at the hole.
It is possible to catch a Gopher, when an open burrow is
found, by putting an open noose about the hole and standing

back with the end of the string until the head and shoulders
of the Gopher appear. A twitch of the cord and one has a
very angry captive, eager to bite and requiring careful hand-
ling. The Gopher disposition is surly and touchy, and, ex-
cept during the mating season, full-grown animals never seem
to be found more than one to a burrow.
Gophers which get into a garden are very destructive and
the farmer will find them difficult to trap. The ordinary steel
trap is filled and sprung with earth oftener than by the animal
but special Gopher traps have been devised which are
itself,
more successful. It is necessary to clean out the burrows well

when a trap is set, not only to remove earth which may be
trap, but to avoid warning the inmate that
pushed into the
the runway has been tampered with. Finally, a board or
290
piece of sod should be placed over the top of the hole, clear of
the trap, to shut out the light. Poisoned baits may also be
used to rid gardens of these troublesome rodents.
Gophers have many enemies and in spite of everlasting
vigilance are caught in great numbers by Hawks, Owls, and
snakes, as well as by predatory mammals. Since Gophers
are active day and night they run the gamut of all preying
creatures, and momentary as is the appearance at the entrance
of the burrow. Hawks and Owls seem to have no difficulty in
catching them. Snakes enter the burrows and are certain of
a meal.
The tail of the Gopher seems to possess an important tactile
function and in narrow quarters, where the Gopher can not
turn, the tail serves as a feeler when he runs backward.
One might expect that, since Gophers live underground to
such an extent, there would be little variation in the color of
the pelage. This is not the case, for the color of Gophers
varies as much as that of Chipmunks or other rodents.
Pocket Gophers have become distributed in very many dif-
ferent environments, practically everywhere where suitable
food is to be found, and the color of the pelage varies accord-
ingly from black to very light sandy gray. In general, the
Pocket Gophers of the humid districts are dark-colored, and
those of the deserts pale, as we should expect. There is a
variation in size as well, from the very large bidhivorous of the
Willamette Valley, where food is abundant, to the very small
forms, such as pygmceus, which live under more adverse condi-
tions.
Pocket Gpphers are active summer and winter. A winter
pelage, in most forms fairly distinct from that of summer, is
assumed and the new coat appears gradually, so that speci-
mens may be taken which show both pelages. The replace-
ment by the new fur creates a distinct line on the body of the
animal, which usually follows a definite order beginning at the
nose and head and then moving toward the base of the tail,
until finally the pelage is all of one type and the line of differ-
entiation disappears.
Pocket Gophers are prolific and have from four to eight
young. The life- history of this group is not very well known,
but there is evidence to show that, throughout much 'of the
range of Thomomys, there are several litters of young a year.
291
|
Genus Geomys ^
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, J; Molars, 20.
Eastern Pocket Gopher.- -Geomys tuza

and related forms
—
General Description. Externally so similar to Thomomys
that no special description is needed. See genus Thomomys,
page 269. Upper incisors deeply grooved. Plate XXVI.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; some seasonal variation.
Fig. 60. Heads of Pocket Gophers to show incisor teeth.

Left, Geomys, right, Thomomys
Upperparts cinnamon-brown, with yellowish tinge, dorsal

region slightly darker than sides; feet whitish; tail whitish;
underparts dull buffy.
Immature duller than adults.
males, 10.8 inches, females, 10 inches; tail vertebras, males,
3.6 inches, females, 3.3 inches; hind foot, males, 1.4 inches,
females, 1.3 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Plains and prairies between
the Mississippi River and the eastern foothills of the Rocky
Mountains and the eastern Gulf States,
—
Food. Same as for Thomomys, page 270.
Eneioies. — Same as for Thomomys ,
page 270.
^ For a revision of this genus see C. H. Merriam, North A7nerica
Fauna, No. 8, i89S-
292
EASTERN POCKET GOPHER
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Geomys

The geographical distributions given for the members of
this genus are only provisional and will doubtless be con-
siderably amended when the group is revised on the basis of
present-day material.
Tuza Group
Georgia Pocket Gopher. — Geomys tuza tuza (Barton).
As described above. Found in "Pine barrens of Georgia
(and probably northern Florida also), within the Austro-
riparian faunal area."
Alabama Pocket Gopher. —(Merriam)
Geomys tuza môhilensis Merriam.
Smaller than typical tuza, darker and tail shorter. Upper-
parts dark brown, with sepia tone; sides golden to deep
buffy, sprinkled with black dusky on top of head and along
;
dorsal line as faintly-defined band underparts washed with

;
buffy, with some white about throat. Total length, males,

10 inches, females, 9.2 inches; tail vertebrce, males, 3.2
inches, females, 3 inches; hind foot, males, 1.34 inches,
females, 1.2 inches. Found in "Southern Alabama and
adjacent part of northwest Florida, within the Austrori-
parian Zone." (Merriam)
Florida Pocket Gopher or Salamander. —
Geomys floridaitus
floridanus (Audubon and Bachman).
Resembling tuza but darker, tail more hairy and forefeet
larger. Upperparts dull, dark slate-colored; sides brighter,
with tinge of dull cinnamon underparts washed with buffy,
;
with some white on chin and throat. Total length, males,

1 1.5 inches, females, 9.5 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 3.8
inches, females, 3.1 inches; hind foot, males, 1.4 inches,

females, 1.3 inches. Found in Florida in the St. Augustine
region.
—
Southern Pocket Gopher. Geomys floridanus austrinus Bangs.
Resembling typical floridanus in size but paler and more
tawny. Upperparts pale cinnamon and tawny; sides och-
raceous buff; underparts whitish to buffy, with large irregu-
lar patches of white on chin, inner sides of limbs and belly;
hands, feet, and tail with scanty whitish hairs. Total
length, males, 12 inches, females, 10 inches; tail vertebrce,
males, 3.7 inches, females, 3.1 inches; hind foot, males, 1.47
inches, females, 1.3 inches. Found in the western part of
the Florida peninsula.
St. Mary's Pocket Gopher. — Geomys colonus Bangs.
Resembling typical tuza in size but darker in color. Upper-
parts seal-brown to sepia; lower sides with light wash of
cinnamon; underparts washed with cinnamon, pelage plum-
beous at base, no white under chin; hands and feet whitish.
vertebras, males, 3.8 inches, females, 3.1 inches: hind foot,
293
males, 1.44 inches, females, 1.28 inches. Found in extreme

southeastern Georgia in a restricted area between Crooked
River on the north, Dark Entry Creek on the east, St.
Mary's River on the south and Miller's Branch on the West.
—
Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher. Geomys cumherlandius
Bangs.
Size very large; tail long. Upperparts bright cinnamon to
russet with well-defined, dark dorsal band; hands and feet
grayish white; underparts washed with cinnamon, pelage
plumbeous at base, irregular blotches of white under chin
and on wTists. Total length, males, 12.8 inches, females,
1 1.2 inches; tail vertebras, males, 4.3 inches, females, 3.8

Found only on Cumberland Island, Camden County,
Georgia.
Bursarius Group
Shaw Pocket Gopher; Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher. —

Geomys hur sarins (Shaw). Plate XXVI.
Large in size and dark in color. Upperparts dark brown to
chestnut; forefeet white, hind feet dirty white; tail white,
toward tip, brownish toward body; underparts lighter
brown than upperparts. Total length, males, 11.9 inches,
females, 10.6 inches; tail vertebras, males, 3.6 inches, fe-
males, 3.1 inches; hind foot, males, 1.5 inches, females, 1.36
inches. Found in "Upper Mississippi Valley from a short
distance south of the Canadian boundary southward to
eastern Kansas, southeastern Missouri, and southern Illi-
nois; east nearly to Lake Michigan, west in the Dakotas and
Nebraska to the ninety-eighth or ninety-ninth meridian.
Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones." (Miller)
Breviceps Group
—
Yellow Pocket Gopher. Geomys lutescens (Merriam).
A pale, medium-sized species, with tail of medium length;
scantily haired. Upperparts (summer) pale, dull yellowish
to buffy ochraceous; underparts buffy in winter drab above,
;
with many black-tipped hairs along dorsal line to form dor-

sal band. Total length, males, 10.8 inches, females, 9.8
inches; tail vertebras, males, 3.4 inches, females, 2.9 inches;
hind foot, males, 1.34 inches, females, 1.26 inches. Found
in "The Upper Sonoran belt of the Great Plains from south-
western South Dakota southward to Colorado, Texas,
covering the sand-hill region of western Nebraska, extreme
eastern Wyoming, western Kansas, eastern Colorado, west-
ern Oklahoma, and western Texas, ranging east to or a
little beyond the ninety-ninth meridian." (Miller)
—
Louisiana Pocket Gopher. Geomys breviceps breviceps Baird.
Smaller than lutescens. Upperparts dark russet-brown;
sides paler and yellower; tail naked except for dusky hairs
294
•
EASTERN POCKET GOPHER
on basal portion feet white underparts washed with buffy,

; ;
throat white. Total length, males, 9.2 inches, females, 8.5

inches; tail vertebree, males, 2.8 inches, females, 2.5 inches;
in "The alluvial lowlands of the Mississippi Valley and Gulf
coast of southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, and the
valley of the Arkansas River; north nearly to southern
Kansas, and west to near the ninety-eighth meridian.
Austroriparian fauna." (Miller)
White-throated Pocket Gopher. —
Geomys breviceps sagittalis
Merriam.
Smaller than typical breviceps and more highly colored.
Upperparts rich russet-brown with yellowish tinge, darkest
along dorsal region and head, the latter almost black to the
nose; forelegs and throat clear white; underparts varying
from whitish to buffy. Total length, males, 8.8 inches,
females, 7.8 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 2.6 inches, fe-
males, 2.2 inches; hind foot, males, 1.04 inches, females, .92
inch. Found on "Gulf coast of Texas about Galveston
Bay." (Merriam)
—
Attwater Pocket Gopher. Geomys breviceps attwateri Merriam.
Larger and paler than typical breviceps. Upperparts as in
typical breviceps; underparts varying from soiled whitish
to buffy. Total length, males, 10.2 inches, females, 8.8
inches; tail vertebras, males, 3.2 inches, females, 2.5 inches;
on "Coastal plain and islands of Texas between Matagorda
and Nueces Bays." (IVIerriam)
—
Mesquite Plains Pocket Gopher. Geomys breviceps Uanensis
Bailey.
Larger and lighter colored than typical breviceps. Light
liver-brown above, sometimes darker, back dusky; creamy
—
to buffy white below. Males. -total length, 10.8 inches;
tail vertebrae, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches; females. —
total length, 9.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 3 inches; hind foot,
1.2 inches. Found in Texas "mainly along strips of sandy
soil in the Llano, Colorado, Brazos, Red, and Canadian
river valleys, in a region of scattered mesquite bushes. . . ."
(Bailey)
Texas Pocket Gopher. — Geomys texensis Merriam.
Size very small for the genus; tail short, nearly naked for
terminal third. Upperparts dark brown sprinkled with
black; feet white; underparts whitish, except for a buffy
collar about throat. Total length, 8.4 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 1.12 inches. Found in "Mason
County, central Texas, and probably thence southerly to
the Rio Grande; limits of range unknown." (Merriam)
—
Sand Pocket Gopher. Geomys arenarius Merriam.
A medium-sized, pale form with tail rather long and fairly
well haired except at tip. Upperparts dull, pale brown
sprinkled with black; feet white; underparts whitish.
295

males, 1.3 inches, females, 1.24 inches. Found in "Valley
of the Upper Rio Grande, from El Paso, in extreme western
Texas, and Juarez, Chihuahua (on the Mexican side of the
river opposite El Paso), north to Las Cruces, New Mexico,
and west to Deming." (Merriam)
—
Padre Island Pocket Gopher. Geomys personatiis personatus
True.
Large and pale; tail long, scantily haired on basal half,
nearly naked toward tip. Upperparts dull, pale brown,
with some black-tipped hairs; dusky on top of head; under-
parts whitish. Total length, males, 12.6 inches, females,
1 1.7 inches; tail vertebrae, males 4.5 inches, females, 4
Found in "The Tamaulipan fauna of Texas, comprising
Padre Island and the adjacent mainland southwesterly to
Carrizo on the Rio Grande." (Merriam)
—
Nueces Pocket Gopher. Geomys personatus fallax MernsLm.
Smaller than typical personatus, darker, and tail shorter
and more nearly naked. Upperparts as in typical person-
^
atus; underparts white, with irregular, darker areas. Total

length, males, 10.5 inches, females, 9.5 inches; tail verte-
brae, males, 3.5 inches, females, 3 inches; hind foot, males,
1.36 inches, females, 1.24 inches. Found on "South shore
'
of Nueces Bay and lower Nueces River, Texas. (Merriam)

'
Genus Cratogeomys
Very much like Geomys; upper incisors with single, median
groove.
Chestnut-faced Pocket Gopher. —

Cratogeomys castanops cas-
tanops (Baird).
Size large. Yellowish brown above, mixed with black-
tipped hairs; underparts buffy; tip of tail blackish; feet
grayish. Total length, 10.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.6
inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found from southeastern
*******
Colorado, eastern New Mexico, and western Oklahoma
south through western Texas into Mexico.
The Pocket Gophers of the genus Geomys and Cratogeomys

from Thomomys
do not differ very much in their general habits
(seeaccount of habits given for this genus, page 288).
These Pocket Gophers are found over practically all of the
Mississippi Valley and may or may not prove troublesome to
man, depending upon the locality. Some species are very
destructive to fruit trees or to other cultivated vegetation;
other species live in regions where the soil is too poor for cul-
296
SPINY POCKET RAT
tivation and are no economic problem. Areas which are

otherwise adapted to Pocket Gophers are annually inundated
and water is fatal to these subterranean rodents.
They store up food in underground storehouses and pile up
more than they can consume. Sometimes the ploughman
turns up a peck or two of small potatoes and roots of clover
or fruit trees in a single one of these repositories. The serious
damage done to orchards is due to the thoroughness with which
the Pocket Gopher cuts up all of the smaller roots, taking not
only what it can eat at the time, but removing a great mass
that may never be eaten.
The Mississippi Pocket Gopher has from three to six young
at a birth, the usual number being four or five, and the time of
birth, in Illinois, has been given as April,
Family Heteromyidae. Pocket Rats and

Pocket Mice
Small rodents with external, fur-lined cheek-pockets; fore-
feet not equipped with greatly developed claws; hind legs more
or less elongated tail generally as long as head and body, often
;
much longer; skull with elongated rostrum and inflated

temporal region.
Genus Liomys ^
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, {}; Premolars, {; Molars, f =20.
—
Texas Spiny Mouse. Liomys irroratus texensis
(Merriam)
Names.— Texas Spiny Mouse; Texas Spiny Pocket Rat.
—
General Characters. A large Mouse or small Rat with fur-
lined cheek-pockets and pelage composed of normal hairs
mingled with stiff bristles or spines which are flattened and
grooved on anterior face; tail long, well haired; sole of hind
foot hairy at heel and with five tubercles; ear of medium size,
rounded. Nocturnal in habit, living in burrows in the
ground.
Color. — Sexes colored alike,
^For a revision of this genus see E. A, Goldman, North American
Fauna, No. 34, 1911,
297
Upperparts pale mouse-gray, head and back darker than

sides, mixed with ochraceous buffy; a pale ochraceous buffy
lateral line; feet white; forearms grayish on outer sides; tail
above, dusky, below, white, tip dusky above and below;
underparts white.
—
inches; tail vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. From southern Texas south
into Mexico, in lower Sonoran Zone on low plains. This
genus is southern in its distribution and only the one form
ranges far enough north to cross the Rio Grande.
—
Food. Largely seeds. These are of great variety, chiefly of
weeds and native flowering plants, but may include domestic
grain such as wheat and corn. The diet is varied by small
amounts of green vegetation and twigs.
Enemies. — Owls, Weasels, Foxes, Coyotes, Cacomistles.
Having had no experience with the North American Spiny
Pocket Rats, I quote from Bailey, Biological Survey of Texas,
North American Fauna, No. 25, 1905, page 127.

"Loring reports them at Brownsville as 'common in the
timber under logs and the roots of trees;' and Lloyd says
they are 'found at Lomita in the densest brush on the ridges
forming the old banks of the river, and around old corrals.'
He adds: 'Their habit of throwing out a white clayey mound
like the gophers attracts attention, and, although the mound
may be a month by cleaning out a hole and putting a
old,
trap in it you time capture the occupant. The ordinary
will in
outlets are generally covered up by fallen leaves, which in
some instances seem to have been placed there by the occu-
pants. They are strictly nocturnal in their habits, and feed
on the seeds of hackberry, mesquite, and various other shrubs.
Young and old inhabit the burrows together.'"
^
Genus Perognathus
Dentition: Incisors, J
; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, {; Molars, f =20.
^ For a revision of this genus see W. H. Osgood, North American

Fauna, No. i8, 1900. Many forms have been described since this was
written.
298
POCKET MOUSE
Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus fasciatus

and related forms
General Description. — Â rather small Mouse with external
fur-lined cheek-pockets; tail fairly long; hind legs long; ears
small but not hidden in fur; nocturnal in habit. Plate XXVI.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation in color
occurring, but not very marked.
Fig. 6i. Pocket Mouse
Upperparts olive-gray finely mixed with black; sides like

back; a buff lateral line from nose to end of tail; buffy about
eye and ears; tail dusky above, buffy on sides, white below;
pelage everywhere slate-colored at base; underparts clear white.
Immature duller than adults, slaty gray tinged with buff.
—
Measurements. Sexes of approximately equal size, males
slightly larger than females. Total length, 5.5 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .68 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Southwestern and mid-western
North America.
—
Food. Chiefly seeds.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Owls, Weasels, Foxes, and small
predatory mammals in general.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Perognathus

Subgenus Perognathus
Characterized by small to medium size, soft normal pelage
(no spines) soles of hind feet usually hairy.
,
299
Fasciatus Group
Maximilian Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus fasciatus fasciatus
Wied. Plate XXVI.
As described above. Found in Upper Sonoran and Transi-
tion Zones of eastern Montana and Wyoming, east into the
adjoining parts of North and South Dakota.
Bufif-bellied Pocket Mouse.
—
Perognathus fasciatus infraluteus
(Thomas).
Smaller than typical fasciatus, pelage not as soft, yellowish
buff instead of white below. Total length, 5.1 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.2 inches; hind foot, .68 inch. Found in Larimer
County, Colorado.
—
Sweetwater Pocket Mouse. Perognathus fasciatus litus Gary.
Slightly smaller than typical fasciatus, very pale in color,
pelage very soft. Upperparts (September pelage) very
^v
Fig. 62. Head of Pocket Mouse to show external cheek-

pockets
pale cream buff, sparingly mixed with black; ring around

eye, spot at base of ear, and lateral line pale cream buff;
feet white; tail faintly bicolor, above slightly dusky, below,
white; underparts clear white. Total length, 5.1 inches;
tail vertebrse, 2.4 inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found only
in the lower Sweetwater Valley and adjacent parts of Red
Desert, Wyoming.
—
Plains Pocket Mouse. Perognathus fiavescens fiavescens
(Merriam).
Similar to fasciatus but with harsher pelage and less oliva-
ceous in color; upperparts light grayish buff mixed with
dusky; tail indistinctly bicolor; feet and legs white. Total
length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrse, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .7
inch. Found in "Upper Austral plains of South Dakota,
Nebraska, and Kansas; south possibly to northern Texas,
and west to base of Rocky Mountains." (Osgood)
—
Cope Pocket Mouse. Perognathus fiavescens copei (Rhoads).
Resembling typical fiavescens but brighter in color. Upper-
parts fawn mixed with blackish, rump and thighs with
strong wash of cinnamon; tail grayish white above, pure
300
POCKET MOUSE
white below. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2

inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found in northern Texas,
Wheeler County southwest to Ward County.
—
Dusky Pocket Mouse. Perognathus flavescens perniger
Osgood.
Very much like typical flavescens in size but much darker in
color. Upperparts intense black to brownish black, sides
and head mixed black and ochraceous buff; ears narrowly
edged with buffy; a bright buffy spot at lower base of ear; a
broad ochraceous buff lateral line; feet buffy; tail above,
dusky, below, whitish underparts rich ochraceous buff with
;
white on chin and narrow stripe down throat and breast.

foot, .72 inch. Found in southeastern South Dakota, Clay
County; limits of range unknown.
Merriam Pocket Mouse. —
Perognathus merriami merriajni
Allen.
Pelage softer than in flavescens; ears small, colors bright; tail
scantily haired; sole of hind foot hairy on upper half.
Upperparts ochraceous buff heavily sprinkled with black,
darkest along dorsal region from nose to tail sides brighter,
;
more ochraceous; buff on ears and on spot behind ears; a

white subauricular spot; black transverse stripes on nose;
tail not sharply bicolor; underparts pure white. Total
length, 4.7 inches; tail vertebrse, 2.3 inches; hind foot; .64
inch. Found in "Subtropical region of southern Texas and
northeastern Mexico, and Lower Sonoran of central Texas.
The known range extends from Alta Mira, Tamaulipas,
northward to Washburn, Texas, and from this point south-
westward to the vicinity of Roswell, N. Mex. on the east it
;
reaches San Antonio, and on the west follows up the Rio

Grande as far as Comstock." (Osgood)
—
Dutcher Pocket Mouse. Perognathus merriami gilvus Osgood.
Slightly paler and yellower than typical merriami and pelage
softer; somewhat larger. Total length, 4.8 inches; tail
Found in "West-
vertebrae, 2.3 inches; hind foot, .66 inch.
ern Texas and southeastern New Mexico. Lower Sonoran
"
Zone." (Osgood)
Baird Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus flavus flavus Baird.
Very small; pelage very soft; tail short, moderately haired;
sole of hind foot hairy on upper half. Upperparts pinkish
buff with light sprinkling of black, darkest on back; lateral
line not sharply differentiated a prominent
; buffy spot back
of ear; tail almost concolor, slightly dusky above, pale buffy
below; underparts pure white. Total length, 4.5 inches;
tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, .6 inch. Found in
"Upper and Lower Sonoran Zones from northeastern
Colorado and western Nebraska to northern Mexico, ex-
tending westward into central Arizona and eastward to
western Texas." (Osgood)
301
Cheyenne Pocket Mouse. — Perognathus flavus piperi Goldman.

Larger than typical flavus and with less intensely ochraceous
upperparts. Upperparts light buff to light ochraceous
buff, finely mixed with black, lateral line and spots at bases
of ears pale but distinct; tail whitish above and below;
underparts white. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail vertebrae,
2 inches; hind foot, .68 inch. Found "probably ranging at
low elevations throughout eastern Wyoming and western
South Dakota." (Goldman)
—
Yavapai Pocket Mouse. Perognathus flavus bimaculatus
(Merriam).
Resembling typical flavus but larger and somewhat darker
on back; lateral lines more distinct. Total length, 4.7
inches; tail vertebra, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .68 inch. Found
in "Central and northeastern Arizona and southeastern
Utah." (Osgood)
—
Sooty Pocket Mouse. Perognathus flavus fuliginosus (Mer-
riam).
Much darker than ty^xcaX flavus ; upperparts almost or quite
black except for buff spots back of ears; underparts buff,
throat and breast white. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.3 inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found on "Lava
beds in the vicinity of San Francisco Mountain, Arizona."
(Osgood)
—
Apache Pocket Mouse. Perognathus apache apache Merriam.
Large in size, pelage soft, tail thinly haired, sole of hind foot
hairy on upper three-fifths. Upperparts warm buff
sprinkled with black; lateral line distinct; buff on ears and
upperside of tail underparts white. Total length, 5.6 inches;
;

"Eastern Arizona, western New Mexico, and southern
Utah." (Osgood)
—
Plateau Pocket Mouse. Perognathus apache cleomophila
Goldman.
Differing from typical apache in darker and richer color of
upperparts. Upperparts ochraceous buff to tawny, mixed
with black-tipped hairs; ears blackish inside, conspicuous
white spots at bases of ears; feet white; lateral line clear
ochraceous buff; tail above, brownish, below white; under-
parts white. Total length, 5.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.6
inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in the "Lava beds region
east of San Francisco Mountain, Arizona." (Goldman)
—
Colorado Pocket Mouse. Perognathus apache caryi Goldman.
Larger and darker than typical apache. Upperparts light
ochraceous buff heavily mixed with black; ears as in cleo-
mophila; lateral line broad and well defined, light ochraceous
buff; tail above, grayish to brownish, below, white; under-
parts white. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.9
inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Valleys of Grand
River and other affluents of the Colorado River in western
and southwestern Colorado." (Goldman).
302
;
POCKET MOUSE
Beautiful Pocket —
Mouse. Perognathns callistus Osgood.
Smaller than apache. Upperparts grayish olive-buff,
sprinkled with black; a distinct lateral line, cream buff; out-
side of ears whitish, inside dusky; a prominent creamy buff
spot back of ear; tail dusky above, white below; underparts
clear white. Total length, 5.4 inches; tail vertebras, 2.5
inches; hind foot, .^2 inch. Found in Sweetwater County,
Wyoming.
Longimembris Group
Tejon Pocket Mouse.- —Perognathus longimembris longimem-
bris (Coues).
Size small; ears large; tail slightly longer than head and
body, sparsely haired and pencilled; pelage soft; posterior
third of soles haired. Upperparts yellowish brown finely
mixed with dusky; lateral line clear yellowish brown; feet
white; yellowish patch back of ear; tail buffy above and
below, darker toward tip; underparts white. Total length,
4.8 inches; tail vertebras, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .7 inch.
Found in the vicinity of old Fort Tejon, Kern County, Cali-
fornia; limits of range unknown.
—
Panamint Pocket Mouse. Perognathus longimembris pan-
amintiniis Merriam.
Upperparts grayish buff sprinkled with dark-tipped hairs;
an indistinct pale buff lateral line forelegs buffy to white
;
dusky on upperside of tail, especially at tip; underparts

white. Total length, 5.7 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.1 inches;
hind foot, .78 inch. Found in "Panamint Mountains,
California, and eastward through southern Nevada to St.
George, Utah." (Osgood)
Bangs Pocket Mouse. — Perognathus longimembris bangsi
Mearns,
Smaller and paler than panamintinus. Upperparts pale
vinaceous buff lightly sprinkled with black; lateral line in-
distinct; underparts white, including feet and forelegs.
foot, .76 inch. Found in "Desert valleys of southern and
southeastern California, Lower Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
Perognathus pericalles Elliot = Perognathus longimembris
bangsi, according to Grinnell.
San Felipe Pocket Mouse. —
Perognathus longimembris areni-
cola (Stephens).
Resembling bangsi but paler and whiter. Total length, 5.6
inches; tail vertebrae, 3.3 inches; hind foot, .76 inch. Found
in San Diego County, California, region about San Felipe
Narrows. (Said by Grinnell to be a synonym of bangsi)
—
Short-nosed Pocket Mouse. Perognathus longimembris brevi-
nasus (Osgood).
Similar to panamintinus but darker, tail shorter. Upper-
parts pinkish buff mixed with black; pelage of back, espe-
303
;
cially rump, usually buff to roots; well-defined, transverse,

blackish nose stripes. Total length, 5.2 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .74 inch. Found in "a few
scattered localities in extreme southwestern California.
Upper Sonoran Zone," (Osgood)
Yuma —
Pocket Mouse. Perognathus homhycinus Osgood.
Resembling hangsi in size and color. Upperparts pale
vinaceous buff sparingly mixed with dusky; well-developed
white spot at anterior base of ear ears edged with whitish
;
underparts white. Total length, 5.4 inches; tail vertebras,

3.2 inches; hind foot, .74 inch. Found from Yuma County,
Arizona, west into Imperial County, California, south into
Mexico.
—
Nevada Pocket Mouse. Perognathus nevadensis Merriam.
Resembling panamintinus but smaller, darker, and under-
parts colored like sides. Total length, 5.3 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 2.9 inches; hind foot, .75 inch. Found in "Upper
Sonoran Zone of central Nevada; northward to southern
Oregon and northern Utah." (Osgood)
Pacific Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus pacificus Meams.
Smallest of the genus pelage very soft color similar to that
;
;
of brevinasus. Upperparts pinkish buff sprinkled with

black; tail nearly unicolor; ears dusky; underparts white.
.6 inch. Found only near Mexican boundary monument
No. 258, shore of Pacific Ocean, San Diego County, Cali-
fornia.
Loring Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus amplus Osgood.
Size large; tail long; sole of hind foot naked for lower four-
fifths; pelage long and soft. Upperparts pinkish buff
lightly marked with black buff
; lateral line wide and dis-
tinct; tail buff, mixed with black above; underparts white.
.8 inch. Found near Fort Verde, Yavapai County, Arizona.
—
San Joaquin Pocket Mouse. Perognathus inornatus inornatus
Merriam.
Size of apache, pelage rather harsh, sole of hind foot hairy
on upper third. Upperparts buff, mixed with black; lateral
line indistinct ear buffy outside, dusky inside, a white spot
;
at base; buff on upperside of forelegs and on tail; under-

parts white. Total length, males, 5.8 inches, females, 5.4
inches; tail vertebrae, males, 3 inches, females, 2.8 inches;
hind foot, males, .75 inch, females, .73 inch. Found in the
vicinity of San Joaquin Valley, California.
—
McKittrick Pocket Mouse. Perognathus inornatus neglectus
(Taylor).
Larger than typical inornatus. Upperparts ochraceous
buff with very little admixture of black; feet and underparts
pure white. Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 3
inches; hind foot, .84 inch. Found in Lower Sonoran Zone
of Kern and San Luis Obispo Counties, California.
304
POCKET MOUSE
Parvus Group
Oregon Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus parvus parvus (Peale).

Large in size; tail long and slightly tufted; ears medium;
sole of hind foot hairy on upper fourth; occurring in two
color phases, with intermediates. Gray phase: upperparts
pale slaty buff sprinkled with black; sides paler than back;
lateral line buff; tail above dusky, laterally buff, below
white. Underparts white, belly darker. Buff phase like
gray, but general tone buffy. Total length, 6.8 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.6 inches; hind foot, .9 inch. Found in "Valley
of the Yakima River, Washington, and thence southward to
central and southeastern Oregon. Upper Sonoran Zone."
(Osgood)
—
Idaho Pocket Mouse. Perognathus parvus idahoensis Gold-
man.
Large; darkest of the subspecies of parvus. Upperparts
light vinaceous buff heavily mixed with black, especially
dark on lower back which is blackish; lateral line almost
clear buffy; ears blackish with conspicuous white spots at
base; tail above, mixed black and buffy, nearly black at tip,
below, pale buffy; underparts dull whitish on chin, throat,
and inner sides of forearms, light ochraceous buff on belly
and insides of hind limbs; heels black. Total length 7.5
inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found
only near Arco, Blaine County, southern Idaho; limits of
range unknown.
—
Coues Pocket Mouse. Perognathus parvus mollipilosus
(Coues).
Smaller than typical parvus; ears larger; markings more in-
tense; coloration darker. Upperparts warm ochraceous
buff, liberally sprinkled with black; a distinct lateral line;
underparts white, belly tawny. Total length, 6.7 inches;
"Great Basin extension of northeastern California, north
to Klamath Basin, Oregon. Upper Sonoran Zone, except
on Mount Shasta, where it ascends to the Boreal." (Os-
good)
—
Great Basin Pocket Mouse. Perognathus parvus oUvaceus
(Merriam).
Resembling typical parvus but pelage softer and lighter in
color. Upperparts bright cinnamon-buff; finely sprinkled
with black; lateral line and spot below ear conspicuous;
underparts white, belly sometimes buffy. Total length,
males, 7 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.8 inches; hind foot, .88
inch. Found in "Upper Sonoran Zone throughout the
Great Basin, from northern Utah and southern Idaho south-
west to Owens Valley, California, and west to southern Ore-
gon and northeastern California." (Osgood)
—
Uinta Pocket Mouse. Perognathus parvus clarus Goldman.
Somewhat larger than typical parvus and paler in color.
305
Upperparts light buff faintly sprinkled with black; white

spots at bases of ears well developed; buffy lateral line
faintly developed; tail above, brownish, below, whitish;
underparts white. Total length, 7 inches; tail vertebrEe,
3.6 inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found in "Green River
Valley in southwestern Wyoming, and upper part of Snake
River Valley, in southeastern Idaho." (Goldman)
Mount Magruder Pocket Mouse.—Per ognathus parvus magru-
derensis Osgood.
Colored but larger. Total length, 7.8 inches tail
like olivaceiis ;
hind foot, i.oinch. Found in "Upper

vertebrae, 4.1 inches;
Sonoran and Transition Zones of the desert ranges of southern
Nevada and adjoining portion of California." (Osgood)
Walker Pass Pocket Mouse.- Perognathus — xanthonotus
Grinnell.
Somewhat like olivaceus but smaller. Upperparts ochrace-
ous buff to cream buff, slightly darkened on dorsal region
with black-tipped hairs, sides clearer buff; ears, inside and
out, sparsely clothed with white hairs; white spot at base
of ear conspicuous tail pencillate, above cream buff, darker
;
toward tip, below white; feet white; underparts white.

.9 inch. Found in the tree yucca belt, between Upper and
Lower Sonoran Zones, at the southern end of the Sierra
Nevada, Kern County, California.
—
White-eared Pocket Mouse. Perognathus alticola Rhoads.
Resembling olivaceus but slightly smaller. Color as in
olivaceus; lateral line indistinct, ears white inside and out.
.88 inch. Found only in San Bernardino Mountains, San
Bernardino County, California.
Northwest Pocket Mouse.—Perognathus lordi lordi (Gray).
Resembling parvus in the gray phase; size large; tail long;
color dark. Upperparts pale slaty buff, with heavy mixture
of black; tail as in parvus; underparts buffy with white
spots on pectoral and inguinal regions. Total length, 7.3
in "Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones of the plains of
the Columbia River, Washington, and suitable adjacent
territory in southern British Columbia." (Osgood)
—
Columbian Pocket Mouse. Perognathus lordi columhianus
(Merriam).
Differing from typical lordi in slight cranial characters;
color as in typical lordi. Total length, ^.2 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 3.7 inches; hind foot, .9 inch. Found in vicinity of
Pasco, Franklin County, Washington.
Formosus Group
Long-tailed Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus formosus Merriam.
Size large; tail long and
tufted; ears large; soles of hind feet
naked. Upperparts grizzled sepia; sides like back; ears
306
POCKET MOUSE
blackish spot below ear indistinct feet white tail mixed

; ; ;
buff and dusky above, darker at tip, below buffy; under-

parts white. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail vertebras, 4.2
inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "Southwestern
Utah, southern Nevada, and the adjoining portion of
California. Lower Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
Perognathus mesemhriniis Elliot = Perognathus formosus
according to Grinnell.
Subgenus Chaetodipus
Characterized by medium to large size, harsh or spiny
pelage, naked soles of hind feet.
Baileyi Group
Bailey Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus
baileyi baileyi Merriam.
Very large with long, tufted tail, colored like for?nosus.
Upperparts grizzled grayish buff; underside of tail whitish.
foot, I.I inches. Found in "South central Arizona and
thence south into Sonora and northern Lower California,
Mexico." (Osgood)
Hispidus Group
Hispid Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus hispidus hispidus Baird.

Size large; pelage harsh but not spiny; tail about as long
as head and body; ôles of hind feet naked medially.
Upperparts mixed ochraceous and black; sides almost as
dark as back; lateral line distinct, ochraceous; ears inside
dusky, buffy white on margins and outer sides; tail bicolor,
black above, whitish below; feet white; underparts white.
Total length, 8.2 inches; tail vertebra, 4 inches; hind foot,
i.o inches. Found in "Southern and western Texas, north
to Oklahoma and south into border States of Mexico.
Lower Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
—
Kansas Pocket Mouse. Perognathus hispidus paradoxus
(Merriam).
Like typical hispidus but larger and with softer pelage;
color duller and paler. Total length, 9 inches; tail verte-
bras, 4.3 inches; hind foot, 1.06 inches. Found in "Upper
Sonoran Zone of the Great Plains from the Dakotas to
Texas, westward to base of Rocky Mountains." (Osgood)
—
Oklahoma Pocket Mouse. Perognathus hispidus maximus
Elliot.
Resembling typical hispidus but larger in size and brighter
in color. Upperparts ochraceous heavily mixed with black,
face without so much black; lateral line bright ochraceous
buff; inside of ear dusky, outside buffy; feet white; tail
above blackish brown, below white, sides iDuffy; underparts
307

hind foot, i.i inches. Found in Cleveland County, Okla-
homa; limits of range unknown.
Penicillatus Group
Desert Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus penicillatus penicillatus
Woodhouse.
Size large; tail long, crested, tufted; sole of hind foot naked
to heel; pelage somewhat soft, no spines on rump; markings
reduced, color uniform. Upperparts vinaceous buff sprink-
led with black; sides like back, no lateral line; no conspicu-
ous markings on face or head; tail above, dusky, below,
white to tuft; underparts white. Total length, 8.2 inches;
tail vertebras, 4.4 inches; hind foot, i.o inches. Found in
"Vicinity of Colorado River from Bunkerville, Nevada to
Yuma, Arizona, . . . Lower Sonoran Zone. " (Osgood)
—
California Desert Pocket Mouse. Perognathus penicillatus
angustirostris Osgood.
Colored like typical penicillatus but smaller. Total length,
Found in "Colorado Desert; south to northern Lower Cali-"
fornia and east to the Colorado River and southwestern
Arizona, where it meets the range of penicillatus and pricei.
Lower Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
—
Price Pocket Mouse. Perognathus penicillatus pricei (Allen).
Resembling typical penicillatus but smaller, pelage harsher,
more black on upperparts. Total length, 6.9 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.7 inches; hind foot, .9înch. Found in "South
central Arizona and Northwestern Mexico, west of the
wSierra Tvladre." (Osgood)
—
Eastern Desert Pocket Mouse. Perognathus penicillatus ere-
micus (Mearns).
Similar to pricei but paler and with softer pelage. Upper-
parts fawn, lightly sprinkled with black; faint spot at base
of whiskers; prominent dark area below ears. Total
inch. Found in "Extreme western Texas, thence south
into north central Mexico east of the Sierra Madre at least
to La Ventura, Coahuila." (Osgood)
—
Stephens Pocket Mouse. Perognathus stephensi Merriam.
Resembling penicillatus but very much smaller, very little
black in pelage. Upperparts uniform pinkish to vinaceous
buff; underparts white. Total length, 7. i inches; tail verte-
brcE,'3.8 inches; hind foot, .84 inch. Found in"Mesquite
Valley, northwest arm of Death Valley, Inyo County, Cal."
(Osgood)
Intermedius Group
—
Intermediate Pocket^Mouse. Perognathus intermedius inter-
medins Merriam.
Size medium; color dark; markings well defined; weak spmes
308
—
;
POCKET MOUSE
on rump. Upperparts drab mixed with black; sides paler

than back; narrow lateral line, pale fawn; dusky on ears
and upperside of tail; tail blackish at tip, white on under-
side, buffy on sides; underparts white with faint buffy wash.
.90 inch. Found in "several scattered localities in the
Sonoran Zone of Arizona, New Mexico, and northern
Mexico." (Osgood)
—
Gila Pocket Mouse. Perognathus intermedins phasma
Goldman.
Smaller and decidedly paler than typical intermedins.
Upperparts light buff to pale ochraceous buff thinly mixed
with black on top of head and back, less black on cheeks,
sides, and hips: tail above, brownish, below white, pencil
brownish above and below; underparts white. Total
length, 6.6 inches; tail vertebras, 3.9 inches; hind foot, .82
inch. Found in "Desert mountains of extreme southwest-
ern Arizona and doubtless adjacent parts of Sonora,
Mexico." (Goldman)
Short-eared ^California Pocket Mouse. —
Perognathus fallax
fallax Merriam.
Slightly larger than typical intermedins, darker; rump
spines heavier. Upperparts bister mixed with black lateral ;
line pinkish buff; ears of medium size; tail bicolor; under-

parts creamy white. Total length, 7.7 inches; tail verte-
brae, 4.2 inches; hind foot, .92 inch. Found in "Extreme
southwestern California, occupying the region west of the
San Bernardino and San Jacinto ranges and extending south
into northern Lower California." (Osgood)
Pallid Pocket Mouse; Pallid Short-eared Pocket Mouse.
Perognathus fallax pallidus Mearns.
Very close to typical fallax in size but paler above pelage
;
of upperparts light gray at base instead of dark gray upper-

;
parts with less mixture of black, lateral line pale pinkish

buff; upperside of tail drab; underparts creamy white.
foot, .96 inch. Found in California in the Lower Sonoran
Zone on the "east slope of main mountain divides in San
Diego, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties." (Grin-
nell)
Califomicus Group
Great California Pocket Mouse. — Perognathus femoralis
fern oralis Allen.
Size very large; tail long, crested, tufted; ears large and
elongate; pelage harsh, spines on rump and flanks; color
dark. Upperparts bister, heavily mixed with intense black
rich buffy lateral line; tail bicolor; underparts soiled whitish,
with or without buffy suffusion. Total length, 9,0 inches;
tail vertebras, 5.0 inches; hind foot, i.i inches. Found
in "a few localities in San Diego County, in extreme south-
309
'
em California, and the adjoining part of Lower California."

(Osgood)
California Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus californicus californi-
ciis Merriam.
Smaller than typical femoralis, but similar to it in charac-
ters of large ear and spiny rump and flanks. Color about
as in femoralis. Total length, 7.7 inches; tail vertebras,
4.1 inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "Vicinity of San
Francisco Bay and south to Bear Valley, San Benito County,
where it meets the range of its subspecies dispar. (Osgood)
—
'
Allen Pocket Mouse. Perognathus californicus dispar Os-

good.
Resembling typical californicus but pelage softer, larger,
and paler. Upperparts bister; lateral line pinkish buff; tail
bicolor; underparts buffy white. Total length, 8.5 inches;
tail vertebrae, 4.7 inches;hind foot, 1.04 inches. Found in
"Coast valleys of California from San Bernardino to San
Benito County and north along the foothills of the west
slope of the Sierras to Placer County." (Osgood)
—
Kern Pocket Mouse. Perognathus californicus ochrus Osgood.
Resembling dispar but much paler. Upperparts pinkish
buff mixed with dusky to produce general effect of ecru
drab; lateral line pale pinkish buff; feet white; tail above,
light brown, below, white; underparts creamy white. Total
length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebras, 4.5 inches; hind foot, i
inch. Found in California in the "Lower Sonoran Zone
in the southern San Joaquin Valley, west to Cuyama Valley
and north to Alcalde, Fresno County." (Grinnell)
Spinatus Group
Spiny Pocket Mouse. —Perognathus spinatus spinatus (Mer-
riam.
Size medium; pelage harsh, with large conspicuous spines
on rump and scatteringly on flanks and sides as far as shoul-
ders; tail of medium length, crested; ears small and rounded;
lateral line reduced or absent. Upperparts drab brown,
hairs black-tipped; sides lighter than back; ears dusky;
tail pale brown above, whitish below; underparts buffy
white. Total length, 7.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches;
*******
hind foot, .88 inch. Found in "Desert region of southern
California and northern Lower California." (Osgood)
The Pocket Mice are beautiful little rodents well charac-

terized by their mouse size and their external, hair-lined cheek-
pockets. The only other North American rodents with ex-
ternal cheek-pockets are much larger (rat size), and will not be
confused with Perognathus.
These Mice are dwellers on the plains or deserts and are
forests, although they do occur, to some
never found in dense
310
POCKET MOUSE
extent, in dry, open forests in the Southwest. They are bur-

rowing Mice and are found in greatest abundance where loose
soil or sand makes burrow construction easy. The burrows
are made only as homes and the Pocket Mice come forth at
night to run about like other Mice, not spending the greater
part of their existence underground like another pocketed
rodent, the Pocket Gopher.
Pocket Mice are strictly nocturnal and over much of the
range of the group this habit is a decided advantage.
Although a few forms reach well up on the cooler prairies,
the group is typically Sonoran in its distribution, and the
greatest number of species is found on hot, arid plains or
stark desert tracts where a hot sun makes daylight activity a
heavy drain upon mammal activity. Some of the mammals
of these areas are diurnal and withstand heat and dryness
successfully, but Perognathus avoids these features by coming
out only after sundown. Most of the Pocket Mice are also
of light coloration, sandy grays or light browns and buffs,
which is an adaptation to desert conditions.
The presence of Pocket Mice is usually easily detected by
their burrows and their paths or runways over the sand. In a •
grassy country these may not be so obvious, but in sandy,

desert sections the mouse "sign" is conspicuous. The bur-
rows are often plugged with sand a short distance in from the
entrance to keep out snakes, light, or heat, perhaps all external
disturbances. These Mice are rather social in habit and a
hummock of sand may be honeycombed by interior workings,
with several external openings. Tracks radiating out from
the holes indicate the presence of several animals and inspec-
tion each morning will show that there has been great activity
the night before.
The cheek-pouches are used for storing seeds and hold a very
sizable collection. The animal picks up seeds and grains of
some of which are very tiny, and carries them to an
all sizes,
underground storehouse. Despite the fact that most of the

food these Mice eat is very dry, they are capable (at least
the desert species are) of going indefinitely without water.
Pocket Mice are easily tamed and make interesting pets,
although because of their nocturnal habits they are difficult
to observe.
The number of young varies from four to seven but is usu-
311
ally four or five. Several litters may be raised in a year over

most of the range of the genus, although the northern forms
probably rear but one family a season.
While most of the species of Pocket Mice are common
mammals in their respective ranges, there are forms of this
genus which are among the rarest of the North American
rodents. For some unknown reason the distribution of these
particular creaturesis very local and only at long intervals are
specimens taken. Such a form is the Pacific Pocket Mouse,

Perognathus pacificus, one of the smallest of rodents.
Genus Dipodomys^
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, {j
; Premolars \; Molars,f = 20.
Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys agilis

and related forms
—
Kangaroo Rat; Pocket Rat. Plate XXVI.
Names.
—
General Description. A small Rat with elongated hind
legs and short forelegs hallux greatly reduced or absent long,
; ;
tufted tail; rather robust body; large head; large eyes; rounded
ears; external, fur-lined cheek-pockets; long, soft pelage;
distinctive and attractive color pattern progression
;
by means
of kangaroo-like hops, the small forelegs not touching the
ground; hind feet and toes furred on under surface; nocturnal
in habit.
Color.— Sexes colored seasonal variation not
alike; very
great.
Upperparts. — Dusky cinnamon-buff; sides clearer in tone
than back and meeting white of underparts in a sharp line;
pelage slate-gray basally blackish patch at base of whiskers on
;
each side, joined over the nose by a dusky crescentic bar; eyelids
blackish; buffy white area between eye and dark whisker-
patch, and a light spot over eye; a silky white patch of hairs
semi-concealed at posterior base of ear; ear blackish brown,
with white spot at anterior base; longer whiskers blackish,
shorter whiskers whitish; thigh marked by a sharp band of
^ No
recent revision of this genus has been published, but the reader
is A Geographical Study of the Kangaroo Rats of California by
referred to
Joseph Grinnell, Univ. of California Publication in Zoology, Vol. 24, No.
I, pp. 1-124, 1922. This paper gives full data on more than half of the
forms treated in this handbook.

312
KANGAROO RAT
white which continuous with white of underparts; tail

is
marked by four sharplydistinct stripes, a blackish dorsal and

a blackish ventral stripe, and two white lateral stripes;
Fig. 63. •
Kangaroo Rat
a white ring at base of tail; a dark brownish tuft on end of

tail; feet white; blackish stripe on plantar surface.
Underparts. — pure white.
Fig. 64. Head of Kangaroo Rat to show external cheek-

pockets
Immature pelage very much like that of adults, but grayer

above and lacking some of the bright color tones.
—
313
Geographical Distribution. —Warmer zones of western

North America.
—
Food. Principally seeds, and some grains; green foliage
sometimes eaten.
—
Enemies. vSnakes, Owls, Foxes, Coyotes, Weasels, Badgers,
Bobcats, and other small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Dipodomys
The pattern of coloration as just described is quite constant

throughout the genus, most of the variation being in color or
intensity of shade, size, presence or absence of the "great"
toe, and in cranial characters.
Agilis Group
Gambel Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys Gambel.

agilis agilis
As described above, normally five-toed. Found
in "South-
ern California, almost altogether on its Pacific slope, from
northern Santa Barbara County southeast through Ven-
tura, Los Angeles and Orange counties into western San
Bernardino and western Riverside counties as far as the
San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains. Altitudinal
range, close to sea-level up to 7500 feet. Life-zone,_ chiefly
Upper vSonoran, but extends locally up into Transition and
down into Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell) Plate XXVL
Dulzura Kangaroo Rat,^ —
Dipodomys agilis simidans (Aler-
riam).
Resembling typical agilis but smaller and darker in general
coloration. Upperparts dusky pinkish cinnamon. Total
length, 1 hind foot, 1.7
1.4 inches; tail vertebrce, 6.9 inches;
inches. Found on "The
Pacific slope of San Diego County,
probably extending south into Lower California. Alti-
tudinal range, from sea-level up to 3000 feet. Life-zone,
Upper Sonoran, ranging locally down into Lower Sonoran."
(Grinnell)
Cabezon Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys agilis cahezona (Mer-
riam).
Smaller than typical agilis, with dark markings reduced,
and paler in coloration. Upperparts light pinkish cinna-
mon. Total length, 11.3 inches; tail vertebrse, 6.8 inches;
hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found on "The desert slopes of the
coastal mountains of southern California, from Cabezon,
Riverside County, south through eastern San Diego County
to, and probably beyond, the Mexican line. Altitudinal
range, 1700-3500 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran and
upper edge of Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
314
i
KANGAROO RAT
Walker Basin Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys agilis perplexus

(Merriam).
Larger than typical agilis, with larger ear and paler colora-
tion. Upperparts with less dusky on sides and facial areas.
foot, 1.8 inches. Found in "The mountain ranges and
included valleys lying around the southern end of the San
Joaquin Valley. Recorded from Trout Creek, toward head
of South Fork of Kern River, in Tulare County, southwest
through the Tehachapi and Tejon country to head of Piru
Creek, in Ventura County. Altitudinal range, 2400 to
6500 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Santa Cruz Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys venustus zemistus
(Merriam).
Similar to agilis but darker ear larger tail longer. Upper-
; ;
parts cinnamon-brown; sides paler. Total length, 12.6

inches; tail vertebras, "j.S inches; hind foot, 1.84 inches.
Found in "Chiefly the Santa Cruz Mountain region, in
other words the area south from San Francisco to Monterey
Bay and lying west of the Santa Clara Valley and the south
arm of San Francisco Bay; but the race also occurs, east of
the Santa Clara Valley, on Mount Hamilton, and southeast
to northern end of Gabilan Range. Altitudinal range, from
near sea-level to at least 4000 feet. Life-zone, Upper
Sonoran, entering the Transition locally." (Orinnell)
—
Santa Lucia Mountain Kangaroo Rat.- Dipodomys leniistus
sanctihicicc (Grinnell).
Resembling typical venustus but slightly paler and less
deeply cinnamon on dorsal area. Total length, 12.
^

Found in- "The Santa Lucia Mountain region, namely the
mountainous area of west-central California lying between
the Salinas Valley and the seacoast, and between Monterey
Bay and San Luis Obispo. Altitudinal ranee, 900 to 5900
feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran, entering the Transition
locally." (Grinnell)
Elephant-eared Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys elephantinus
(Grinnell).
Size large; ears very large; tail long; toes five in number;
color most like perplexus. Total length, 13 inches; tail
vertebrae, 7.9 inches; hind foot, 1.85 inches. Found on
"The chaparral-covered slopes of the southern part of the
Gabilan Range, in the vicinity of the Pinnacles, in San
Benito and Monterey counties. Altitude of occurrence so
far as yet known, about 1300 feet. Life-zone, Upper
Sonoran." (Grinnell)
Microps Group
Small-faced Kangaroo 'Rat.— Dipodomys microps microps
(Merriam).
Size small; face narrow; ears small; toes five in number;
315
pale buffy in coloration; dark markings reduced. Total

length, 10.5 inches; tail vertebree, 6 inches; hind foot, 1.64
inches. Found in "Owens Valley north from Olancha nearly
to Benton, Mono County; also the Mohave Desert in the
vicinity of Victorville, San Bernardino County. Altitudinal
range, 2700-7700 feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran reaches
;
into lower edge of Upper Sonoran locally." (Grinnell)

—
Preble Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys microps prehlei (Goldman).
Color darker than in typical microps or in levipes. Upper-
parts near pinkish cinnamon, finely sprinkled with black.
foot, 1.64 inches. Found in "Plains regions of southeastern
Oregon and northwestern Nevada." (Goldman)
—
Light-footed Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys levipes (Merriam).
Size medium; face narrow; ear small; toes five in number;
coloration dusky in tone; dark markings well developed.
Total length, 11 inches; tail vertebra, 10.3 inches; hind foot,
1.7 inches. Found in "Territory of moderate altitude ly-
ing east of Owens Valley, and extending north into Nevada;
westernmost station, Olancha, Inyo County; southern-
most, head of Emigrant Canon, Panamint Mountains,
Inyo County. Altitudinal range, 3600-5300 feet. Life-
zone, Lower vSonoran in its upper portion." (Grinnell)
Deserti Group
—
Big Desert Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys deserti deserti Stephens.
Size very large toes four in number general coloration very
; ;
pale; tail white-tipped and without dark ventral stripe;

dark facial markings absent sole of hind foot without dark
;
stripe; pelage very long and silky. Upperparts pale och-

raceous buffy, with very faint dusky wash. Total length,
13.7 inches; tail vertebrae, 8 inches; hind foot, 2.1 inches.
—
Found in "(in California). The Colorado and Mohave
desert regions, from the Mexican line north to Death
Valley and through Owens Valley on east side at least to
Alvord, Inyo County (Stephens, 1906, p. 156); west on
Colorado Desert to Borego Spring, in eastern San Diego
County, and to Palm Springs and Whitewater, Riverside
County, and on Mohave Desert to vicinity of Hesperia,
San Bernardino County, and Olancha, Inyo County. Alti-
tudinal range, —
200 to 3900 feet. Life-zone, Lower
Sonoran " (Grinnell)
Heermanni Group
Northern California Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys heermanni
californicus (Merriam).
Size medium; face broad; toes usually four in number; tip
of tail white; general coloration dark. Resembling agilis
in coloration, but slightly darker. Total length, 12.5
Found in "Northern California, chiefly east of the humid
316
KANGAROO RAT
coast belt and west of the Sacramento and Pit rivers, north
from San Francisco Bay and the Strait of Carquinez to
(and beyond) the Oregon line. Altitudinal range, 200 to
4500 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran and, locally, Transi-
tion," (Grinnell)
—
Lesser California Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys heermanni ex-
imins (Grinnell).
Resembling californiciis but smaller and with less brightly
cinnamon-buff coloration; upperparts pinkish buff. Total
length, 1 1.5 inches; tail vertebrce, 7 inches; hind foot, 1.66
inches. Found in "The eastern side of the lower Sacra-
mento Valley, including the Marysviile Buttes, from the
vicinity of Red Bluff, Tehama County, southeast to Lime-
kiln, Eldorado County. Altitudinal range, 200 to 1200
feet. Life-zone, Upper and Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Heermann Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys heermanni heermanni
Le Conte.
Closely resembling californicus except for presence of five
toes instead of four, and the usual absence of white tip to
tail. Total length, 11.7 inches; tail vertebrce, 7.2 inches;
hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found on "West base of central
Sierra Nevada, at least from Carbondale, Amador County,
south to Coulterville, Mariposa County. Altitudinal range,
500 to 3200 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran (lower edge of
Transition locally)." (Grinnell)
—
Tulare Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys heermanni tularensis
(Merriam).
Paler than heermanni which it resembles externally; upper-
parts warm buff. Total length, 11.8 inches; tail vertebra,
7 inches; hind foot, 1.66 inches. Found on "the floor of the
San Joaquin Valley. Extends to the northward not farther
on the eastern side than the vicinity of Raymond, Madera
County, but on the western side to near Tracy; south-
eastward to vicinity of Bakersfield and Buena Vista Lake.
Altitudinal range, 120 to 3000 feet. Life-zone mostly Lower
Sonoran, but reaching into Upper Sonoran along the Tem-
blor Mountains, west of McKittrick, and on the lower west-
ern slopes of the Sierra Nevada." (Grinnell)
—
Merced Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys heermanni dixoni (Grin-
nell).
Intermediate in color between tularensis and heermanni;
smaller than either; tip of tail dusky; five toes present.
foot, 1.65 inches. Found on "Floor of lower (northern
end) San Joaquin Valley, on the eastern side of the San
Joaquin River, in Stanislaus and Merced Counties. Alti-
tudinal range, below 500 feet. Life-zone Lower Sonoran,"
(Grinnell).
Berkeley Kangaroo Rat. —
Dipodomys heermanni berkeleyensis
(Grinnell j.
Resembling tularensis but darker; tip of tail dusky. Total
317
length, 12 inches; tail vertebras, 7.2 inches; hind foot, 1.64

inches. Found on "Presumably the Mount Diablo range
and adjacent hills to the east of San Francisco Bay. Life-
zone, Upper Sonoran. Only the one locality, Berkeley,
represented in the material actually handled. This material
comprises but 4 specimens." (Grinnell)
—
Salinas Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys heermarini goldmani
(Merriam).
Resembling berkeleyensis but ears slightly larger and tail
less tufted. Total length, 11.6 inches; tail vertebrcc, 7.1
inches; hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found in "The lower
(northern) end of the Salinas Valley and adjacent smaller
valleys and bare hillsides, from the seacoast on Monterey
Bay just south of the mouth of the Salinas River southeast
to vicinity of Soledad; east to Bear Valley, in vicinity of
Cook P. O., in San Benito County, and thence north to
San Jose, in Santa Clara County. Altitudinal range, sea-
level up to about 1300 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran."
(Grinnell)
Jolon Kangaroo "Rat.— Dipodomys heermanni jolonensis
(Grinnell).
Larger than goldmani; tail more tufted; paler on dorsal
region; resembling tularensis in color. Total length, 12.2
Found in "The upper (southern) end of the Salinas Valley
and tributary valleys, from vicinity of King City and
Peachtree, in Monterey County, south at least to Creston,
in San Luis Obispo County; west to Jolon. Altitudinal
range, 400 to 1500 feet. Life-zone, chiefly Lower Sonoran."
(Grinnell).
Carrizo Plain Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys heermamii sivartJii
(Grinnell).
Paler than jolonensis and with reduced dark markings.
Total length, 11.9 inches; tail vertebrae, 7 inches; hind
foot, 1.74 inches. Found in "The extreme southwestern
border of the San Joaquin Valley, in vicinity of McKittrick
and San Eraigdio, and also the Carrizo and Cuyama plains;
the stations of occurrence lie in extreme southwestern Kern
County, southeastern San Luis Obispo County, and north-
ern Santa Barbara County. Altitudinal range, 300 to 2000
feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
Morro Bay Kangaroo Rat.— Dipodomys morroensis (Merriam).
Darkest of the Kangaroo Rats. Upperparts tawny olive
washed with blackish; white hip-stripe incomplete or absent;
tail weakly tufted, lateral white tail stripes very narrow.
Total length, 11.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 7 inches;_hind foot,
1.7 inches. Found in "Sandy ground in the immediate
vicinity of Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County. Area of
known habitat less than four miles square. Altitudinal
range, sea-level up to 250 feet. Life zone. Upper Sonoron."
(Grinnell)
318
. —
KANGAROO RAT
Mohave Kangaroo Rat. —

Dipodomys mohavensis (Grinnell).
Size rather large; color pale; five toes present, Upperparts
ochraceous buff. Total length, 11.6 inches; tail vertebras,
6.7 inches; hind foot, 1.75 inches. Found in "The Mohave
Desert region, north into the lower end of Owens Valley as
far as the vicinity of Lone Pine, south into Antelope Valley,
in extreme northern Los Angeles County, and to Hesperia,
San Bernardino County, east through the Providence and
New York mountains, and west over the Walker and Kelso
passes into the Kern River basin as far as Isabella, Kern
County. Altitudinal range, 2500 to 5500 feet. Life-zone,
Lower Sonoran, in its upper portion." (Grinnell)
Pale-faced Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys leucogenys (Grinnell).
Larger and darker colored than mohave7isis; tail more
heavily haired light cheek areas pale grayish white. Total
;
length, 12 inches; tail vertebras, 7 inches; hind foot, 1.8

inches. Found in "The territory lying southeast of Mono
Lake and in the head of Owens Valley, thence southward,
along the west side of Owens Valley, as far as the vicinity of
Independence. Altitudinal range, 3900 to 7300 feet. Life-
zone, Upper Sonoran and, at least at the north. Transition."
(Grinnell)
Panamint Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys panaminlinus (Mer-
riam)
vSize rather large; five toes normally present; general colora-
tion dark, slightly paler than in agilis. Total length, 12
inches; tail vertebra?, 7 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found
in "The highest parts of the northern section of the Pana-
mint Mountains, in the vicinity of Jackass Spring. Area of
known habitat about 6 by 8 miles. Altitudinal range, 6000
to 7000 feet. Life-zone, Upper Sonoran and lower edge of
Transition." (Grinnell)
—
Stephens Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys stephensi (Merriam).
vSize medium five toes present ear small color as in agilis.
; ; ;

foot, 1.68 inches. Found in "San Jacinto Valley and vicin-
ity, western Riverside County and extreme southern San
Bernardino County. Altitudinal range, 1 100-1600 feet.
Life-zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Giant Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys ingens (Merriam).
Size very large five toes present face broad tail relatively
; ; ;
short; ear proportionally small; coloration as in tularensis.

foot, 2.0 inches. Found in "A narrow strip of semiarid,
more or less level territory along the southwestern border of
the San Joaquin Valley, including also the nearby Carrizo
Plain and Cuyama Valley. Recorded north to mouth of
Panoche Creek, in western Fresno County, and south to
Cuyama Valley, in southern San Luis Obispo County and
extreme northern Santa Barbara County. Altitudinal
range, 500-2500 feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
319
Spectabilis Group
Large Kangaroo Rat. — Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis
Merriam. Plate XXVI.
Size very large; tail very long, tipped with white; colora-
tion rich; toes four in number. Upperparts ochraceous
buff, sprinkled with black; sides brighter than back. Total
inches. Found in western Texas east to eastern edge of
the Pecos Valley, north into Arizona and New Mexico.
Bailey Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys spectabilis baileyi Goldman.
Larger than typical spectabilis, color slightly paler. Upper-
parts pinkish buff, sprinkled with black, brightest and
clearest on sides; tail pure black all around near tip, tip
white. Total length, 15.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 11.2 inches;
hind foot, 2.3 inches. Found from northwestern New
Mexico to western Texas.
Phillipsii Group
Loring Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys elator Merriam.
Size medium; toes four in number; ears small; black facial
markings well defined. Upperparts clay color, sprinkled
with dark-tipped hairs. Total length, 11. 6 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 6,8 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in northern
Texas.
Merriami Group
Merriam Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys merriami merriami
Meams.
vSize small; four toes present; tail with dusky tuft, dorsal
and ventral stripes present plantar stripe present but pale.
;
Upperparts light ochraceous buff, sprinkled with dusky in

mid-dorsal region. Total length, 9.9 inches; tail vertebrae,
5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.54 inches. Found in "the Mohave
Desert region. Ranges north in Inyo County through
Death Valley, and through Owens Valley as far as Inde-
pendence; west, in Kern County, over the pass at the head
of Kelso Creek and down into the valley of the South Fork
of the Kern River as far as Weldon; south, along the
Colorado River, as far as Blythe; east into Nevada and
across the Colorado River into Arizona. Altitudinal
range, —200 to 7000 feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran."
(Grinnell)
—
El Paso Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys merriami ambiguus
(Merriam).
Resembling typical merriami, but ears smaller, tail shorter,
and hind feet larger. Upperparts buffy drab, mixed with
black-tipped hairs, darkest on rump, brightest on sides.
1.3 inches. Found in the vicinity of El Paso, Texas.
320
KANGAROO RAT
San Bernardino Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys merriami parvus

(Rhoads).
Slightly smaller than typical merriami; coloration grayer;
pelage less silky; black markings on face and tail better de-
veloped. Total length, 9.3 inches; tail vertebrce, 5.4 inches;
hind foot, 1.44 inches. Found in "The San Bernardino
and San Jacinto valleys, on the Pacific slope of southern
California in San Bernardino and Riverside counties.
Northernmost station, Cajon Wash; southernmost, Valle-
vista. Altitudinal range, 1000 to 1800 feet. Life-zone,
Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
Allied —
Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys merriami simiolus
(Rhoads).
Closely resembling typical merriami, but slightly smaller
and paler. Total length, 9.6 inches; tail vertebras, 5.8
inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found in "the Colorado
Desert. Ranges northwest as far as Cabezon, in San
Gorgonio Pass; west as far as La Puerta and Vallecito, in
eastern San Diego County; north, along the Colorado River
nearly to the vicinity of Palo Verde; east to the Colorado
River, and beyond in the vicinity of Yuma; south across the
Mexican line, Altitudinal range, 180 to 3500 feet. Life-
zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Tipton Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys nitratoides nitratoides
(Merriam). Plate XX VL
Smaller than typical merriami; pelage coarser less ochrace-
;
ous on dorsal area; dark facial markings blacker; dark tail

stripes broader and blacker. Total length, 9.3 inches; tail
vertebrse, 5.6 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found on
"The floor of the southeastern (upper) side and end of the
San Joaquin Valley, from Tipton, Tulare County, south to
Caliente Wash, Kern County, and west to north side of
Buena Vista Lake. Altitudinal range, 250 to 600 feet.
Life-zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Fresno Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys nitratoides exilis (Mer-
riam).
Smaller than typical nitratoides but similar to it in general
characters; darker in color; upperparts snuff-brown; more
dusky on face. Total length, 8.6 inches; tail vertebrce, 5.1
inches; hind foot, 1.32 inches. Found in "So far as now
known, only a small portion of the east side of the San
Joaquin Valley north of Tulare Lake, in the immediate
vicinity of Fresno. Altitude of Fresno district, about 300
feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Short-nosed Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys nitratoides brevinasus
(Grinnell).
Slightly paler and more ochraceous than typical nitratoides.
1.4 inches. Found on "The floor of the west side of the
San Joaquin Valley, from near the mouth of Panoche
Creek, in western Fresno County, south to near mouth of
321
San Emigdio Creek, in south v/estem Kern County. Alti-

tudinal range, 175 to 600 feet. Life-zone, Lower Sonoran."
(Grinnell)
Ordii Group
—
Ord Kangaroo Rat.' Dipodomys ordii ordii Woodhouse.
Size medium; five toes present; tail medium; upperparts
deep ochraceous buff, sprinkled lightly with black; black
markings not very extensive. Total length, 9.6 inches;
tail vertebras, 5.4 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found
from Texas north through Arizona and New Mexico.
—
Columbian Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys ordii columhianus
(Merriam). Plate XXVL
Size small; five toes present; face broad; ears blackish;
blackish facial markings present; general coloration cinna-
mon-buff; tail relatively short; plantar stripe gray; con-
spicuous white spot over eye and at posterior base of ear.
foot, 1.5 inches. Found in "the northern portion of the
Great Basin area of the western United States, and might
be expected to occur generally over the lower sagebrush
levels in the elevated northeastern comer of California. . . .
Life-zone, Upper Sonoran." (Grinnell)

—
Mono Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys ordii monoensis (Grinnell).
Resembling columhianus but paler; dark markings restricted,
white extensive; lateral white tail stripes as broad as dorsal
dark stripe. Upperparts pinkish buff. Total length, 9.3
inches; tail vertebra, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.35 inches.
Found in "The sagebrush fiats at the extreme head of
Owens Valley. Altitudinal range, 5300-5640 feet. Life-
zone, Upper Sonoran." (Grinnell)
—
Utah Kangaroo Rat.^ Dipodomys ordii utahensis (Merriam).
Resembling montanus but hind foot smaller and coloration
more drab. Upperparts near clay color. Total length,
Found in Weber County, Utah.
Chapman Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys ordii chapmani
(Mearns).
Upperparts cinnamon-buff; sides clearer and brighter;
plantar stripe well developed. Total length, 10.2 inches;
Yavapai County, Arizona.
—
Mountain Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys ordii montanus (Baird).
Upperparts dull buffy ochraceous, sprinkled with black;
large white spot back of ear; dark tail stripes blackish.
foot, 1.6 inches. Found in Costilla County, Colorado.
Painted Desert Kangaroo 'Rat.— Dipodomys ordii longipes
(Merriam).
Upperparts bright ochraceous buff, finely sprinkled with
black. Total length, 10.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 6.5 inches;
322
KANGAROO RAT
hind foot, 1.65 inches. Found on the Painted Desert,

Coconino County, Arizona, and adjacent portions of New-
Mexico, southeastern Utah, and southwestern Colorado,
—
Wyoming Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys ordii luteolus (Gold-
man).
Size large (for the group); color pallid; tail long. Upper-
parts light buff to light ochraceous buff. Total length, 10.5
inches; tail vertebras, 6 inches; hind foot, 1.65 inches.
Found in "Wyoming, southeastern Montana, and the upper
part of the Green River Valley in northwestern Colorado."
(Goldman)
Richardson Kangaroo Rat. —Dipodomys ordii richardsoni
(Allen).
Paler colored than montanus, smaller than luteolus; upper-
parts pale buffy ochraceous, sprinkled with black. Total
length, 10.4 inches; tail vertebra, 5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.6
inches. Found in Oklahoma, western Texas, eastern New
Mexico, Colorado, northeastern Utah and Wyoming.
Compactus Group
—
Padre Island Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys compactus True.
Size small, color pale, dark markings nearly obsolete. Up-
perparts pale buffy gray; sides clearer in tone; no conspic-
uous dark markings. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebrce,
4 inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found on Padre Island,
Cameron County, Texas.
—
Sennett Kangaroo Rat. Dipodomys sennetti (Allen).
Slightly larger than compactus and darker; no conspicuous
black markings. Upperparts cinnamon-buff, sides clearer
in tone. Total length, 10.45 inches; tail vertebrae, 6.25
inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found in southern Texas,
north of Brownsville.
Pocket Rats should not be confused with any other rodents

for they are
unique in the possession of the following combina-
tion of characters; large mouse or small rat size; external, fur-
lined cheek-pouches; robust body; long, tufted tail; elongated
hind legs and weak forelegs; long silky pelage; and beautiful
color pattern. They are undoubtedly the handsomest of
North American rodents and are far removed from the mental
picture brought to the mind of the average person by the word
Rat. Irreproachable habits, gentle disposition and a cleanly
mode of life make fascinating pets of these dainty mammals.
Pocket Rats are found in very much the same environment
as Pocket Mice, —
prairies, arid plains, and deserts. The
greatest number of species and individuals is to be encountered
323
in the dry Southwest. Most of the species prefer sandy tracts

or regions where dry, loose soil prevails, although some
frequent localities of hard, gravelly
soil. None live in heavily
timbered They burrow extensively and spend the
districts.
daytime underground. The large eye of the Pocket Rat is one
of the characters which favors a nocturnal activity.
The burrows are large, cleanly cut and often placed with no
attempt at concealment. The earth immediately about the
burrow entrances may be so undermined by subterranean
passages and chambers that one breaks through upon
approach, and generally an abundance of tiny tracks radiate
out from the holes or collect into two or three main paths and
lead away to nearby sources of food or to neighboring burrows.
Frequently the mark of the long tail is seen in the sand.
Where the sand has drifted into low dunes or there are slight
eminences, these Rats make their homes at the base of such a
rise and run the holes in horizontally. Clumps of brush serve
to hold the sand and create little islands of stationary material
and these are favorite spots for burrows. During the day the
entrances may be blocked up from within.
Pocket Rats seem to be social by nature and the signs
usually indicate the presence of several individuals about each
series of burrows.
The cheek-pouches are used as food containers and in them
the rodents carry the seeds which they take into the burrows
to be stored up or eaten. The animals do not hibernate.
They get along very well without water, in spite of the fact
that their food very dry, since they seldom, or never eat
is
green vegetation. A Pocket Rat that I had as a pet lived for

several months on dry wheat and paid no attention to water,
which was removed from the cage after the first few days.
The kangaroo-like hind legs are used as one might imagine
and the animals progress in leaps in which the forelegs take no
part. These leaps may be of only a few inches or up to six
feet or more. My pet used the forefeet only to hold food and
hopped about on the hind feet entirely. He was exceedingly
quick and left the floor as if released by a spring. He was
very particular about his long tail and, if in handling him his
tail was grasped, became very indignant. Every time he
washed himself the operation closed with passing his tail
rapidly between his forepaws and lips. He seemed to inspect
324
DWARF POCKET RAT
it carefully for any injury and I suspect that the tail is very
important in the balance and locomotion of the Kangaroo Rats,
Over most of the range of this genus probably two or more
families are reared a season. Young may be encountered
in almost every month of the year wherever winter is not
severe, and the number in a litter varies from three to five.
Genus Microdipodops
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, |-; Molars, f =20.
Dwarf Pocket Rat. —Microdipodops megacephalus

and related forms
— Dwarf Pocket Rat Pigmy Pocket Rat
Names. ; ; Kangaroo
Mouse.
General Description. — In general appearance like a large,
heavy-bodied Pocket Mouse (Perognathus); head large; hind
feet long; tail more than half total length; temporal region of
skull greatly inflated; hind feet with five toes, soles densely
haired habit nocturnal.
;
Color. — Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation slight.

Upperparts. —Yellowish brown finely mixed with black-
tipped hairs and slightly tinged with olive; pale ochraceous
wash on sides; tail above like back except for blackish on
terminal third; blackish crescent at base of whiskers; buffy
spot back of each ear.
Underparts. —
White with wash of pale ochraceous on belly.
—
inches; tail vertebras, 3.2 inches; hind foot, i inch.
—
Geographical Distribution.^ Arid section of Great Basin
district where states of Oregon, Nevada, and California
meet, south as far as Mono County, Calif., east to Elko
County, Nev.
—
Food. Seeds and grains.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Owls, Foxes, Skunks, Coyotes, Weasels,
etc.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Microdipodops

Nevada Dwarf Pocket Rat. — Microdipodops megacephalus
megacephalus Merriam.
As described. Found in Elko County, Nevada.
325
—
Oregon Dwarf Pocket Rat. —Microdipodops megacephalus

Oregon us Merriam.
Resembling typical megacephalus, but "tail longer; pelage
less fluffy, upperparts more olivaceous and less conspic-
uously lined with black-tipped hairs; underparts white
buffy wash less marked; a whitish streak usually present
along underside of tail; skull smaller." (Merriam) Total
length, 6 inches; tail vertebras, 3.5 inches; hind foot, i inch.
Found in the Alvord Desert region, Harney County, Oregon,
and Modoc County, California.
—
Pale Dwarf Pocket Rat. Microdipodops pallidus Merriam.
"Slightly larger than megacephalus; pelage long, soft, lax
and fluffy; tail decidedly longer and without dark tip; body
—
much paler. Color. Upperparts pale buffy fulvous, finely
and inconspicuously lined with dark-tipped hairs; under-
parts, including sides of nose, lower sides of face, legs, feet,
and underside of tail white; upperside of tail buffy through-
out without dark tip." (Merriam) Total length, 6.8
inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot, i inch. Found in
the region of the Sink of the Humboldt and Carson, Church-
County, Nevada.
ill
California —
Dwarf Pocket Rat. Microdipodops calijornicus
Merriam.
Equal to megacephalus in size but with longer tail and hind
foot, more compact pelage and snow white head markings
and underparts. Upperparts olivaceous finely sprinkled with
black; sides of nose, spot over eye, patch back of ear clear
white; tail above buffy with blackish near tip, below white;
underparts clear white. Total length, 6.4 inches; tail verte-
bras, 3.6 inches; hind foot, i inch. Found in Sierra Valley,
Plumas County, California.
—
Mono Dwarf Pocket Rat. Microdipodops polionotus Gv'irmeW.
Most like pallidus but even paler in color; pelage shorter
and less fluffy, smaller and with shorter tail. Upperparts
cartridge-buff with faint sprinkling of black-tipped hairs,
especially on rump; ashy on sides of face and rump; con-
spicuous white spot at base of and behind each ear;
underparts clear white in marked contrast to color of sides.
.96 inch. Found in Mono County, California (near Benton
Station, alt. 5200 feet).
Dwarf Pocket Rats are apparently rare and local in distri-

bution. There are comparatively few in museum collections
and not much has been written about habits. They live in a
very restricted section where they seem to prefer arid and
desert conditions. These Rats have been found on sandy,
sagebrush flats.
326
BEAVER
Joseph Mailliard, in a note in the Journal of Mammalogy,

February, 1925, writes:
"This Httle village (Eagleville) lies at the eastern base of
the Warner Mountains, on the edge of a long strip of meadow
land that is irrigated from the mountain streams. East of
this narrow meadow is Middle Lake, which, except for a small
laguna at its southern extremity, is a lake only in winter and
spring. The rest of the year it is but a bare expanse of alkali
sand. East again of the lake is a desert of sand, lava and
sagebrush that stretches across the close-by state line far into
Nevada.
"In this desert, at a point about two miles east of Eagle-
ville, it was my good fortune to encounter colonies of both the
Columbian kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii columhianus

(Merriam), and the Oregon kangaroo mouse, Microdipodops
megacephalus oregonus A-Ierriam. These colonies, which
appeared to be small ones, were found scattered among the
low, brush-grown sand dunes and hummocks that cover that
part of the desert. In walking over the dunes my foot
frequently broke through the surface into the burrows, many
of which appeared to be unoccupied.
"The main reason for supposing that the colonies were
limited in the number of their respective members was that it
seldom was found profitable to trap in a colony for more than
one night before moving the traps to another sand dune.
Some mornings, however, even when the trap lines had been
laid out on absolutely fresh ground, there were rodent tracks
all around and often close up to many of the traps, without a
single one of them having been sprung or a particle of the

bait — —
consisting generally of rolled oats having been touched,
but in such cases no change was made in the location of the
trap line and usually a comparatively fair catch was made the
following night."
Family Castoridae. Beavers
Resembling the Sciuridee but cheek-teeth not rooted, crown

pattern with re-entrant enamel folds instead of tubercles;
mandible heavy; size large; form thickset; tail broad, flat,
and scaly; habit aquatic.
327
Genus Castor
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, }; Molars, f = 20.
Beaver. — Castor canadensis

and related forms
Names. — Beaver; American Beaver. Plate XXVII.
—
General Description. Size very large, largest of North
American rodents; form robust; tail broad, flat, scaly; ears
short; five toes on fore and hind feet; hind feet webbed, with
Fig. 65. Beaver
claw of second toe double or cleft anal glands present pelage

;
;
composed of long, hard hairs and soft short underfur; color

brown; habit aquatic.
—
Color. Sexes colored alike no very great seasonal variation.
;
Upperparts rich dark brown, the long hairs chestnut-brown,

•:he underfur without any reddish tinge head brighter incisors
; ;
orange; underparts somewhat lighter in tone than upperparts

and lacking the chestnut tinge.
—
Immature pelage. Practically as in adults, perhaps a little
lighter in general tone.
In worn or summer pelage the long hard hairs may be
so scanty that the pelage seems to be made up of the duller
and browner underfur.
328
BEAVER
Measurements. — No very great difference in size between

sexes. Total length, 43 inches; tail vertebrae, 16 inches long
by 4.5 inches broad; hind foot, 7 inches; weight, 30 pounds to
maximum of 68 pounds.
—
Alaska and Labrador to the Rio Grande.
—
Food. Bark, twigs, even wood, of deciduous trees, espe-
cially aspen, cottonwoods and willows; also other vegetable
matter such as roots of aquatic plants, grass, etc.
—
Enemies. Bear, Wolf, Fisher, Otter, Lynx and Wolverine.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Castor

Canadian Beaver.^ — Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl.
As described above. Found in northern North America
from nearly 70° north inYukon and 58° in Labrador, south
Fig. 66. Forefoot of Beaver
to about 35° in eastern and central states, and 45° in the

Rocky Mountain section.
—
Vancouver Island Beaver. Castor canadensis leucodonta Gray.
Resembling typical canadensis but larger, and general color-
ation of pelage paler, Upperparts cinnamon-buff. Total
length, 46 inches; tail vertebrae, 18 inches; hind foot, 8
inches. Found on Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
Pacific Beaver. —
Castor canadensis pacificus Rhoads.
Largest of the Beavers; slightly paler than leucodonta. Up-
perparts dark, glossy, reddish chestnut; underparts seal-
brown. Total length, 46 inches; tail vertebrce, 14 inches;
hind foot, 7.4 inches; scaly portion of tail 11.8 by 5 inches.
Found on the Pacific slope from southern Oregon to Alaska.
Admiralty Beaver. —
Castor canadensis phceus Heller.
Darker than leucodonta to which it is most closely related.
Upperparts dark seal-brown, the long hairs almost black,
329
on head and shoulders; rump and base

lighter of tail dark
Vandyke brown; ears black. Total length, 41 inches; tail
vertebra?, 18 inches; hind foot, 7 inches; scaly portion of tail
10 by 5 inches. Found on Admiralty Island, Alaska.
—
Cook Inlet Beaver. Castor canadensis helugce Taylor.
Intermediate between typical canadensis and leuccdonta,
paler than the latter. Upperparts cinnamon to ochraceous
tawny. Found in the Cook Inlet region of Alaska, south
to wStuart Lake, British Columbia.
Carolina Beaver. —
Castor canadensis carolinensis Phoads.
Larger than typical canadensis, with relatively broader tail.
Upperparts bright hazel brightening to cirnamon-rufous
on rump. Total length, 45 inches; scaly portion of tail, 11
Fig. 67. Tail and hind foot of Beaver
by 6.3 inches; hind foot, 7.4 inches. Found in North

Carohna, south to northern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico,
west to eastern Texas.
Broad-tailed Beaver; Sonora Beaver. —
Castor canadensis
frondator Mearns.
Larger, paler, and tail broader than in typical canadensis;
paler than carolinensis. Upperparts russet, sides wood-
brown; feet burnt sienna. Total length, 45 inches; tail
vertebrce, 15 inches; scaly portion of tail, 1 1.4 by 6.2 inches;
weight, 62 pounds. Found in the southwestern states from
Mexico north to Wyoming and Montana, not known west
of about the 115th meridian,
—
Rio Grande Beaver. Castor canadensis mexicanus Bailey.
"Size medium, colors dull and pale with very little chestnut
at any season .Upperparts dull russet, brightest on crown,
. .
palest on cheeks and rump." (Bailey) Total length, 43
330
Plate XXVII
Porcupine
Mu^Krat
Beaver
BEAVER
inches; tail vertebrae, i6 inches; hind foot, 7 inches. Found

on the Rio Grande drainage of New Mexico and Texas.
—
Woods Beaver. Castor canadensis michiganensis Bailey.
wSize rather large, "colors very dark, ears and feet black;
. .Color
. . .in early winter pelage: upperparts dark
.
umber brown, brighter, almost 'mahogany brown on head

and cheeks." (Bailey) Total length, 47 inches; tail verte-
bras, 19 inches; hind foot, 7.4 inches; weight, 58 pounds.
Found in Upper Peninsula region of Michigan.
—
Missouri River Beaver. Castor canadensis missoiiriensis
Bailey.
vSomewhat smaller than typical canadensis; paler and duller
brown. Upperparts bright hazel brown; underparts smoky
gray. Thetype specimen, not full grown, measured, total
length, 36 inches; tail vertebras, 11 inches; hind foot, 6.8
inches. Found on the Missouri River drainage from
Nebraska north and west to Montana.
—
Texas Beaver. Castor canadensis texensis Bailey.
Large and pale, most like frondator. Found in the region
drained by the Rio Colorado, eastern Texas.
—
Golden Beaver. Castor siihauratus suhauratus Taylor.
A
large Beaver similar in color to frondator, but darker.
Upperparts hazel to clay color; underparts sepia. Total
length, 47 inches; scaly portion of tail, 13 inches long; hind
foot, 7.8 inches. Found on the drainage of the Tuolumne
and wSan Joaquin Rivers, California.
—
Shasta Beaver. Castor suhauratus shastensis Taylor.
Known only from skulls; in cranial characters nearest to
typical suhauratus. Found in Shasta County, California,
on the eastern slope of the main chain of the Sierra Nevada.
—
Newfoundland Beaver. Castor ccecator Bangs.
Resembling typical canadensis but smaller and with marked
describer.
*******
cranial differences. No external characters given by the
Found in Newfoundland.
Although the Beaver is scarce today compared to its abund-

ance when North America was first settled, it has played such
an important part in the history of our country and has been
mentioned so often in literature that to most people it is a
familiar animal. Fortunately the conservationists are work-
ing for the rehabilitation of this big rodent and in a few places
the Beaver is building up its numbers to such an extent that it
isbecoming a common species again. A staple with the trap-
per and a standard of valuation in barter and exchange, the
pelt of the Beaver has been sought for centuries and the de-
mands of the fur trade all but exterminated the animal.
Industries have depended upon the Beaver for their exist-
331
ence. To get Beaver fur the trappers and fur companies, like
the Hudson Bay Company, pushed across the continent and
laid the foundation fora later occupation in force by settlers.
Other fur-bearers contributed to this motive, but the Beaver
made up the bulk of the traffic. For years the hat makers
would use only Beaver fur for felting material of fine hats.
In literature, the Beaver has been held up as the mirror of
sagacity, engineering skill, and general all-around industry.
Whole volumes have been devoted to him alone. As is to be
expected, not all that has been written of the Beaver is so.
Several of the best works are cited in the bibliography in the
back of this field book, and the reader is referred to them for
the many interesting details of the Beaver's home life. Plate
XXVIII.
The Beaver is not peculiar to the New World but has an
extensive distribution throughout most of the Northern
Hemisphere. It has become extinct, however, over much of
itsOld World range. The large size, flat, scaly tail, and
aquatic habit serve as unmistakable characters of
identification.
The number of young at a birth varies from two to six, or
rarely eight. The average number seems to be four, and the
young are born in April to May, occasionally late in March.
The young stay with the parents for a year and the known
facts indicate that Beavers are monogamous and remain
mated for life.
Beaver may be active any hour of the twenty-four, but are
most active from sunset to sunrise, especially in a region where
they are apt to be molested by enemies.
Family Cricetidae. Native Rats and Mice

Form typically rat or mouse-like; molar teeth never more
than three on a side; molar crown pattern composed of tuber-
cles arranged in two primary longitudinal rows, or made up
of angular figures.
Subfamily Cricetinae
Molars rooted and with tubercles arranged in two primary
longitudinal rows.
332
PLATE XXVIII
GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
Genus Onychomys^
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, g; Premolars, §; Molars, f = i6.
Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys leucogaster
and related forms.
Names.—Grasshopper Mouse; Scorpion Mouse. Plate
XXX.
General Description. —A rather sturdily- built Mouse, with
comparatively short tail which is thick and tapering; forefeet
fairly large, with five tubercles hind feet with four tubercles
;
Fig. 68. Grasshopper Mouse
and densely on sole from heel to tubercles; pelage us-

fiirred
and silky; color pattern sharply bicolor, white
ually soft, full
below and colored above nocturnal in habit.
;

Upperparts. — Dark drab brown sprinkled with dark brown
hairs, darkest along dorsal region and top of head; nose gray-
ish; pure white tufts, rather woolly in character, at bases of
ears; ears dark brown on front, whitish behind, lined inside
with white hairs; tail above drab brown for basal two-thirds,
below whitish, terminal third whitish above and below.
—
Underparts. Clear white in marked contrast to upperparts,
white reaching up on lower sides and cheeks, and extending
down on feet; pelage of upperparts blackish slate at base,
pelage of underparts white at base on chin, throat, and fore-
legs, blackish slate basally on middle chest and abdomen.
^ For a full revision of this genus see N. Hollister, Proceedings U. S,
National Museum, Vol. 47, pp. 427-489, 1914-
333
Sometimes occurring as a melanistic phase, glossy brownish

black above and only slightly lighter below, some of the white
retained as blotches.
Immature pelage. —Above dark blackish brown, without
whitish ear tufts but with conspicuous black markings on front
of ear; below white.
Measurements. — Total length, 6.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.7
inches; hind foot, .88 inch; ear from notch (dry specimen),
.56 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Western North America,
—
Food. Chiefly insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets,
scorpions, beetles, larvae, etc., occasionally other Mice; vege-
tation and seeds.
Enemies. — Owls, Weasels, Foxes, Coyotes, Wildcats, and
other small carnivores. Snakes.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Onychomys
Leucogaster Group
Maximilian Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys leucogaster leu-

cogaster (Wied).
As described above. Found in "Southern Manitoba, eastern
North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, and parts of
extreme western Minnesota, west to Minot and Fort Clark,
North Dakota. Transition Zone." (Hollister)
—
Audubon Grasshopper Mouse. Onychomys leucogaster mis-
soiiriensis (Audubon and Bachman).
Slightly smaller and paler than typical leucogaster. Upper-
parts dark grayish brown to rich wood-brown, depending on
season and state of wear; rest of pelage about as in typical
leucogaster. Total
length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1,6
inches; hind foot,inch. Found in "Southeastern Alberta,
,8
southern Saskatchewan, northern and eastern A'lontana,
western North Dakota, and northeastern Wyoming. North
to Calgary, Alberta, and Carlton, Saskatchewan; east to
Glenullin, North Dakota; south up the Missouri River to
Bozeman, Montana, and up the branches of the Powder and
Little Missouri Rivers into northeastern Wyoming. Chiefly
arid Transition." (Hollister)
Great Plains Grasshopper M-onse.— Onychomys leucogaster
arcticeps (Rhoads).
Paler and with more buffy than missouriensis. Upperparts
light wood-brown washed with pinkish cinnamon over
posterior dorsal region; ear tufts white, but not in marked
contrast to rest of pelage because of its light tone, forepart
of ear brownish tail white, with narrow median stripe above,
;
334
GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
Fig. 69. Distribution of the subspecies of Onychomys leuco-

gaster, north of Mexico, after Hollister
1. Onchomys leucogaster leucogaster
2. Onchomys leucogasler m.issouriensis
3. Onchomys leucogaster arcticeps
4. Onchomys leucogaster fuscogriseus
5. Onchomys leucogaster brevicaudus
6. Onchomys leucogaster melanophrys
7. Onchomys leucogaster fuliginosus
8. Onchomys leucogaster capitulatus
p. Onchomys leucogaster ruidoscB
10. Onchomys leucogaster longipes
ir. Onchomys leucogaster breviauritus
335
;
brownish for basal two-thirds; underparts clear white.

.85 inch. Found in "Upper Sonoran Great Plains from
Wyoming and South Dakota to Texas. North to the Big
Horn River in Wyoming and to the Cheyenne River in
South Dakota east to Bonesteele, South Dakota, and Trego
;
County, Kansas; south to Fort Lancaster, Texas; and west

to Bear River Divide in southwestern Wyoming, Golden
and Salida, Colorado, and Santa Rosa, New Mexico."
(Hollister)
Short-tailed Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys leucogaster
brevicaiidus Merriam.
Darker than arcticeps; smallest subspecies of leucogaster; tail
short. Upperparts a light wood-brown, rich and glossy,
darkened on face, head, and back; sides shading to cinna-
mon; ear tufts white basally, buffy at tips; ears dark brown
anteriorly, white posteriorly; tail above, grayish brown,
white-tipped, below, white; underparts pure white. Total
inch. Found in "Southern Idaho, extreme southwestern
Wyoming, northwestern Utah, and west across the northern
half of Nevada into Lassen, Plumas, and Mono Counties,
California." (Hollister)
Brown Grasshopper Mouse. —
Onychomys leucogaster fusco-
griseus Anthony.
Resembling brevicaudus but darker in color. Upperparts
rich, glossy, reddish brown, dark in tone, darkest along
dorsal region; sides browner; tail above, blackish brown,
tipped with grayish white, below, white; underparts white.
Immature pelages very dark, almost black. Total length,
5.7 inches; tail vertebras, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .JJ inch.
Found in "Eastern Washington and Oregon, western Idaho,
and northeastern California. South to Klamath Lake and
the Madeline Plains." (HolHster)
Dark-browed Grasshopper Mouse. —Onychomys leucogaster
melanophrys Merriam.
Darker and richer in color than arcticeps. Upperparts rich
pinkish-cinnamon to cinnamon-buff, washed with brownish
along dorsal region and top of head eyebrows dark brown
;
ear tufts pale buffy; ears blackish, edged with white; tail
above, pale brownish gray, tip and underside white; under-
parts clear white. Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.8 inches, hind foot .88 inch. Found in "South central
and southeastern Utah, southwestern Colorado, north-
eastern Arizona, and northwestern New Mexico. North in
the Grand River Valley to Fruita, Colorado, and in the Rio
Grande Valley to northern Costillo County, Colorado.
West to Kanab, Utah, and Flagstaff, Arizona; east in New
Mexico to Santa Fe and the Sandia Mountains; south to
Acoma and the Zuni River." (Hollister)
336
. ;
GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
—
Sooty Grasshopper Mouse. OnycJiomys leucogaster fiiligi-
nosus (Merriam).
Resembling melanophrys, but pelage very dark. Upperparts
dark blackish brown; sides lighter; ear tufts colored like
head, not conspicuous; tail blackish brown above, white at
tip and on underside; underparts white. Total length, 6.4
in "Lava beds and pinyon and cedar belt, east and northeast
of San Francisco Mountain, Arizona." (Hollister)
—
New Mexico Grasshopper Mouse. OnycJiomys leucogaster
ruidoscB (Stone and Rehn).
Resembling melanophrys but darker and more richly colored.
Upperparts rich, glossy wood-brown, washed with rich
cinnamon and finely sprinkled with dark brown; sides
lighter than back, almost pure cinnamon posteriorly; incon-
spicuous ear tufts pale cinnamon-brown tail above, grayish
;
brown, tip and underside whitish, underparts whitish.

Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebra, 2.0 inches; hind foot,
.9 inch. Found chiefly in "the mountainous region of
southeastern Arizona and central and southwestern New
Mexico. North to Camp Verde, Arizona, and to the
Manzano Mountains and Las Vegas, New Mexico east to ;
the Capitan Mountains; south into northern Chihuahua

and Sonora." (Hollister)
—
Arizona Grasshopper Mouse. OnycJiomys leucogaster capitu-
latus Hollister.
Resembling ruidosce but smaller. Upperparts and rest of
pelage essentially as in ruidosce. Total length, 5.9 inches;
tail vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot, ,88 inch. Found in
lower end of Prospect Valley (Grand Canyon) and Aubrey
Valley, Arizona.
Long-footed Grasshopper Mouse. — OnycJiomys leucogaster
long! pes (Merriam)
"Size large; colors dull; ears larger than in any other sub-
species of leucogaster. . .. Upperparts drab, darkest on
middle of back; fmel}^ lined with darker brownish, and with
a wash of pale cinnamon over lower back and hips; an
indistinct stripe of cinnamon along sides between color of
upperparts and white of underparts, from fore legs to base
of tail a blackish spot each side of nose at base of whiskers
;
ear tufts scant, pale cinnamon color. Tail brown above

with white tip; whitish below, not sharply bicolor. Under-
parts white, the hairs of throat and fore legs white to bases.
There is little difference in the color of adults at any season."
(Hollister) Total length, 6.6 inches; tail vertebrce, 2.2
inches; hind foot, .92 inch; ear from notch (dry skin), ,64
inch. Found in "Central and southern Texas. . . . North
to Tom Green and Concho Counties, Texas; west to the
Pecos River; southeast to Rockport and Nueces Bay,
Texas; south to Victoria, Tamaulipas. Lower Sonoran
Zone." (Hollister)
337
—
Short-eared Grasshopper Mouse. Onychomys leucogaster bre-

viauritus Hollister.
Resembling longipes but darker, tail shorter, hind foot
smaller, and ear smaller. Upperparts (winter) rich blackish
brown; sides lighter; hips and rump almost pure pinkish
cinnamon gray on nose, cinnamon spots at base of whiskers,
;
cinnamon-buff ear tufts; grayish brown on upperside of tail,

white on tip and underside; underparts white. Summer
pelage grayish brown above, no conspicuous ear tufts.
Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebra?, 1.7 inches; hind foot,
.88 inch; ear from notch (dry skin), .52 inch. Found in
"Eastern Nebraska, eastern and south-central Kansas, and
middle Oklahoma. From Neligh, Nebraska, and Fort
Riley and Neosha Falls, Kansas, west and south to Kinsley,
Kansas, and to Woodward and Fort Reno, Oklahoma.
Entirely within the Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas of
the Austral region." (Hollister)
Torridus Group
Differentiated from the leucogaster group by smaller size,
lighter build, and proportionally longer tail.
Coues Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys torridus torridus

(Coues).
Medium in size, rich reddish brown in color. Upperparts
from dark pinkish cinnamon, rich and glossy, to wood-brown
with little red; darkest on back where it is washed with
blackish brown; palest on nose and cheeks; conspicuous
white ear tufts ear dark brownish on outer side, edged with
;
whitish; tail above, grayish brown, tip and underside white;

underparts pure white; sharp contrast between under and
upperparts. Ear tufts inconspicuous or wanting in summer
and fall pelages. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebras,
2.1 inches; hind foot, .86 inch; ear from notch (dry skin),
.56 inch. Found "from the Pecos Valley in Texas and south-
eastern New IVIexico, west across southern New Mexico and
Chihuahua into southeastern Arizona and northern Sonora.
North in the Rio Grande Valley to Socorro, New Mexico;
south to northern Durango." (Hollister)
Pallid Grasshopper Mouse. —
Onychomys torridus perpallidus
Mearns.
Slightly larger than typical torridus and paler in color; ears
larger. Upperparts light pinkish cinnamon to vinaceous
buff; finely sprinkled with dark hairs on back; ear tufts not-
differing much from color of head pelage of upperparts slate-
;
gray at base. "Tail, feet, and underparts as in torridus, but

the underfur below very narrowly pale slate, very different
from the broadly grayish-black underfur of torridus.'^ (Hol-
lister) Total length, 6.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.3 inches;
hind foot, .88 inch; ear from notch (dry skin), .63 inch.
338
;
GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
Found in "Colorado River Valley in western Arizona; east-

ward along tributary streams to Big Sandy Creek, Signal,
and Phoenix. Doubtless occurs also in northwestern
Sonora." (Hollister)
Desert Grasshopper Mouse.- — Onychomys torridus pulcher
(Elliot).
Smallest of the Grasshopper Mice; color very pale. Upper-
parts pale pinkish cinnamon with very little dark wash along
back; ear tufts white, conspicuous (winter); rest of pelage
essentially as in perpallidus except for slightly paler shades.
.78 inch. Found in "Mohave and Colorado Deserts, Cali-
fornia,and Lower California, Mexico. Known by speci-
mens from Granite Springs and Needles on the north to
Seven Wells, Lower California, on the south; and from the
Colorado River bottoms westward to Antelope Valley and
through San Gorgonia Pass to Cabezon station." (Hollister)
—
Long-tailed Grasshopper Mouse. Onychomys torridus longi-
caudus (Merriam).
Darker than pulcher; larger than perpallidus, with shorter
tail, hind foot, and ear. Upperparts and rest of pelage
essentially as in perpallidus. Total length, 5.6 inches; tail
vertebrse, 2.0 inches; hind foot, .8 inch; ear from notch (dry
skin), .52 inch. Found in "Southwestern Utah, north-
western Arizona north of the Colorado River, southern
Nevada, and the adjacent desert mountain region of Inyo
and Mono Counties, California. North in western Nevada
to Carson Sink west in California to Kearsarge Pass and to
;
the Argus Mountains." (Hollister)

Owens Lake Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys torridus clarus
Hollister.
Resembling longicaudus, but brighter colored. Upperparts
from bright pinkish cinnamon to pinkish buff, very little
sprinkling of darker hairs on back, pelage dark neutral
gray basally; creamy white ear tufts not very conspicuous;
tail whitish above and below except for narrow, indistinct
median stripe of grayish brown for basal two-thirds above;
2 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Vicinity of Owens
Lake, Coso Mountains, and Salt Wells Valley, Inyo County,
California." (Hollister)
Tulare Grasshopper Mouse; San Joaquin Grasshopper
—
Mouse. Onychomys torridus tularensis Merriam.
Grayish drab in color. Upperparts from light drab with
light wash of pinkish to grayish cinnamon, finely sprinkled
with dark brown grayish white ear tufts very inconspicuous
;
a faint, narrow lateral line of light pinkish buff; tail sharply

bicolor,grayish brown above, tip, and underside white;
underparts white; pelage above and below, except on chin
and throat, gray at base. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .83 inch. Found in "Upper
339
'
San Joaquin Valley and neighboring foothills and valleys,

California. North to Little Panoche Creek, San Benito
County; south to Carriso Plain and Bakersfield." (Hol-
lister)
Ramona Grasshopper Mouse. — Onychomys torridus ramona
(Rhoads).
Darkest of the torridus group found in the United States.
Upperparts from blackish brown (winter) to reddish brown
(summer) sides reddish brown ear tufts inconspicuous,
; ;
brown and whitish; tail above, blackish brown, tip and

underside whitish; underparts creamy white. Total length,
Found in "Extreme southwestern California and north-
*******
western Lower California, Mexico. From San Fernando
and San Bernardino south into Tecate Valley." (HolHster)
The Grasshopper Mice are soft -furred, attractive rodents

apt to be confused with any other Mice. The white
and little
underparts serve to distinguish them from House Mice and

most of the Voles, and the proportionally short, thick tail sets
them off from the White-footed Mice.
Grasshopper Mice dwell on the plains and open stretches
and are not found in forests. They have a preference for dry
regions and reach their greatest abundance in the arid sections
of the West or the deserts of the Southwest. These Mice live
in burrows in the ground and in sandy districts one has little
difficulty in finding their tracks and entrances to subterranean
workings. As a rule they are more or less closely associated
with other plains-loving Mice such as Peromysciis and Perog-
nathus, and a trap set on one of the sandy runaways may take
all three genera on successive nights. The Scorpion Mice are
strictly nocturnal.
There are about four young in a litter and in the southern
part of their range these Mice have more than one litter a year.
On the northern part of their range, where the summer season
is shorter, but one family is raised in a season. Although
Grasshopper Mice may be inactive during periods of severe
weather, they do not hibernate.
Genus Reithrodontomys
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, {]
; Premolars, §; Molars, f = 16.
I
See A. H. Howell, North American Fauna, No. 36, 1914, for a full
revision of this genus.
340
HARVEST MOUSE
Harvest Mouse. —Reitbrodontomys humulis

and related forms
—
General Description.' A small, long-tailed Mouse with
longitudinally grooved upper incisors. Ears large and
prominent; no cheek-pouches; colors of pelage inconspicuous;
Fig. 70, Harvest Mouse
sparsely haired; soles of hind feet with six tuber-

tail slender,
cles. Externally bearing a close resemblance to a small,

domestic House Mouse, Mus musculus. Plate XXX.
Color. — Sexes colored
alike.
Upperparts. — Dark brown, darkest along mid-line of back;
ears blackish to fuscous; tail above, fuscous, below, grayish
white, a clear line of demarcation between upper and lower
sides.
341
—
Underparts. Grayish, often washed with light pinkish
cinnamon, no conspicuous Hne of demarcation between color
of underparts and color of sides, but rather an insensible merg-
ing of the one into the other.
Immature pelag3 more fuscous than adults, with less brown.
Maasurements. —-Total length, 4.6-5 inches; tail vertebrce,
2.1-2.4 inches; hind foot, .6 -.7 inch; ear, .4 inch.

Geographical Distribution. — Southeastern United States
from Atlantic to and north in the Great Plains district.
Pacific
—
Food. Seeds, grains, fruit, and green vegetation, mostly
of native species and rarely of cultivated varieties.
—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Snakes, Weasels, Foxes, Coyotes,
and small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the genus Reithrodontomys
Subgenus Reithrodontomys
Humulis Group
Eastern Harvest Mouse. —Reithrodontomys humulis humulis
As described above. Found in "Southeastern United
States, east of the Alleghenies, from southern Virginia to
central Florida." (Howell)
Small-eared Harvest Mouse. —Reithrodontomys humulis im-
piger (Bangs).
Closely resembling typical humulis in size and color, but ears
much smaller, .35 of an inch from notch. Found in
"Northern Virginia and mountains of West Virginia."
(Howell)
—
Merriam Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys humulis merriami
(Allen).
Blacker and with more gray on upperparts; ears smaller and
blacker. Total length, 4.3-5.1 inches; tail vertebrce, 2-2.4
inches; hind foot, .65 inch. Above, pinkish cinnamon mixed
with blackish which predominates along back to form dorsal
stripe; ears blackish brown. Found in "Coast region of
east Texas and southern Louisiana north to northeastern
Kentuclcy and West Virginia; east to Alabama; limits of
range imperfectly known." (Howell)
—
Pallid Harvest Mouse. Reithrodo?itomys albescens albescens
Cary.
Upperparts (summer) ochraceous buff mixed with blackish,
which is densest along median line, lighter on sides, some-
times with much gray over upperparts. Underparts clear
white. Total length, 4.8-5.2 inches; tail vertebrae 2-2.2
inches; hind foot, .65 inch. Found in "Sand-hill region of
342
HARVEST MOUSE
Nebraska and western South Dakota; west to Loveland,

Colo." (Howell)
Little Gray Harvest Mouse.—Reithrodontomys albescens
griseus (Bailey).
Darker than typical albescens; upperparts (summer) light
ochraceous buff mixed with blackish, darkest along median
Fig. 71. Distribution of the subspecies of Reithrodontumys

humulis and Reithrodontomys albescens, after A. H. Howell
1. Reithrodontomys albescens albescens
2. Reithrodontomys albescens griseus
3. Reithrodontomys humulis merriami
4. Reithrodontomys humulis humulis
5. Reithrodontomys humulis impiger
line,forming an indistinct dorsal stripe. Total length, 4.7-

5.8 inches; tail vertebrce, 2.1-2.4 inches; hind foot, .6 inch.
Found in "Southern Nebraska, Kansas,Oklahoma, central
and western Texas, and eastern New Mexico. Limits of
range imperfectly known." (Howell)
Megalotis Group
San Luis Valley Harvest Mouse. —Reithrodontomys montanus

(Baird).
Winter pelage. —
Light buff above, heavily washed with
blackish along back, but with no distinct median line; ears
dark brown; tail bicolor, brown above, white below; under-
343
parts white. Total length, 4.7-5.6 inches; tail vertebrae

2-2.6 inches; hind foot, .65 inch. Found in "San Luis
Valley, Colo." (Howell)
—
Desert Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis
(Baird).
Larger than montanus. Total length, 5.1-5.8 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.6-3.1 inches; hind foot, .7 inch; ear, .5 inch.
Upperparts, summer, light ochraceous buff mixed with
blackish brown, darkest along dorsal line; ears drab, with a
few ochraceous buff hairs about base; underparts and feet
white. Found "From northern Nevada and southern Idaho
south to Zacatecas, Mexico; occupying the greater part of
Nevada, Arizona, and Utah (except eastern part) southern
;
New Mexico western Texas (west of Pecos River) desert

; ;
regions of southern and northeastern California. ..."

(Howell)
—
Aztec Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys megalotis aztecus
(Allen).
Like typical megalotis in size and color, but ears larger, .5-.6
inch from notch. Found in "Northern New Mexico, north-
eastern Arizona, southeastern Utah, and western Colorado,
north to Grand Junction and Rifle." (Howell)
Prairie Harvest Mouse. — Reithrodontomys megalotis dychei
(Allen).
Blacker and with more intensely ochraceous upperparts than
typical megalotis, ears smaller, tail shorter. Total length,
5.2-5.6 inches; tail vertebree, 2.3-2.6 inches; hind foot, .6-.7
inch; ear from notch, .45 inch. Found in "Greater part of
Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, and South Dakota;
southern North Dakota; southeastern Montana; eastern
Colorado and eastern Wyoming." (Howell)
Dusky Harvest Mouse. —Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens
Howell.
Blacker and less buffy above than typical megalotis. Up-
perparts, winter, pale ochraceous buff mixed with blackish,
darkest dorsally in summer browner than in winter. Total
;
length, 5.6-6.1 inches; tail vertebras, 2.5-3 inches; hind foot,

.65 inch. Found in "Eastern Oregon and western Idaho;
north to Prescott, Wash., south to Bieber, Cal." (Howell)
California Harvest Mouse. —
Reithrodontomys megalotis longi-
caudus (Baird).
Darker and smaller than typical megalotis, with less gray
and more ochraceous than nigrescens. Upperparts in winter
mixed blackish and ochraceous buff. Total length, 5.2-5.8
inches; tail vertebrae, 2.8-3.2 inches; hind foot, .65 inch.
Found in "Greater part of western California, east to the
foothills of the Sierra Nevada, San Bernardino, and San
Jacinto Ranges; north to Grants Pass, Greg., and south into
northwestern Lower California to about latitude 32°."
(Howell)
344
HARVEST MOUSE
Fig. 72. Distribution of Reithrodontomys montanus and

the subspecies of Reithrodontomys megalotis, north of Mexico,
after A. H. Howell
1. Reithrodontomys megalotis longicaudus
2. Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens
3. Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis
4. Reithrodontomys megalotis aztecus
5. Reithrodontomys megalotis dychei
6. Reithrodontomys montanus
345
— ;
Chiricahua Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys megalotis art-

zonensis (Allen).
Resembling typical megalotis in size, but tail longer, pelage
darker and more ochraceous. Closely similar to longicaudus,
but redder on head, blacker on ears, and grayer on tail.
Upperparts ochraceous buff thickly sprinkled with black,
face buff y underparts white, with ochraceous pectoral area
;
tail above, mouse-gray, below, grayish white. Total length,

5.8-6.1 inches; tail vertebrEe, 3-3.2 inches; hind foot, .65
inch. Known only from the type locality, Rock Creek,
Chiricahua Mountains, Arizona, about 8000 feet altitude.
Cata!i..a Harvest Mouse. — Reithrodcntoniys catalincB Elliot,
Larger and paler than megalotis longicaudus. Upperparts
(spring pelage), light ochraceous buff mixed with blackish
brown, darkest dorsally but lacking a definite stripe; tail
bicolor, brown and white; underparts white, with buffy
pectoral spot. Total length, 6.6-7 inches; tail vertebras,
3.6-4 inches; hind foot, .75 inch. Found only on Santa
Catalina Island, California.
—
Red-bellied Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys raviventris
raviventris Bixon.
Resembling megalotis longicaudus, but reddish below and
upperparts darker. Upperparts, pinkish cinnamon mixed
with black, most darkened on dorsal area underparts pink-
;
ish cinnamon, occasionally with a small white chin spot;

hind feet and tail fuscous to sepia, tail not sharply bicolor
only slightly lighter on underside; toes whitish; front feet
sepia, sometimes washed with buffy white. Total length,
4.8-5.8 inches; tail vertebras, 2.2-3 inches; hind foot, .65
inch. Found in "Salt marshes of San Francisco Bay, Cal."
(Howell)
—
Petaluma Marsh Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys raviven-
(Dixon),
tris halicoetes
Larger than typical raviventris and underparts white instead
of cinnamon. Larger and darker than megalotis lo7igicatidus
and with large white patch on throat, Upperparts, ochrace-
ous buff with hea\y mixture of black along back underparts
;
white, occasionally with irregular blotches of ochraceous

buff; feet white or buffy; tail fuscous above, grayish below;
a white patch on throat and sides of mouth, the hairs white
to their bases. Total length, 6-6.6 inches; tail vertebrse,
3-3.4 inches; hind foot, .7-.75 inch. Found in "Salt
marshes of San Pablo Bay, Suisun Bay, and the lower San
Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers." (Howell)
Fulvescens Group
RiD Grande Harvest Mouse.- —

Reithrodontomys fulvescens in-
termedins (Allen).
Upperparts, light ochraceous-buff, with heav}^ mixture of
blackish brown along back; sides brighter; feet white;
346
— —
BAIOMYS
underparts white, sometimes touched lightly with buff; tail

brown above, grayish white below. Total length, 6.4-7.2
inches; tail vertebrae, 3.5-4.1 inches; hind foot, .8 inch.
Found in "Southern Texas and adjacent parts of Mexico
from Del Rio to Brownsville; east to Bexar and Bee Counties
north to Wichita Mountains, Okla." (Howell)
Golden Harvest Mouse. Reithrodontomys fidvescens auran-
tius (Allen).
Resembling intermedins but richer and darker in coloration.
Upperparts ochraceous tawny, much darkened by mixture
of blackish brown; sides rich ochraceous or tawny; under-
parts grayish white, often washed with pale buff. This
subspecies appears to be very variable in intensity and tone
of coloration. Total length, 6.2-7 inches; tail vertebras,
3.4-4 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Louisiana
(west of the Mississippi River), southern and east-central
Arkansas, eastern Texas, and eastern Oklahoma; north to
southwestern Missouri (Carthage). Confined to Lower
Austral Zone." (Howell)
Harvest Mice are small, rather dull-colored creatures which

are seldom seen. They are denizens of grassy localities and
are more or less restricted to the warmer zones, the genus
reaching its highest development in Central America. The
best field character for separating Harvest Mice from other
small Mice is the presence of the grooved upper incisors.
These Mice build grass nests which are placed either on

the ground or in low vegetation; sometimes a deserted bird
nest is used. Harvest Mice do not hibernate and are active
both day and night. They are not as abundant as most other
Mice, and only rarely do damage to crops.
There are "probably several litters of young born annually,
from two to four in a litter.
Genus Baiomys
Formerly a subgenus of Peromyscus to which it is closely
related (see page 348).
Size very small, total length (in the United States species)
about 4 inches; tail less than half total length; ears compara-
tively small, rounded; soles of hind feet naked or nearly so,
and with six tubercles.
Taylor Baiomys. Baiomys taylori taylori (Thomas) ..
General color grayish. Upperparts pale drab with heavy

sprinkling of dusky; no contrasting markings about eye, at
347
;
base of whiskers, nor along lateral line; ears colored like rest
of upperparts; tail faintly bicolored, dusky above, smoke-
gray beiow; underparts smoke-gray, with tinge of buffy.
hind foot, .54-.60 inch; ear from notch (in dry specimens),
.35-.40 inch. Found in "Southern Texas from the vicinity
of Matagorda Bay westward to Bexar County and thence
south to the Rio Grande; Lower Sonoran Zone."
. . .
(Osgood)
Dark Baiomys. —Baiomys taylori suhater (Bailey).
Darker than typical taylori. Upperparts, in general tone,
varying from dark grayish brown or pale reddish sepia to
almost black (in mid-dorsal region) sides more buffy ;
underparts buffy, paler and grayer on throat. Total length,

3.5-4.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.5-1.8 inches; hind foot,
.56-.60 inch; ear from notch (in dry specimens), .32-.38
inch. Found in "Coast region of southeastern Texas from
the vicinity of Matagorda Bay eastward. Austroriparian
Zone." (Osgood)
In general, the habits of Baiomys are probably those of

Peromyscus. These tiny Mice live in weeds and brush or
in open fields and meadows, and make small round holes.
Although fairly common in some places, the members of the
genus Baiomys have a very limited distribution in the United
States, and not very much has been written on their life-
histories. They make nests in their burrows and also have
cavities below ground for the storage of food. In grassy
localities they make surface runways very like those of
Meadow Mice.
The number of young in a litter is small, two or three.
Genus Peromyscus^
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, %; Premolars, g ; Molars, | = 16.
White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus

and related forms
—
Names. White-footed Mouse; Deer Mouse; Vesper Mouse;
Wood Mouse. Plates XXIX and XXX.
—
General Description. A Mouse of medium size; tail long,
about half of total length, rather well haired, with scaly
^ For a very full and complete revision of this genus see Wilfred H.
Osgood, North American Fauna, No. 28, 1900.
348
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
annulations; ears of good size, only thinly covered by hair;

eyes rather large; pelage soft; soles of hind feet with six
tubercles, covered with hair except about plantar tubercles;
color pattern distinctly bicolor, upperparts dark brown,
underparts white; nocturnal in habit.
Color.— Sexes indistinguishable in color,
—
Upperparts. Dark brown, with yellowish tinge, slightly
darkened along median dorsal region from shoulders to base
Fig. ']2>. White-footed Mouse
of tail; blackish about eyes and base of whiskers; ears dark,

edged with grayish ; a small tuft of woolly white hairs at ante-
rior base of ear; tail brownish black above, white below, with
clear line of demarcation between; feet white.
—
Underparts. Clear white, but with some of the slate-colored
basal pelage showing through in places.
Immature. — Upperparts a dark mixture of black and buff;
dorsal region almost completely black; tail black above; ears
black, edged with whitish.
—
Very Young. Slate-gray with whitish wash.
—
Measurements. Total length, 7-8 inches; tail vertebrae,
3-3.8 inches; hind foot, .8-. 9 inch.
349
—
Geographical Distribution. Practically all of North
America south of 60° north latitude; in the west north to 65°.
—
Food. Mostly seeds and grains, small nuts and dry vege-
table food as contrasted with the green and succulent diet
of the Meadow Mice; rarely carnivorous.
Enemies. — Preyed upon by many species of Owls, some of
the Hawks, Weasels, Foxes, and practically all of the small
carnivorous mammals, Snakes.
vSpecies and Subspecies of the Genus Peromyscus.
This is a very large and widely-ranging genus and its mem-

bers are generally the commonest small mammals of any given
region. However, the differences between the various forms
are often too subtle to depict in a short, written description
and in many cases the most satisfactory basis for identification
will be the geographical distribution. The various subspecies
frequently merge insensibly into one another, so that it may be
difficult to assign individual specimens if they come from such
an area of intergradation. Most of the forms of this genus
conform to a bicolored pattern, that is, clear white underparts
in marked contrast to darker upperparts.
Subgenus Peromyscus
Maniculatus Group
Labrador White-footed —
Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus
maniculatus (Wagner).
As described above. Found in "Hudsonian Zone of north-
eastern Canada, from the northeastern coast of Labrador to
the west side of Hudson Bay and south to the border of the
Canadian Zone to meet the range of P. m. gracilis.'' (Osgood)
—
Le Conte White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus
gracilis (Le Conte).
Less dusky than typical maniculatus, with longer tail and
smaller hind foot. Upperparts varying from russet to
isabella color. Total length, 7-8 inches; tail vertebrae,
3.2-4.5 inches; hind foot, .8-.88 inch. Found in "North-
eastern United States and southern Canada from northern
Minnesota east through northern Wisconsin, Michigan,
Ontario, Quebec, New York, and western New England.
Canadian Zone." (Osgood)
—
Nova Scotia White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus
abietorum (Bangs).
Paler and grayer than gracilis; upperparts nearly uniform
drab, median dark area scarcely developed. Total length,
350
;
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
6.8-7.5 inches; tail vertebra, 3.3-3.9 inches; hind foot,

.8-.88 inch. Found in "Nova Scotia and neighboring parts
of eastern Canada; west to central Maine." (Osgood)
—
Grand Manan White-footed Mouse.^ Peromyscus manicu-
latiis argentatus (Copeland and Church).
ResembHng abietorum but with shorter tail and grayer color-
ation. Upperparts grayish grizzled with dusky. Total
length, 6.8-7.8 inches; tail vertebrte, 3.3-3.7 inches; hind
foot, .8-.88 inch. Found on "Island of Grand Manan, New
Brunswick, Canada." (Osgood)
—
Grindstone Island White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus mani-
culatus eremus Osgood.
Darker in color than abietorum and tail shorter; paler and
smaller than typical maniculatus. Upperparts russet
sprinkled with dusky underparts creamy v/hite. Found on
;
Grindstone Island, Magdalen Islands, Quebec.

—
Cloudland White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus
nubiterrcB (Rhoads).
Resembling gracilis but slightly smaller and with broader
and more clearly defined dusky dorsal area; pelage very
soft. Upperparts Prout-brown made by mixture of russet
and blackish; broad median dorsal area blackish brown.
hind foot, .8-. 84 inch. Found in "Allegheny and Blue
Ridge Mountains and adjacent ranges from western Penn-
sylvania south to western North Carolina, and northeastern
Georgia. Canadian Zone." (Osgood)
—
Boreal White-footed Mouse; Arctic Deer Mouse. Peromys-
cus maniculatus borealis (Mearns).
Resembling typical maniculatus, but tail shorter. Upper-
parts cinnamon, heavily sprinkled with dusky, no concen-
tration of the darker color along median dorsal area; black-
ish orbital ring and whisker spot underparts creamy white.
;
Total length, 6-6.9 inches; tail vertebra, 2.5-3.1 inches;

hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Interior of northwest
Canada; from southeastern Saskatchewan north along the
Mackenzie River at least to Fort Norman; west to the
upper waters of the Yukon, and thence south to eastern
Alberta, Canadian and Hudsonian Zones."" (Osgood)
—
Washington White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus
oreas (Bangs).
Large in size; tail long; color dark and rich. Compared to
borealis darker and richer in color tail and hind foot longer
;
ears larger. Upperparts cinnamon to russet with heavy

sprinkling of dusky most noticeable in middle of dorsal
region; feet white but forearms and "ankles" dusky; under-
parts creamy white. Total length, 7.8-8.6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 4.2-4.8 inches; hind foot, .88-.96 inch. Found in
"Mountains and coast of western Washington, north to
southern British Columbia, south to Columbia River."
(Osgood)
351
Alaska White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus

hylcBus (Osgood).
Slightly darker than oreas, with smaller ears and shorter
tail. Upperparts russet, heavily mixed with dusky, with
dark dorsal saddle. Total length, 7.6-8.2 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 3.6-4.2 inches; hind foot, .88-.94 inch. Found on
"Islands and coast of southeast Alaska west and northwest
of the range of P. m. macrorhinus, including Prince of
Wales, Kupreanof, Mitkof, and Admiralty islands, and the
mainland coast from Lynn Canal to Frederick Sound."
(Osgood)
Queen —
Charlotte Island White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus
maniculatus keeni (Rhoads),
Resembling oreas but ears smaller and tail shorter. Upper-
parts russet, with dusky mixture darkest in middle of back.
Total length, 7.5-8.5 inches; tail vertebras, 3.8-4.5 inches;
hind foot, .88-92 inch. Found on " Moresby and Graham
islands, Queen Charlotte Group, British Columbia."
(Osgood)
Yukon White-footed Mouse. — Peromyscus maniculatus algidus
Osgood.
Resembling hylceus but paler and grayer; tail and ears
shorter than in oreas. Upperparts cinnamon, with dusky
mixture lighter on sides and heaviest on middle of back;
dusky orbital ring and whisker spot less conspicuous than
in hylceus. Total length, 7.1-8.2 inches; tail vertebrse, 3.3-
4 inches; hind foot, .88-.94 inch. Found in "Region of the
headwaters of the Yukon River from Lake Bennett to the
lower part of the Lewes River." (Osgood)
Skeena White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
macrorhinus (Rhoads).
Very large and dark-colored. Resembling oreas but much
larger and not as long tailed, relatively. Upperparts rich
warm brown, with russet tinge, darker on mid-back, which
is burnt umber orbital ring and whisker spot sooty under-
; ;
parts creamy white. Total length, 8--8.9 inches; tail verte-

bras, 4.2-4.9 inches; hind foot, .9-1.0 inch. Found on
"Mainland coast of northern British Columbia and south-
ern Alaska." (Osgood)
Sagebrush White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
artemisice (Rhoads).
Resembling borealis but rather paler in color. Upperparts,
pale cinnamon to brownish fawn, more dusky along mid-
back; very little white in subauricular tufts. Total length
6.2-7.6 inches; tail vertebras, 2.6-3.4 inches; hind foot,
.76-88 inch. Found in "South central British Columbia,
northeastern Washington, northern Idaho, western Mon-
tana, and western Wyoming. Transition and Canadian
Zones." (Osgood)
352
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
Satuma Island White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus manicula-

saturatiis (Bangs).
tiis
Upperparts cinnamon, liberally mixed with blackish to give
very dark tone; a cinnamon line along sides separating dark
upperparts from creamy white underparts and extending
down to heels. Total length, 7.2 inches; tail vertebrse, 3.1
inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found only on Saturna Island,
British Columbia.
Hollister White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
hollisteri Osgood,
Dark in color like sattiratus; lateral line not so sharply de-
fined; skull larger and heavier, molar teeth larger. Known
only from San Juan Island, San Juan County, Washing-
ton.
Puget Sound White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
aiisterus (Baird).
Sizemedium, color dark; resembling areas but smaller and
more sooty in color. Upperparts brownish fawn, well
mixed with sooty, especially along back; no white at an-
terior base of ear.Total length, 6.5-7.6 inches; tail verte-
bras,3.2-3.8 inches; hind foot, .76-84 inch. Found in
"Coast region of Puget Sound, Washington; north to
southern British Columbia and including Vancouver
Island." (Osgood)
Redwood White-footed Mouse.^—Peromyscus maniculatus
rubidus (Osgood).
Resembling oreas but with shorter tail and hind foot.
Upperparts cinnamon, plentifully intermixed with blackish
along sides, and more so along back to form a broad, dark
dorsal band; orbital ring and whisker spot conspicuously
black; tuft at anterior base of ear with no white hairs, or at
most very few; underparts creamy white. Total length,
7.6-8.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6-4 inches; hind foot, .84-
.88 inch. Found on "Coast of California and Oregon from
San Francisco Bay to the mouth of the Columbia River."
(Osgood)
Gambel White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
gamheli (Baird).
Resembling artemisice but smaller. Upperparts ochraceous
to ochraceous buff, liberally sprinkled with dusky; no well-
defined dusky face markings; underparts creamy white.
Occurs in a darker phase, Upperparts more dusky and
with more of a vinaceous tinge. Total length, 5.3-7.3
inches; tail vertebras, 2.6-3.4 inches; hind foot, .8-87 inch.
Found in "Central Washington east of the Cascades,
thence south through central and eastern Oregon to Cali-
fornia; throughout California except the 'redwood strip' of
the_ northwest coast and except the southeastern desert
region and the region east of the Sierra; south into north-
western Lower California. Upper Sonoran to Hudsonian
Zone." (Osgood)
353
.
Tawny White-footed Mouse; Arizona Wood Mouse. —

Peromyscus maniculatiis mfinus (Merriam)
Richly colored, with much tawny. Upperparts ochraceous
to tawny ochraceous, with heavy sprinkling of dusky; usu-
ally conspicuous tufts at anterior bases of ears white mixed
with buffy ochraceous, narrow orbital ring, and small
whisker spot dusky in color; "ankles" buffy ochraceous;
underparts creamy white. Total length, 5.8-6.8 inches;
tail vertebras, 2.2-3.1 inches; hind foot, .76-84 inch.
Found in "Southern Rocky Mountain region, including the
elevated part of New Mexico, scattered peaks and ranges
in Arizona, eastern Utah, and the greater part of western
and central Colorado. Transition to Boreal Zones."
(Osgood)
Osgood Wliite-footed Mouse; Black-eared Deer Mouse.—
Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodi Mearns.
Resembling horealis but paler and more ochraceous in color,
paler than rufinus. Upperparts from cream-buff to pale
ochraceous buff, with light sprinkling of dusky; dorsal
region not much darker than sides; conspicuous white
tufts at anterior bases of ears, clear buffy spots at posterior
bases; "ankles" buffy, sometimes touched with dusky; tail
sharply bicolored, blackish brown and clear white; under-
parts clear creamy white. Total length, 5.9-6.8 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.4-2.8 inches; hind foot, .8-84 inch. Found on
"Plains and foothills along the eastern base of the Rocky
Mountains from south central Saskatchewan to the Pan-
handle of Texas, occupying in general the eastern parts of
Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, and the western and
southwestern parts of Saskatchewan and the Dakotas.
Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones." (Osgood)
—
Nebraska Deer Mouse. Peromyscus maniculatus nehrascen-
sis(Coues). ^
^^
Resembling osgoodi but slightly smaller in size, ears notice-

ably smaller, color brighter. Upperparts ochraceous buff,
sometimes much brighter and near orange-buff, with light
sprinkling of dusky; no well-defined dorsal stripe; occasion-
ally a bright ochraceous buff lateral line present; rest of
pelage about as in osgoodi. Total length, 5.7-6.3 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2.2-2.6 inches; hind foot, .76-. 82 inch. Found
in "Sandhill region of western Nebraska and adjoining parts
of the States of Kansas, Colorado, South Dakota, and
Wyoming. Possibly extending north to western North
Dakota and south to western Oklahoma." (Miller)
—
Baird White-footed Mouse.' Peromyscus maniculatus hairdi
(Hoy and Kennicott). Plate XXIX.
Similar in size to nehrascensis but color darker. Upperparts
russet or warm brown, heavily sprinkled with black, usually
darker along mid-back; a narrow russet lateral line may or
may not be present tufts at bases of ears russet mixed with
;
dusky, only rarely with any white hairs blackish upperside

;
354
PLATE XXIX
'
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
of tail sharply marked off from white underside.

Total
length, 5.6-6.4 inches; tail vertebrte, 2.2-2.^ inches;
hind
foot,_.72-.76 mch. Found in "Prairie region of the upper
Mississippi Valley in southern Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illi-
nois, Indiana, eastern Ohio,Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma and
the eastern or humid parts of Kansas, Nebraska,
South
Dakota and North Dakota; north to southern Manitoba
Upper Austral and Transition Zones, meeting the range
of
P. m. nebrascensis along the border between the
humid and
the arid^subdivisions." (Osgood)
Pallid White-footed Mouse.—Per omyscus maniculatus
palles-
cens (Allen),
Smaller and paler than bairdi, which it otherwise resembles.
Upperparts pale russet with light sprinkling of dusky, darkest
on back; ochraceous buff spots at anterior bases of ears and
about base of tail in interfemoral region; "ankles" lightly
washed with brownish; tail dusky brownish on upperside
white below; underparts creamy white. Total length
4 8-
5.2 inches; tail vertebras, 2-2.1 inches; hind foot, .6-.68
inch Found m "Central Texas, from the vicinity of the
northern boundary at Gainesville south to the region imme-
diately west of Corpus Christi Bay. Lower Sonoran Zone '
(Osgood)
Chihuahua Plains Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus blandus
(Osgood).
Occurring in two color phases, buff or grav; size
rather
small but larger than pallescens. Upperparts (gray phase)
pale vmaceous buff lightly sprinkled with dusky to
produce
a general effect of grayish drab; white and vinaceous
buff
ear tufts conspicuous; buff phase, pinkish buff
above, with
dusky mixture to produce a pale cinnamon effect. Total
q'^^ inches; tail vertebra, 2.4-3 inches; hind foot,
00 ^-^T.^-^
^4-88 inch. Found m "Lower Sonoran Zone of western
lexas from the Pecos Valley westward; north along
the
Pecos Valley and other Lower Sonoran valleys of southern
New Mexico to about latitude 34° north; south in Mexi-
co. ... " (Osgood)
Sonoran White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus maniculatus
sonoriensis (Le Conte).
General appearance much like that of osgoodi but slightly
darker and with longer tail. Found as two color
phases
but not as dimorphic in color as blandus. Pale, and
prevail-
ing phase: upperparts ochraceous buff finely
mixed with
dusky which is rather uniform over back and sides;
broad
white edging on ears which are dusky; tufts at bases
of ears
with pure white hairs anteriorly, but mainly
ochraceous
buff; no well-defined dusky orbital ring
or whisker spot;
ankles white to buffy with light dusky wash;
underparts
white to creamy white. Dark phase: upperparts
with
heavier dusky mixture on ground color of ochraceous
to
tawny ochraceous; hairs darker at base; dusky face mark-
355
"•
ings better developed, white at base of ear reduced "ankles;
generally dusky. Total length, 6-7 inches; tail vertebrae,

2.4-3.3 inches; hind foot, .78-88 inch. Found in "Great
Basin region in general. Northern Sonora, southern and
western Arizona and Utah, exclusive of the higher moun-
tains, . .southern and eastern California east of the
.
Sierra Nevada and the San Bernardino and associated

ranges, practically all of Nevada, and parts of southeastern
Oregon and south-central Idaho." (Osgood)
San Clemente Island White-footed Mouse. —Peromysciis
maniculatiis dementis (Meams).
Resembling gambeli but slightly larger and darker; lateral
line ochraceous buff, better defined. Total length, 6.2-
6.9 inches; tail vertebras, 2.7-3.1 inches; hind foot, .8-.86
inch. Found only on the following islands of the Santa
Barbara group, ofT coast of southern California, San Cle- —
mente, San Nicolas, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel.
Catalina White-footed Mouse. —Peromysciis maniculatus cata-
lincB (Elliot).
"Similar to P. m. dementis, but larger; ears larger; tail
longer and coarser; skull larger and heavier. Color. —
AJDout as in P. in. dementis; slightly darker and more vin-
aceous than in P. m. gambeli." Total length, 6.4-S.6
inches; tail vertebrse, 3.5-4.2 inches; hind foot, .84-92
inch. Found on "Santa Catalina and Santa Cruz islands,
Santa Barbara group, off the coast of southern California."
(Osgood)
Sicka White-footed Mouse. —Peromysciis sitkensis sitkensis
Merriam.
Resembling in color and general appearance maniculatus
hylccus, but much larger, with largest skull of the group
found north of Mexico. "Worn pelage: Sides rich russet
or Mars brown, shading on dorsum to Prout brown and
sometimes burnt uTnber; dusky markings about face, fore-
arms, and "ankles" well developed; very little or no white
at anterior bases of ears." Total length, 9 inches; tail
vertebrse, 4.5 inches; hind foot, 1.06 inches. Found on
"Baranof and Chichagof islands, Alaska." (Osgood)
Prevost Island White-footed Mouse. —
Peromysciis sitkensis
prevostensis (Osgood).
"Similar to sitkensis, but with slightly shorter tail and
slight cranial characters. Somewhat similar to macrorhiniis,
but hind foot longer and tail shorter; skull decidedly larger
—
and heavier. Color. Similar to sitkensis and macrorhiniis,
but averaging slightly darker. Sides rich Mars brown shad-
ing into a broad irregular area of mummy-brown on dor-
sum." Total length, 8.2-9.2 inches; tail vertel)r«, 3.9-4.6
inches; hind foot, i.i inches. Found on "Prevost Island,
Queen Charlotte Group, British Columbia." (Osgood)
356
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
Polionotus Group
The members of this group are all small and found only in
Florida, Georgia, and Alabama.
Old-field Mouse.^ —Peromyscus polionotus polionotus (Wagner).
Smallest Peromyscus found in the Atlantic States; resem-
bling bairdi, but even smaller. Upperparts brownish
fawn, finely sprinkled with dusky, only slightly darker along
dorsal area and nearly uniform in intensity over entire
upperparts; brighter fawn about face and oribital region;
orbital ring and ears dusky; tufts at bases of ears whitish
mixed with fawn; underparts creamy white, the hairs slate-
colored at base except on chin and throat, where they are
white from tip to base; tail dusky brown above, white
below, sharply differentiated. Total length, 5-5.5 inches;
tail vertebrae, i. 6-2.1 inches; hind foot, .62-.71 inch. Found
in "Open fields of the interior of northern Florida and
southern Georgia." (Osgood)
Beach Mouse. —Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris (Chapman).
Slightly larger than typical polionotus and color paler.
Upperparts pale ochraceous buff, finely sprinkled with
brownish dusky; paler over shoulders and nape, brighter on
head and back; underparts everywhere clear creamy white
from tips to roots of hair, except along lateral line where the
hairs are slate-colored at base; tail pale brownish buff above,
buffy white below and without sharp line of demarcation
between upper and lower sides. Total length, 5.1-6. i
inches; tail vertebrcE, 2-2.4 inches; hind foot, .68-.76 inch.
Found along "Sandy beach region of the eastern coast of
Florida." (Osgood)
Anastasia Island White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus polio-
notus phasma (Bangs).
Like niveiventris, but paler and with more white markings.
Upperparts pinkish buff tinged with gray along mid-dorsal
region; conspicuous white areas or spots on nose, above
eye, and at base of ear; feet and legs white; tail unicolor,
white, with faint traces of a dusky median band along upper-
side; underparts clear white to roots of hair. An extremely
pale form throughout. Total length, 5.5 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .75 inch. Found only on
Anastasia Island, Florida.
Rhoads White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus polionotus rhoadsi
(Bangs).
Smaller and darker than niveiventris. Upperparts ochrace-
ous buff, shading toward dark ochraceous buff, lightly
mixed with dusky; tail unicolor, white, for terminal half,
brownish buffy above, white below for basal half; under-
parts creamy white, slate color at base of pelage showing
only as a trace; thighs yellowish on inner side. Total
length, 5 inches; tail vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .66
357
inch. Found in "West central Florida, in the vicinity of

Tampa Bay." (Osgood)
White-fronted Beach Mouse. Peromyscus polio7iotus alhi- —
frons Osgood.
Like rhoadsi, but with more extensive white markings.
Upperparts ochraceous buff to grayish fawn; a white area
on end of nose and along median line to between eyes white ;
edging of ear broad and a few w^hite hairs at base of ear;

tail white above and below except for pale brownish upper-
side for basal third or fourth of its length underparts white ;
to roots or with only traces of slate-colored bases, white of

underparts extending up over throat to eyes; thighs, legs,
and feet white. Total length, 4.8-5.5 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.8-2. 1 inches; hind foot, .68-76 inch. Found along
Coast of western Florida and Alabama.
' '
(Osgood)
'
White-headed Beach Mouse. Peromyscus leucocephalus — '
Howell.
Resembling phasma "but color tone of upperparts drab in-
stead of buff; colored dorsal area narrower, the whole of the
sides white; entire head and face, except crown, white;
paler, more extensively white, and slightly larger than . . .
albifrons underparts, and limbs white (the hairs white

. . .
to base) ears whitish at base, becoming mouse gray at

;
tips; tail unicolor, white, with a faint tinge of drab."

(Howell) Total length, 5.5 inches; tail vertebrce, 2 inches;
hind foot, .74 inch. Found only on Santa Rosa Island,
Santa Rosa County, Florida.
Leucopus Group
White-footed Mouse. —
Peromysctis leucopus leucopus (Rafi-
nesque).
Tail less than half total length hind foot hairy for proximal;
two-fifths. Upperparts Mars brown sprinkled with dusky,

dorsal region only slightly darker than rest of upperparts;
ears dusky and without white tufts at bases; no well-de-
fined orbital ring; feet white; dusky on upperside of fore-
arm, brownish on "ankles"; underparts white, with slate-
colored base of pelage showing through somewhat; tail
above, dusky brownish, below, white. Total length, 6.2-7.1
inches; tail vertebras, 2.9-3.2 inches; hind foot, .S-.Szj. inch.
Found in Western Kentucky south to southern Louisiana,
'
'
west to Indian Territory, and east around the southern end

of the Allegheny Mountains to eastern Virginia. Lower
Austral Zone." (Osgood)
Northern White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus leucopus nove- —
horacensis (Fischer),
Paler and somewhat larger than typical leucopus, with
longer and softer pelage and more hairy tail. Upperparts
fawn to cinnamon-rufous or bright tawny with light sprink-
ling of dusky, heaviest on dorsal region, less on sides; under-
358
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
Fig. 74. Distribution of the subspecies of Peromyscus leuco-

pus, north of Mexico, after Osgood.
1. Peromyscus leucopus leucopus
2. Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis
3. Peromyscus leucopus aridulus
4. Peromyscus leucopus texanus
5. Peromyscus leucopus tornillo
6. Peromyscus leucopus arizonce
7. Peromyscus leucopus ochraceus
Crosses indicate areas of intergradation.
359
— —
parts creamy white. Total length, 6.2-7.5 inches; tail

vertebrae, 2.9-3.3 inches; hind foot, .8-. 88 inch. Found in
"Upper Austral and Transition Zones of the eastern United
States and Canada. Extending from Nova Scotia to cen-
tral Minnesota, thence south through the humid parts of
eastern Nebraska and Kansas and eastward to the Atlantic
coast, following quite closely the boundary between the
Lower and Upper Austral Zones on the south and that be-
tween the Transition and Canadian on the north." (Os-
good)
—
Monomoy Island White-footed Mouse. Peromyscns leucopus
ammodytes Bangs.
Resembling novehoracensis but paler above and with hair
,
of underparts white to roots. Upperparts fawn, paler on

sides; tail pale brownish above, white below; underparts
clear white with creamy tinge, hairs white to base over
median area and sometimes almost up to lower sides.
Total length, 6.5-7.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.8—3.5 inches;
hind foot, .8-. 84 inch. Found only on Monomoy Island,
off the coast of Massachusetts, southeast of the Cape Cod
Peninsula.
Marthas Vineyard Island White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus
leucopus fusus Bangs.
Larger than novehoracensis, but otherwise resembling it.
hind foot, .86-.94 inch. Found only on the Island of
Marthas Vineyard, off the south coast of Massachusetts.
—
Badlands White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus leucopus aridu-
lus Osgood.
Larger and paler than novehoracensis. Upperparts ochrace-
ous buff, lightly sprinkled with dusky dorsal area very little
;
darker than sides; underparts creamy white. Total length,

6.4-8.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5-3.7 inches; hind foot, .84-
.92 inch. Found in of eastern Mon-
"Upper Sonoran Zone
tana and Wyoming and the adjoining western parts of
South Dakota and Nebraska; probably south to Oklahoma
and west to eastern Colorado." (Osgood)
Buffy White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus leucopus ochraceus
Osgood.
Upperparts bright ochraceous buff, lightly mixed with
dusky, slightly darker on dorsal region than on sides, but
without a defined dorsal band; tail dusky brownish above,
white tinged with buffy below; ochraceous buff or buffy
tinge on the white of underparts, feet, and hands. Total
length, 6.9-7.2 inches; tail vertebras, 3.3 inches; hind foot,
.9 inch. Found in eastern and central Arizona.
Tomillo Mouse. Peromyscus leucopus tornillo (Meams).
Resembling ochraceus and aridulus, but paler, fawn-colored
instead of ochraceous. Upperparts fawn, finely lined with
dusky; tail indistinctly bicolor, pale brownish and white;
underparts clear creamy white. Total length, 6.8-8.1
360
—
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
inches; tail vertebrae, 3-3.9 inches; hind foot, .84-.96 inch.

Found in "Upper Sonoran Zone and part of the Lower
Sonoran of western Texas and eastern New Mexico; north
to southeastern Colorado and south to northern Durango;
northeast to western Oklahoma." (Osgood)
Arizona White-footed Mouse Apache Wood Mouse.^ Pero-
;
—
myscus leucopus arizonce (Allen).
Slightly darker than tornillo, but otherwise resembling it.
Upperparts varying from fawn to dark fawn, sprinkled with
dusky; tail indistinctly bicolored, pale brownish above,
white below. Total length, 7,1-8.1 inches; tail vertebrae,
3.1-3.8 inches; hind foot, .88-96 inch. Found in "South-
eastern Arizona and adjacent parts of Mexico and New
Mexico." (Osgood)
Texas White-footed Mouse; Texas Gray Wood Mouse.
Peromyscus leucopus texanus (Woodhouse).
Slightly smaller and darker than tornillo, with shorter pelage
and more sparsely-haired tail. Upperparts varying from
pale to dark fawn, sprinkled with dusky. Total length,
6.8-7.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.8-3.8 inches; hind foot, .8-
.9 inch. Found in "Southern Texas . . . extending west
to the vicinity of the mouth of the Pecos River, north to
about latitude 33° north, east to west side of Galveston
Bay. . . . Lower Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
Gossypinus Group
—
Cotton Mouse. Peromyscus gossypinus gossypinus (Le
Conte).
Tail less than half total length, rather indistinctly bicolored,
covered with short hairs, generally with well-defined, dark
dorsal band; larger and darker than leucopus. Upperparts
from bright cinnamon-rufous to deep russet, heavily sprink-
led with blackish which forms coarse lines, darkest on back
from shoulders to base of tail; grayer on top of head and
shoulders; ears brownish and either lacking the whitish
edging or else with white greatly reduced; feet white; fore-
arm dusky; tail blackish brown on upperside, white below;
underparts white generally strongly tinged with cream
color on pectoral region. Total length, 6.4-7.6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.8-3.5 inches; hind foot, .88-96 inch. Found in
"Lowlands of the southeastern United States from the
Dismal Swamp, Virginia, to northern Florida and west to
Louisiana. Lower Austral Zone." (Osgood)
—
Rhoads Cotton Mouse. Peromyscus gossypinus megacephalus
(Rhoads).
Larger and paler than typical gossypinus. Upperparts
brownish to light russet, with less black on dorsal area.
hind foot, .92-1.04 inches. Found in " Northern Alabama
and western Tennessee, west through Arkansas to eastern
361
—
;
Oklahoma, and thence south through eastern Texas and

western Louisiana." (Osgood)
Florida —
Cotton Mouse. Peromysciis gossypinus palmarius
Bangs.
Smaller and paler than typical gossypinus. "Color.
Unworn pelage: Similar to that of gossypinus, but paler;
ground color a shade lighter and dusky mixture more sparse,
as a rule not so heavily concentrated in the middle of the
X 2 c o
^ ir L r OT >£ zr
Fig. 75. Distribution of the subspecies of Peromyscus gossy-

pinus, after Osgood
1. Peromyscus gossypinus megacephalus
2. Peromyscus gossypinus gossypinus
3. Peromyscus gossypinus palmarius
4. Peromyscus gossypinus anastasce
Crosses indicate areas of intergradation.
back orbital ring very narrow underparts grayish white to

; ;
creamy or even yellowish white, rarely with a small fulvous

pectoral spot." Total length, 6.9-7.3 inches; tail vertebras,
2.8-3. 1 inches; hind foot, .8-88 inch. Found in "Peninsular
Florida." (Osgood)
Anastasia Island Cotton Mouse Sea Island Cotton Mouse.
;
Peromyscus gossypi?ius anastascc (Bangs).

Resembling palmarius in size; paler in color than either
palmarius or typical gossypinus. *'Upperparts pale och-
raceous buff rather lightly mixed with dusky, which is
slightly or not at all concentrated in the mid-dorsal region
orbital ring nearly or quite obsolete; underparts white almost
362
— "
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
entirely concealing undercolor; ears dusky; tail bicolor,

brownish dusky above, white below-." (Osgood) Total
inch. Found only on Anastasia Island, Florida, and Cum-
berland Island, Georgia.
Boylii Group
Boyle Deer Mouse; Boyle White-footed Mouse; California
Brush Mouse. Peromyscus boylii boylii (Baird).
Tail as long or longer than length of head and body; ears
of medium size; underside of hind foot hairy for proximal
Fig. 76. Distribution of the subspecies of Peromyscus boylii,

north of Mexico, after Osgood
I. Peromyscus boylii boylii
2 and 4 Peromyscus boylii rowleyi
3. Peromyscus boylii attwateri
two-fifths of its length. Upperparts brownish to sepia

russet or pale cinnamon, uniformly sprinkled with dusky,
no definite dark doisal band; pale ochraceous buff on lower
side of face, arms, and a narrow line along sides; a narrow
black ring about eye; no white hairs in tufts at base of ears,
which are dusky, with narrow white edging; feet white,
"ankles" duslcy; tail brownish above, w^hite below, with
small "pencil" of long hairs; underparts creamy white.
Total length, 7.3-8.1 inches; tail vertebrse, 3.7-4.5 inches;
hind foot, .84-92 inch; ear from notch (in dry skin) .61-70
inch. Found on "West slopes of the Sierra Nevada moun-
tains from the vicinity of Yosemite north to Mount Shasta,
thence along the east slopes of the coast ranges nearly to
San Francisco Bay. Upper vSonoran and Transition Zones.
(Osgood)
363
Rowley White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus hoylii rowleyi

(Allen).
Closely resembling typical boylii in everything except color,
paler. Upperparts "ochraceous buff uniformly sprinkled
with dusky; sides like back, except a relatively broad lateral
line of ochraceous buff unmixed with dusky nose and postor-
;
bital region grayish; narrow orbital ring blackish; ears

dusky, faintly edged with whitish; underparts creamy white;
tail dusky brownish above, white below; feet white, dusky
of hind legs extending to tarsal joints, but not sharply con-
trasted." Total length, 7.2-8.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6-
4.4 inches; hind foot, .84-92 inch. Found in "Mountains
of southern California, northern Lower California, southern
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, western
Texas, and south in Mexico. ..." (Osgood)
Attwater White-footed Mouse; Attwater Brush Mouse. —
Peromyscus hoylii attwateri (Allen).
Larger than rowleyi, colored about as in typical hoylii.
Upperparts pale cinnamon sprinkled finely with dusky;
slightly grayish about head; ochraceous buff on lower sides
of face, narrow lateral line and occasionally a small spot on
pectoral area; dusky on hind leg down as far as upperside
of hind foot; underparts creamy white. Total length, 7.5-
8.7 inches; tail vertebras, 3.8-4.5 inches; hind foot, .92-1.0
inch. Found in " South central and parts of western Texas;
north to eastern Oklahoma, central Missouri, and southern
.Kansas. Chiefly confined to rocky cliffs in upper Sonoran
Zone." (Osgood)
Pectoralis Group
Lacey White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus pectoralis laceianus
Bailey.
Tail long, generally slightly more than half the total length;
resembling attwateri somewhat, but lacking the dusky
markings on the tarsal joint. Upperparts varying from
pinkish buff to ochraceous buff mixed with more or less
dusky; dorsal area about as dark as rest of upperparts;
no white at base of ears; feet white without dusky tinge on
tarsal joint; tail pale brown above, white below; under-
parts creamy white. Total length, 7- 2-7- 7 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.8-4.0 inches; hind foot, .88-92 inch. Found in
"West central Texas, from the vicinity of Austin to the
Big Bend of the Rio Grande. ..." (Osgood)
—
Durango White-footed Mouse.' Peromyscus pectoralis eremi-
coides (Osgood).
Resembling /aceiawM5 in color ;" ears quite small .soles ; . .
of hind feet usually slightly hairy proximally but sometimes

naked, at least medially. Upperparts mixed pinkish buff
and dusky, . . lateral line pinkish buff; facial region
. ;
between eye and ear grayish underparts pure creamy white

;
364
Plate XXX
Parasitic Mouse
BiO'fuotedl*lv2?.rfcv,' ? louse
,
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
without trace of pectoral spot; feet white, no dusky mark-

ing on tarsal joint; tail pale grayish dusky above, white
below." (Osgood) Total length, 7.6 inches; tail verte-
bras, 4.2 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found from north
central Mexico northward into southern Arizona.
Truei Group
True White-footed Mouse. —Peromysctis truei truei (Shu-

feldt).
Ears very large, about as long as hind foot pelage long and
;
soft; tail about half of total length; hind foot generally
Fig. 77. Distribution of the subspecies of Peromyscus truei

north of Mexico, after Osgood
1. Peromyscus truei truei
2. Peromyscus truei gilberti
3. Peromyscus truei martirensis
densely haired for about two-fifths of its length (proximal).

Upperparts varying from ochraceous buff to pale ochraceous
buff, or pinkish buff mixed with varying amounts of dusky;
grayish on face and nose; dusky on narrow orbital ring and
small spot at base of whiskers; ears thickly haired, dusky
brownish within, grayish white without; no contrasting
color in tufts at bases of ears; feet white, slight dusky tinge
365
on tarsal joint; tail indistinctly bicolor, brownish dusky

above, white below; a clear ochraceous lateral line between
upper and lower parts, less distinct in worn pelages; under-
parts creamy white. Total length, 7.2-8.4 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 3.5-4.5 inches; hind foot, .86-96 inch; ear from
notch (in dry skin), .86-98 inch. Found in "Southwest-
ern United States and northern Mexico from southern Cali-
fornia (east of the Sierra and San Bernardino ranges), across
southern Nevada, southern Utah, Arizona, to west central
New Mexico, and thence south. ..." (Osgood)
Gilbert White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus — truei gilherti
(Allen).
Resembling typical truei, but darker in color, pelage not
quite as silky, ears smaller. Upperparts from deep och-
raceous to tawny, mixed with dusky (more so than in typi-
cal truei), ochraceous lateral line well defined; blackish
orbital ring sharply defined; pectoral spot may or may not
be present. Total length, 7.5-8.2 inches; tail vertebrae,
3.5-4.2 inches; hind foot, .88-.96 inch; ear from notch (in
dry skin), .72-.84 inch. Found in "Mountains and foot-
hills of the interior of California and the coast south of
San Francisco Bay; north to central Oregon. Chiefly
Upper Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
Martir White-footed Mouse. Peromyscus — truei martirensis
(Allen).
Practically indistinguishable in color from typical truei,
but tail rather longer. Total length, 8.2-8.9 inches; tail
vertebrce, 4.5-4.9 inches; hind foot, .96 inch; ear from notch
(in dry skin), .84-.92 inch. Found in "northern Lower
California, and northward to the San Jacinto and San
Bernardino mountains of southwestern California." (Os-
good)
Long-nosed White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus nasutus
(Allen).
_
Ear not quite as large as in typical truei, but nearly so tail ;
finely annulated. Upperparts varying in general tone from

grayish wood-brown to pale grayish fawn, but never show-
ing a decided ochraceous tinge; rest of pelage much as in
rowleyi. Total length, 7.2-8.4 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.6-
4.4 inches; hind foot, .88-.96 inch; ear from notch (in dry
skin), .74-.84 inch. Found in "Mountains of Colorado,
New Mexico, eastern Arizona, and western Texas, chiefly
east of the Continental Divide." (Osgood)
Subgenus Ochrotomys
Nuttalli Group
Plantar tubercles six, with a seventh rudimentary tubercle;

abdomen suffused with color of upperparts; immature pelage
366
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
about the same as adult; pelage very soft and dense; hair on
ears same color as that of upperparts.
Northern Golden Monse.—Peromyscus nuttalli nuttalli

(Harlan).
Hind foot hairy for half its extent, abdomen ochraceous.
Upperparts rich tawny ochraceous, only slightly sprinkled
with dusky along dorsal area, less dusky on sides; head and
GM L F OT MIS X I C O
Fig. 78. Distribution of the subspecies of Peromyscus nut-
talli, after Osgood
1. Peromyscus nuttalli nuttalli
2. Peromyscus nuttalli aureolus (this
range has been in-
correctly copied and should almost touch Number i in
the northeastern corner of North Carolina).
ears like sides; no orbital ring or whisker spot; feet creamy

white; tail pale brownish above, creamy white below; under-
parts creamy white with ochraceous suffusion on abdomen.
Total length, 6.8-7.6 inches; tail vertebra;, 3.2-3.7 inches;
hmd foot, .76-80 inch; ear from notch (in dry skin), .58-65
inch. Found in "Southeastern Virginia and northern
North Carolina; west to central Kentucky." (Osgood)
Southern Golden 'M.ouse.—Per 077iyscus nuttalli aureolus
Resembling typical nuttalli, but smaller. Color as in
nuttalh, occasionally very slightly paler. Total length,
367
6.6-7.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.2-3.6 inches; hind foot, .68—

.80 inch; ear from notch (in dry skin), .54-.68 inch. Found
in "Southeastern United States from North Carolina to
northern Florida; west to eastern Texas and Oklahoma.
Lower Austral Zone." (Osgood)
Subgenus Podomys
Floridanus Group
Plantar tubercles five.
Florida White-footed Mouse. —Peromyscus floridanus (Chap-

man).
Large in size; tail less than half total length, ears large,
sparsely haired; sole of hind foot hairy for fifth of length.
Upperparts pale ochraceous buff with varying amounts of
dusky mixture; more ochraceous along lower sides; tufts
at bases of ears pale ochraceous buff mixed with dusky;
pelage of ears dusky outside, whitish inside; feet white,
forelegs white; upperside of hind feet slightly dusky; tail
brownish dusky above, creamy white below; underparts
creamy white, frequently with ochraceous buff spot on pec-
toral region. Total length, 7.6-8.8 inches; tail vertebra,
3.2-3.8 inches; hind foot, 1.2-1.3 inches; ear from notch,
.88-1.0 inch. Found in "The central part of peninsular
Florida from coast to coast." (Osgood)
Subgenus Haplomylomys
Tail always more than half of total length plantar tubercles
;
six;molar teeth simple in character, without accessory cusps

or with them in a very reduced condition.
Crinitus Group
—
Canyon Mouse. Peromyscus crinitus crinitus (Merriam).
Pelage long and lax; tail longer than length of head and
body, closely covered with long, soft hairs, with a distinct
tuft of longer hairs at tip; ears large; sole of hind foot hairy
for one-quarter of its extent (proximal). Upperparts a
mixture of dusky and pale ochraceous buff grayish on fore-
;
head, nose, and upper face; hands and feet white; tail
blackish above, white below, distinctly bicolored; under-
parts white, often with pectoral spot of weak buff. Total
length, 6.9-7.4 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.7-3.9 inches; hind
foot, .84 inch; ear from notch (in dry specimens), .62-. 70
inch. Found in "Rocky cliffs and canyons of southern
Idaho, eastern Oregon, eastern California, northern Nevada,
and northwestern Utah. Upper Sonoran Zone." (Osgood)
368
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
Buff-breasted Canyon Mouse. —Peromyscus crinitus auripec-

tus (Allen).
Resembling typical crinitus, but lighter colored and with
more buff; tail heavily haired. Upperparts rich ochraceous
buff with faint sprinkling of dusky on dorsal area, 1 ss dusky
on sides; ochraceous buff on head, face, and often on pec-
toral area; hands and feet white; tail dusky brownish above,
white below; ear tufts buffy with occasional mixture of
white; underparts creamy white. Total length, 7-7.3
inches; tail vertebree, 3.6-3.9 inches; hind foot, .80-84
inch; ear from notch (in dry specimen), .66-. 72 inch.
"Known from a limited number of localities in northeastern
Arizona, southeastern Utah, and adjacent parts of Colorado
and New Mexico." (Osgood)
Stephens Canyon Mouse; Palm Desert Mouse. —Peromyscus
crinitus Stephen si (Alearns).
Smaller and paler than auripectus. Upperparts pale ochra-
ceous buff uniformly mixed with dusky brownish; a nar-
row buff lateral line; underparts white to creamy white,
buff pectoral spot may or may not be present. Total
length, 6.5-7.7 inches; tail vertebrse, 3.5-4.3 inches; hind
foot, .76-.80 inch; ear from notch (in dry specimens), .62-
.66 inch. Found in "Rocky situations in the Lower Sonoran
Zone from northeastern Lower California northward to the
desert valleys and ranges of the Death Valley region and
eastward across southern Nevada to southwestern Utah and
northwestern Arizona." (Osgood)
Califomicus Group
Parasitic Mouse. —Peromyscus califomicus califomicus

(Gambel). Plate XXX.
Largest Peromyscus found in the United States, total length
reaching 10 inches or more. Pelage long and soft; tail more
than half total length, well haired but not enough to com-
pletely conceal annulations; ears very large and mem-
branous, thinly haired; soles of hind feet naked or very
nearly so. Upperparts russet to cinnamon mixed with
considerable blackish or dark brownish, slightly darker on
dorsal area; sides brighter than back; head brownish,
cheeks bordered by light russet line below; orbital ring
dusky; hands and feet white, the latter with short, dusky
stripe reaching down from hind leg; tail bicolored but no
sharp contrast between black of upperside and white of
lower, base of tail russet below; underparts creamy white.
hind foot, i. 04-1. 16 inches; ear from notch (in dry speci-
mens), .85-.94 inch. Found in "Upper Sonoran and Tran-
sition Zones of the coast region of California from San
Francisco Bay south to the vicinity of Santa Barbara,
where intergradation with subspecies insignis occurs."
369
.
(Osgood) This mouse is so named because it is sometimes

found living in or about the brush "nests" of Neotoma
fuscipes, a Wood Rat.
Southern Parasitic Mouse. —Peromyscus californicus insignis
(Rhoads).
Resembling typical californicus, but smaller and paler.
Upperparts with less rufous, with less black-tipped hairs
over mid-dorsal area; pectoral spot frequently absent or
usually reduced; rufous at base of tail, underside, much re-
duced. Total length, 8.8-9.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 5-5.6
inches; hind foot, i.o inch; ear from notch (in dry speci-
mens), .8-.83 inch. Found in "Upper and Lower Sonoran
Zones of the western valleys and foothills of southwestern
Cahfomia and thence south into northern Lower Califor-
nia.'' (Osgood)
Eremicus Group
Desert Mouse; Western Desert Mouse. —
Peromyscus eremi-
cus eremiciis (Baird).
Size medium, tail much more than half of total length, finely
annulated and closely covered with short hairs, terminal
tuft scarcely noticeable or completely absent; ears practi-
cally naked, good sized, membranous; sole of hind foot
naked or nearly so; pelage silky to the touch. Upperparts
ochraceous buff with varying (with wear) mixture of dusky,
finely sprinkled, over entire dorsal area, no region more
noticeably darkened than another; a broad ochraceous buff
lateral line; tail above, dusky, below, whitish, not markedly
bicolored; underparts clear white or white washed with
buffy; buffy pectoral spot occasionally present. Total
length, 6.9-8.1 inches; tail vertebras, 3.8-4.3 inches; hind
foot, .80-84 inch; ear from notch (in dry specimens), .69-
.71 inch. Found in "Lower Sonoran Zone of south-
eastern California . . eastward to western Texas, and
. ;
south to border States of eastern Mexico; northward along

the Colorado River, at least to the vicinity of the mouth
of the Little Colorado, also extending from the Colorado
River along the Virgin Valley to St. George, Utah, and
northwestward, crossing southern Nevada, to the Death
Valley region of California." (Osgood)
San Diego Desert Mouse; Dulzura White-footed Mouse.^ —
Peromyscus eremicus fraterculus (Miller).
Larger than typical eremicus, with longer tail, less white on
underparts, and more reddish brown or blackish on upper-
parts. Upperparts, in winter, "cinnamon-rufous richly
sprinkled with black, which is somewhat concentrated in
middle of back; head with more or less grayish, particularly
in postorbital region; underparts creamy white with a
small rufous pectoral spot." Or in worn winter pelage,
"Ground color cinnamon-rufous, as in winter pelage; tips
of hairs not black, but brown or brownish dusky, producing
370
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
a more rufescent general effect than in the winter pelage."

foot, .8 inch. Found in "Extreme southwestern Califor-
nia, west of the mountains from the vicinity of Los Angeles
south to northwestern Lower California. " (Osgood)
Anthony Desert Mouse; Apache Desert Mouse. —Peromyscus
eremicus anthonyi (Merriam).
Intermediate in color between typical eremicus and frater-
culus; ears smaller; pectoral spot generally present. Upper-
parts rich ochraceous buff with heavy sprinkling of black,
uniformly distributed, "head grayish drab, suffused with
buff, particularly on cheeks; underparts creamy white,
except a prominent ochraceous buff pectoral spot, extending
from breast between forelegs almost to middle of belly; tail
blackish above and paler below, but not sharply bicolor;
feet creamy white, "ankles" dusky." Total length, 7.5-8.1
inches; tail vertebrae, 4.1-4.5 inches; hind foot, .84-88 inch.
Found in "Extreme southeastern Arizona and southwestern
*******
New Mexico in the vicinity of the Mexican boundary line
and south. ..." (Osgood)
White-footed Mice share with Meadow Mice the distinction

of being the commonest and most widely distributed of the
North American small rodents. No matter where one goes,
from the Arctic Circle southward, one or more of the various
forms of this genus will be found if there is any food supply for
rodents to be had. This group is easily modified by evolu-
tionary factors, and we find that there are a great many differ-
ent species and subspecies of White-footed Mice. These
many forms are classified in a few large groups, some of which
are elevated to the rank of subgenera, and as a rule specimens
may be referred to one of these groups without much difficulty.
The final sifting down to an exact identification is quite
another proposition and, as has been stated before, can best
be accomplished on the basis of the geographical ranges given.
Many of the species of White-footed Mice delight in the
cover of fallen logs, piles of rock, and other shelter such as is
common in forests and brush land. The open country species
live in burrows in the earth or sand and make their presence
manifest by the tracks and trails they create in their nightly
wanderings. Other species build nests in low brushes, or in
many made by birds. All of the different
cases, use old nests
forms are none known to be arboreal, all are strictly
terrestrial,
nocturnal, and all are active throughout the year.
There is little about the White-footed Mouse suggestive of
371
the House Mouse. The former is much more attractive and

is quickly recognized by the white underparts, white feet,
well-haired tail, and general color pattern of contrasted upper
and lower parts. These distinctions are not quite as obvious
for some of the desert species of Peromyscus, such as eremicus,
but a little experience soon familiarizes one with the general
appearance of this genus and it will not be confused with the
introduced Mus musculus.
White-footed Mice range from sea-level, or below it (Death
Valley), to the limits of plant growth on the crests of the
mountain ranges, and from regions of heavy annual precipi-
tation to the most arid deserts. Allowing for the changes
in color pattern we have learned to expect, the Mouse shows
some other differences that may obscure its identity.The
forms from the regions of heavy rainfall are dark, nearly
black; those from the rainless deserts are very pale; some of
the most specialized have developed large size {californicus) or
large ears (truei), but they are all members of the same large
group of closely related species. The food of all species is
almost strictly vegetarian, and while White-footed Mice eat
grain and the seeds of timothy and pasture grasses, they sel-
dom make serious inroads on crops and are not the economic
problem that the Meadow Mice are. Most species of White-
footed Mice prefer more cover than they find in a cultivated
field and therefore confine their depredations to the margins
of the field that meet with undisturbed terrain.
White-footed Mice have interesting habits and make attrac-
tive pets; they are gentle and tame quickly. Besides the
"squeak" characteristic of most Mice, some of the species of
Peromyscus have been heard to sing in a fine, high-pitched
trill, not unlike a canary.
The number of young in a litter varies from three to seven

but is usually four or five. These Mice may have as many as
four litters a year, hence young may be seen at almost any
time. Seton has noted the appearance of the first brood as
April 1st in Manitoba; in warmer regions it would be earlier.
Genus Oryzomys'
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, g; Premolars, §; Molars, f = i6.
See E. A. Goldman, North American Fauna, No. 43, 1918, for an
^
extensive review of the North American forms of this large genus.

RICE RAT
Rice Rat. — Oryzomys palustris

and its subspecies
Names. — Rice Rat; Rice Meadow Mouse. Plate XXX.

General Description. —A Rat somewhat smaller than the
House Rat, with rather coarse, long fur; long, sparsely-haired
tail hind foot with sole naked to heel small and inconspicuous
; ;
ears which are well haired; vibrissse or "whiskers" short;

color grizzled grayish brown or buffy above, white to cream
color below. Frequents meadows and grassy lands; mainly
nocturnal.
Upperparts brown or buff, grizzled with gray, the color
richest on rump, darker on top of head, face, and along mid-line
of back; feet whitish; tail brownish above, whitish below;
underparts white, sometimes with a light buffy wash.
—
Young. Duller colored than adults, brownish or grayish
above, whitish below.
—
Measurements. Total length, 9.5-10 inches; tail vertebrae,
4.5-5 inches; hind foot, 1.2- 1.3 inches.

Geographical Distribution.^ — Eastern North America from
New Jersey to Florida and the Gulf States.
Food.- —-A variety of grasses, sedges, and foliage of shrubs;
rice, and seeds of native plants; some animal food such as
small crustaceans, mollusks, and meat.
—
Enemies. Small carnivorous mammals such as Weasels,
Skunks, Minks, et cetera. Hawks, Owls, and Snakes.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Oryzomys
This a very large genus, of which more than one hundred

is
and and subspecies have been described (especially

fifty species
troublesome to identify when the specimens come from the
mid-range of the genus, tropical America), but only a few
forms reach North America.
Subgenus Oryzomys
Swamp Rice Rat. —Oryzomys palustris palustris (Harlan).
As just described. Found in "Atlantic coastal areas from
southern New
Jersey (not yet known from Delaware or
Maryland, but doubtless occurs there) south to northeastern
Florida, thence westward through southern Georgia to the
Gulf coast of Alabama and Mississippi, and north through
373
Alabama and western Tennessee to southwestern Kentucky,

southern and parts of southeastern Missouri.
Illinois,
Altitudinal range from sea level up along streams to about
500 feet (rarely to 1,000 feet), mainly in Lower Austral
ê>fr' . ??)
Fig. 79. Distribution of the subspecies of Oryzomys palustns,

after Goldman
1. Oryzomys pahistris palustris
2. Oryzomys palustris natator
3. Oryzomys palustris coloratus
4. Oryzomys palustris texensis
Zone, but reaching into Upper Austral Zone in southern

New Jersey, southeastern Kentucky, and southeastern
Missouri (Marble Hill)." (Goldman)
Ceotral Florida Rice Rat. Oryzomys — palustns ?iatator
Chapman.
Resembling typical palustris but larger and more tawny in
color. Total length, 11-12 inches; tail vertebree, 5.3-6.1
inches; hind foot, 1.3-1.5 inches. Found in "Central
Florida, north of Everglades; Austroriparian division of
Lower Austral Zone. '
(Goldman)
— '
Everglades Rice Rat.^ -Oryzomys palustris coloratus Bangs.

Like natator but still more tawny in color of upperparts;
size of natator. Found in "Tropical southern Florida, north
to Lake Okechobee." (Goklman)
—
Texas Rice Rat. Oryzomys palustris texensis Allen.
Similar to typical palustris but paler in color, with less warm
374
RICE RAT
coloring above. Color of upperparts grayish brown with-

out the wash of tawny or buffy. Total length, 9-1 1 inches;
tail vertbrce, 4.3-5.3 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found
"From Corpus Christi Bay north and east along the Gulf
coast of Texas and Louisiana to the delta of the Mississippi,
thence north in the Mississippi Valley to southeastern Mis-
souri general range reaching southeastern Kansas, probably
;
by way of the Arkansas River valley through Oklahoma

(not yet known from Oklahoma) altitudinal range in
;
Austroriparian Zone, mainly below 500 feet; but extending

up to about 1,000 feet in Kansas." (Goldman)
—
Rio Grande Rice Rat. Oryzomys couesi aquaticus (Allen).
Large in size; total length, 11. 3-12. 4 inches; tail vertebrae,
5.5-7.2 inches; hind foot, 1.3-1.5 inches. Color above,
ochraceous buff, paler along sides, below, buffy. Pelage
shorter than in the forms of palustris. Found in "Rio
Grande Valley, from Camargo, Tamaulipas, to Gulf coast
*******
near Brownsville, Texas; altitudinal range from sea level
to about 300 feet in Lower Sonoran Zone."
The Rice Rats

(Goldman)
are a large group of southern distribution.

North of the Rio Grande they occur in only a narrow strip
along the southern border and north along the Atlantic coast
to New Jersey. While they may be locally common within
this range, the Rice Rats are not a predominating element in
the fauna, as they are in much of their southern range.
Our Rice Rats may be easily distinguished from other native
rodents on the basis of size, pelage, and color. They are larger
than any of the common Mice, Peromyscus or Microtus, and
may be known from the "Wood Rats by their coarser pelage
and smaller size. Rice Rats bear a superficial resemblance to
some of the introduced Rats, especially the Roof Rat, but are
smaller and have shorter tails.
These rodents live in grassy localities, marshy meadows, or
open brush lands, are prolific breeders, and sometimes are an
economic problem in farming districts. The number of
young to a litter varies from three to seven but is usually four
or five. The first young appear in April or May but there
may be a later brood as well.
Genus Sigmodon^
Dentition: Incisors, {\ Canines, g ; Premolars, g ; Molars, f = 16.
^For a revision of this genus see Vernon Bailey, Proceedings Bio-
logical Society Washington, Vol. 15, pp. 101-116, 1902.
375
Cotton Rat. — Sigmodon hispidus

and related forms
—
General Description. A medium-sized Rat with long,
rather rough, harsh pelage; form robust; ears nearly hidden in
Fig. 8o. Cotton Rat
the fur; tail slightly less than equal to length of head and
body, slender, scaly, thinly haired; diurnal and nocturnal.

Color. —
Sexes colored alike, no very marked seasonal
variation.
Upperparts uniform rich, warm brown, slightly darkened by
the blackish underfur showing through; tail dusky above,
slightly lighter below; feet dull brown; underparts whitish
to grayish white or buffy. Plate XXXIII.
Geographical Distribution. — Southern North America.
376
COTTON RAT
Food.— Stems, and seeds of plants, grasses and

foliage,
meadow growths; cultivated crops.
Enemies. — Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Foxes and other
small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Sigmodon

Hispidus Group
—
Northern Cotton Rat; Eastern Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispi-
dus hispidus Say and Ord.
As described above. Found in "North Carolina to northern
Florida and west to southern Louisiana, in Austroriparian
Zone." (Bailey)
Florida Cotton Rat. —
Sigmodon hispidus littoralis Chapman,
Larger, darker, and with coarser pelage than typical
hispidus; upperparts grizzled dark gray and black feet dark ;
gray; upperside of tail black. Total length, 11.3 inches;

tail vertebrce, 4.6 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in
"Eastern part of the peninsula of Florida, from Lake Harney
to the Everglades." (Bailey)
—
Cape Sable Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidtis spadicipygus
Bangs.
Resembling typical hispidus in character of pelage, but
smaller and less brown; upperparts dark brownish gray.
Total length, 11 inches; tail vertebras, 4 inches; hind foot,
1.25 inches. Found in "The extreme southern part of the •
peninsula of Florida." (Bailey)

—
Pine Key Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus exsputus G. M.
Allen.
Resembling spadicipygus but longer and color different.
tail
Upperparts pale ochraceous darkest on rump, long
buff,
hairs white-tipped; underparts white. Total length, 10.2
inches; tail vertebra, 4.7 inches; hind foot, 1.75 inches.
Found on Big Pine Key, Monroe County, Florida.
—
Texas Cotton Rat.- Sigmodon hispidus texianus (Audubon
and Bachman).
Smaller and paler than typical hispidus. Upperparts gray-
ish brown to dark buffy gray; feet gray. Total length, 10
inches; tail vertebrse, 4.1 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Found in "Approximately the eastern half of Texas, west-
ward to Vernon and San Antonio, and northward to Cairo,
Kansas." (Bailey)
Berlandier Cotton Rat. —
Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri (Baird).
Resembling typical hispidus but much paler. Upperparts
light buffy to ashy gray; feet light gray; tail bicolor, black-
ish above, light gray below; underparts white. Total
inches. Found in "Rio Grande and Pecos valleys from
Brownsville to El Paso, Texas, and Carlsbad, New Mexico;
south to southern Jalisco, Mexico." (Bailey)
377
—
—
Gila Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus confinis Goldman.
A rather small, dark subspecies. Upperparts mixed buff
and blackish; ears grayish; tail above, brownish, below,
grayish; underparts whitish to grayish. Total length, ii
Found in "Upper part of Gila River Valley in southeastern
Arizona." (Goldman)
—
Cienega Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus cienegcs A. B. Howell.
Resembling confinis but slightly larger; darker and slightly
browner than eremicus. Total length, 12.3 inches; tail
vertebras, 5.2 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found on the
upper Santa Cruz River system, Pima County, Arizona.
Western Cotton Rat.^ Sigmodon hispidus eremicus Meams.
Slightly larger than typical hispidus; paler; pelage softer,
Upperparts pale yellowish gray; feet light gray; tail brown
above, gray below; underparts whitish. Total length, 11
inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.36 inches.
Found "Along both sides of the lower Colorado River."
(Bailey)
—
Arizona Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus arizoncB Meams.
Larger and paler than typical hispidus. Upperparts light
buffy gray; light yellowish touch on nose; underparts white.
i.o inch. Found in Yavapai County, Arizona.
—
Jackson Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus jacksoni Goldman.
Pale and resembling eremicus, Upperparts light ochraceous
buff mixed with dusky; sides only slightly paler; tail brown-
ish above, grayish below; underparts whitish to grayish.
1.3 inches. Found in the plateau region near Prescott,
Arizona.
Fulviventer Group
Least Cotton Rat. — Sigmodon minimus minimus Meams.

Size small; tail hairy; pelage not hispid. Upperparts clear
grizzled gray; feet gray; tail above and below brownish
black; underparts buffy. Total length, 9 inches; tail verte-
brae, 3.8 inches; hind foot, i.i inches. Found in "Mountains
of southern New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico."
(Bailey)
—
Goldman Cotton Rat. Sigmodon minimus goldmani Bailey.
Resembling typical minimus but darker in color. Upper-
parts grizzled white, buff and black; ears and tail blackish;
feet dark; underparts dark, rich fulvous. Total length,
10.2 inches; tail vertebras, 4.3 inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches.
Found in Quay County, New Mexico.
—
Yellow- jawed Cotton Rat. Sigmodon ochrognathus Bailey.
Slightly larger than typical minimus and with strong orange
yellowish tinge about ears, face, and rump. Upperparts
yellowish gray; bright ochraceous on nose, about eye, and
378
WOOD RAT
base of tail; feet buffy gray; tail blackish above, buffy gray-
below; underparts white. Total length, 10.4 inches; tail
vertebrae, 4.6 inches; hind foot, 1.16 inches. Found in
"The Transition Zone top of the Chisos Mountains, Texas.
. .
." (Bailey)
The Cotton Rats are a southern group found in greatest

abundance from Mexico to Peru, and reaching their northern
limit of distribution in the United States. These Rats look
very much like overgrown Meadow Mice, with their long,
loose pelage. Like the Meadow Mice, they are creatures of
the grass-lands and overgrown, open places. They move
about during the day and frequently occur in large numbers.
They ma}^ prove injurious to crops and, because they are
quite prolific, the farmer may find difficulty in controlling
them.
Cotton Rats may be easily distinguished from other North
American rodents by their size and rough, grizzled pelage.
No other Rats have this character of pelage and the only other
loose, rough-pelaged rodents, such as the Meadow Mice, are
smaller. The number of young may be six or more and there
are several litters a year. Cotton Rats do not hibernate but
are active throughout the year. They live in burrows or
under rocks, logs, or other surface shelters.
Genus Neotoma^
Dentition: Incisors, j; Canines, §; Premolars, g ; Molars, f = 16.
Wood Rat. —Neotoma floridana

and related forms
—
Names. Wood Rat; Pack Rat; Trade Rat; Mountain
Rat; Brush Rat. Plate XXXIII.
—
General Description. A typical Rat in all respects, re-
sembling superficially the domestic House Rat; size fairly
large; ears of good size; tail somewhat less than half of total
length, tapering, sparsely covered with short hairs; pelage
fairly long and soft. Mainly nocturnal but not infrequently
active in the daytime,
^For a full revision of the genus Neotoma see E. A. Goldman, North
American Fauna, No. 31, 1910.
379
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; some seasonal variation but
not very marked.
—
Winter pelage. Upperparts pale cinnamon, sprinkled with
blackish hairs along top of head and back; sides brighter;
outer sides of legs brownish drab; feet white; tail dusky above,
nearly concolor, slightly paler below; underparts creamy white.
Young duller in color than adults.
—
Geographical Distribution. In western North America
from 60° southward into Mexico and the Gulf States; Florida
and a narrow belt from southern New York to Tennessee.
—
Food. Green vegetation such as foliage and grass; fruit,
roots, bulbs, bark, fungi, and seeds and nuts. In desert
regions cactus is an article of diet. Not often injurious to
crops and agricultural enterprises.
—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Foxes, Coyotes, Wild-
cats, Cacomistles, and Snakes.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Neotoma
Subgenus Neotoma
Characterized by round tail, plantar surface of hind foot

naked along outer side as far as tarsometatarsal joint, as well
as by various cranial characters.
Floridana Group
Florida Wood Rat. —

Neotoma floridana floridana (Ord).
As described above. Found along "Atlantic coast region
from South Carolina to Sebastian, Fla., Austroriparian
Zone." (Goldman)
Ruddy Wood Rat. —
Neotoma floridana rubida Bangs.
Redder in color, somewhat larger than typical floridana.
Upperparts from cinnamon to dark ochraceous buff, sprink-
led along top of head and back with blackish hairs: rest of
coloration much as in typical floridana. Total length, 16.2
Found in "Lower Mississippi Valley and Gulf coast, from
southwestern Alabama to eastern Texas, north to eastern
Arkansas. Austroriparian Zone." (Goldman).
Illinois Wood
Rat. —
Neotoma floridana illinoensis Howell.
Resembling rubida, but grayer in color and tail bicolor
instead of unicolor. Upperparts_ dull buffy with black
mixture on head and back; grayish on face, brownish on
380
i . '
WOOD RAT
outer sides of legs; tail above blackish, below dull white.

Total length, males, 15. 6-16. 5 inches; tail vertebras, 7.5-8.1
inches; hind foot, i. 44-1. 60 inches. Found in "Swamp
region of southern Illinois, and southward to northeastern
Fig. Si. Distribution of the subspecies of Neotoma floridana,

after Goldman
1. Neotoma floridana bailey
2. Neotoma floridana attwateri
3. Neotoma floridana rubida
4. Neotoma floridana illinonensis
5. Neotoma floridana floridana
Arkansas. Austroriparian division of Lower Austral Zone. '
(Goldman)
Bailey Wood Rat. —
Neototna floridana baileyi (Merriam)
Pelage longer than in typical floridana; grayer in color ; tail
shorter, Upperparts (winter) creamy buff to
bicolored.
buffy gray sprinkled with dusky on back; sides clearer in
tone than back; feet white; tail brownish gray above, white
below in sharp contrast underparts white. Summer pelage
;
381
dark rusty brown above. Total length, 14.8 inches; tail

vertebree, 6.4 inches; hind foot, 1.8 inches. Found in
''Upper Sonoran and Carolinian divisions of Upper Austral
Zone from southwestern South Dakota to southern Kansas,
west to Pueblo, Colo." (Goldman)
—
Kansas Wood Rat. Neotoma florid ana campestris (Allen).
Closely allied to haileyi but with softer pelage and with
slight color differences. Upperparts buffy ochraceous to
light yellowish gray; a white stripe from posterior base of
ear down side of neck to throat no ochraceous spot on side
;
of throat in front of foreleg tail paler below than above but

;
not sharply bicolor. Total length, 14.5 inches; tail verte-

brce, 6.2 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found in western
Kansas and eastern Colorado.
Attwater —
Wood Rat. Neotoma floridana attwateri (Meams).
Resembling haileyi but darker in winter pelage and with
smaller teeth. Upperparts (winter) pale vinaceous black
with blackish wash along back; grayish on face and outer
legs; tail above brownish black, below white; underparts
white. Summer pelage, from ochraceous buff to dark rusty
brown above. Total length, 14.6 inches; tail vertebras, 6.7
inches; hind foot, 1.56 inches. Found in "Lower Sonoran
and Austroriparian divisions of Lower Austral Zone in
central Texas." (Goldman)
—
Baird Wood Rat. Neotoma micropus micropus Baird.
Paler than typical floridana; fur short and somewhat harsh
in texture. Upperparts (winter) pale ecru drab, with dusky
hairs along back; tail above blackish, below grayish; feet
white; underparts white, on pectoral and inguinal regions
white to roots of hair. Total length, 14 inches; tail verte-
brae, 6.5 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found in "South-
eastern Colorado and southern Kansas, south through
Oklahoma and central Texas to southern Tamaulipas,
mainly in Lower Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
—
Hoary Wood Rat. Neotoma micropus canescens Allen.
Smaller than typical micropus, with longer fur and paler
color. Upperparts (winter) pale ashy gray with light black-
ish wash on back; tail grayish brown to blackish above;
rest of pelage as in typical micropiis. Total length, males,
Found "From southeastern Colorado, northwestern Okla-
homa, and northern and western Texas, west in New Mexico
to the Rio Grande Valley and south to southern Coahuila,
mainly in Lower Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
Albigula Group
White-throated Wood Rat. — Neotoma albigula albigula Hart-

ley-
Of medium size; tail bicolor;patch on throat and breast
white to roots. Upperparts dull pinkish buff, with thin
382
WOOD RAT
blackish wash along back; sides brighter; vinaceous tinge on

outer sides of legs; tail above grayish brown, below white;
feet white; underparts white. Total length, 13. i inches;
"Northern New Mexico to southern Coahuila, Mexico, and
from central Texas to western Arizona. Upper and Lower
Sonoran Zones." (Goldman)
M earns Wood Rat. —
Neotoma alhigula mearnsi Goldman.
Paler than typical alhigula and with more pure white on
underparts. Upperparts light buff with sparse sprinkling
of black on head and back; underparts white, the fur white
to base except along flanks and sides of abdomen where it
is pale plumbeous basally; feet white; tail above grayish,
below white. Total length, 13.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 6.3
inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in the very arid desert
area from extreme southwestern Arizona southward along
the eastern side of the Gulf of California.
—
Colorado Valley Wood Rat. Neotoma alhigula venusta (True).
Larger than typical albigula. Upperparts and rest of pelage
as in typical alhigula. Total length, 15.8 inches; tail verte-
hind foot, 1.5 inches. Found in "Colorado
brae, 7.3 inches;
River from northwestern Arizona to Gulf of Cali-
Vâlley
fornia and west through southern California to eastern basal
slopes of southern Sierra Nevada, San Bernardino, and San
Jacinto Mountains. Lower Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
—
Warren Wood Rat. Neotoma albigula zvarreni Merriam.
Grayer than typical alhigula and with larger hind foot.
Upperparts (winter) pale buffy gray with light blackish
wash along back; a pale buffy lateral line above white of
abdomen; tail above brownish; white on underparts, feet,
and underside of tail, with fur white to base on throat and
breast. Total length, 12.6 inches; tail vertebra, 5.4 inches;
hind foot, 1.44 inches. Found on "Plains region of south-
eastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico. Upper
Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
Intermedia Group
Rhoads Wood Rat. — Neotoma intermedia i7itefmedia Rhoads.

Resembling typical albigula, but darker and without basally
white fur on throat and breast; ears large; tail bicolored.
Upperparts (summer) grayish brown, washed with pale buff
and sprinkled with black-tipped hairs, thickest on dorsal
region; dusky on sides of "ankles;" feet white; tail black
above, white below; underparts white, fur slate-colored at
base, generally with a faint buffy band across chest. Winter
pelage with more black-tipped hairs on upperparts than in
summer. Total length, 13 inches; tail vertebras, 6.4 inches;
hind foot, 1.26 inches. Found on "Lower slopes of southern
part of Sierra Nevada and coast region of CaHfornia from
Monterey Bay southward and throughout the mountains of
383
——
Lower California to near Cape San Lucas. Upper and

Lower Sonoran Zones." (Goldman)
—
Yellow Wood Rat. Neotoma intermedia gilva Rhoads.
Paler than typical intermedia, with more yellow and less
black on upperparts. Upperparts from creamy buff to pale
ochraceous buff, thinly sprinkled with black-tipped hairs
along back; sides clearer; less dusky on "ankles" than in
intermedia; tail above, brownish gray, below, white; under-
parts white. Total length, 13.2 inches; tail vertebras, 6.4
inches; hind foot, 1.36 inches. Found on "Arid plains and
basal slopes of mountains mainly along the eastern border of
the range of N. intermedia, from Stanley in Fresno County,
Cal., south through northeastern Lower California to the
Santa Clara Mountains on the west side of the peninsula.
Lower Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
Mexicana Group
Mexican Wood Rat. Neotoma mexicana mexicana Baird.

"Size medium, tail moderately long, bicolor; upperparts
grayish. . .. Color. Fresh pelage: Upperparts grayish
buff or buff gray, palest on head, moderately darkened over
back by overlying blackish hairs, becoming in worn pelage
of old adults somewhat rusty brown underparts dull white,
;
the fur everywhere deep plumbeous basally feet white tail

; ;
brownish above, white below." (Goldman) Total length,

Found on "Desert ranges along the eastern side of the Sierra
Madre in Chihuahua and northwestern Durango, and thence
northward in the mountains to western Texas, southwestern
New Alexico, and southeastern Arizona. Upper Sonoran
and Transition Zones." (Goldman)
—
Colorado Wood Rat. Neotoma mexicana fallax (Merriam).
Like typical mexicana in color, but larger in size. Total
inches. Found in "Mountains of Colorado and northern
and central New Mexico. Upper Sonoran and Transition
Zones." (Goldman)
San Francisco Mountain Wood Rat. —
Neotoma mexicana pine-
torum (Merriam).
Color warmer than that of typical mexicana, ochraceous
buff instead of grayish buff. Upperparts (October) pale
ochraceous buff, sprinkled with black-tipped hairs on back
and top of head; rest of pelage as in typical mexicana.
foot, 1.46 inches. Found in "Plateau region from San
Francisco Mountain, Arizona, north to the Grand Canyon
and southeastward along the Mogollon Mesa to the Mogol-
lon and Mimbres Mountains in western New Mexico.
Transition Zone." (Goldman)
384
WOOD RAT
Santa Catalina Mountain Wood Rat. — Neotoma mexicana

hullata Merriam.
R.esembling typical mexicana, but with more ochraceous
buff. Upperparts pale ochraceous buff, darker along back
because of sprinkling of black-tipped hairs; feet and tail as
in typical mexicana; underparts white, a faint buffy band
across breast and ochraceous buff on "arm-pits." Total
length, 13.4 inches; tail vertebra, 6 inches; hind foot, 1.36
inches. Found only in the Santa Catalina Mountains of
Arizona.
Desertonim Group
Desert Wood Rat. — Neotoma desertonim Merriam,
Externally resembhng intermedia gilva; small in size; tail
short; ears large; pelage long and silky. Upperparts pale
pinkish buffy, sprinkled with black-tipped hairs along dorsal
region; sides clearer; creamy buff on middle of face, pinkish
buff on sides of neck and sometimes across throat tail above,
;
brownish to blackish, below, white; feet white; underparts

white, sometimes tinged with pinkish buff on abdomen.
Total length, 12 inches; tail vertebrce, 5 inches; hind foot,
1.2 inches. Found in "Desert regions in southeastern and
northeastern California, Nevada, eastern Oregon, northern
and western Utah, east to northwestern Colorado, and south
along the west side of the Colorado River to northeastern
Lower California. Upper and Lower Sonoran Zones."
(Goldman)
Thomas Wood Rat. —Neotoma lepida lepida Thomas.
Resembling desertonim but yellowish instead of pinkish
buffy, and with longer hairs on tail, which is not sharply
bicolored. Upperparts yellowish, darkened by black-tipped
hairs along back; sides clearer in tone than rest of upper-
parts; tail pale grayish, only slightly darker above than
below; underparts white to creamy, occasionally with buffy
suffusion along abdomen, small areas of basally white
pelage on throat, inner sides of forelegs, on breast, and on
inguinal region. Total length, 11.4 inches; tail vertebrae,
5.5 inches; hind foot, 1.16 inches. Found in "Upper
Sonoran Zone in the plateau region of northeastern Arizona,
north of the Little Colorado River, and northwestern New
Mexico south to Gallup, grading to the southward into
stephensi." (Goldman) Plate XXXIIL
—
Stephens Wood Rat. Neotoma lepida stephensi (Goldman).
Larger and darker than typical lepida. Upperparts dark
grayish buff, darkened along back by dusky hair; pinkish
buff on sides; rest of pelage as in typical lepida. Total
inches. Found in "Upper Sonoran Zone along Hualpai,
Mogollon, and White Mountains across central Arizona and
from the Burro Mountains to the Zuni Mountains in west-
385
—
ern New Mexico, passing farther north into lepida.^*

(Goldman)
Pennsylvanica Group
—
Allegheny Wood Rat. Neotoma pefinsylvan-ica Stone.
Largest of the round-tailed species of Neotoma. "Tail
moderately long, well haired, bicolored; ears large, pelage
coarse; cranial characters pronounced; no closely related
Fig. 82. Distribution of Neotoma pennsylvanica, after

Goldman
living species known. Color. -Fresh winter pelage: Up-

perparts grayish buff, becoming buffy gray on head, heavily
overlaid, especially on back, with blackish feet and under-
;
parts white, the fur pure white to roots, except along sides
of belly, where the basal color is pale plumbeous; axillae
creamy buff, tail varying from grayish brown to black above,
whitish below." (Goldman) Total length, 17.2 inches;
tail vertebras, 8 inches; hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found in
"Appalachian Mountain region from southern New York to
northern Alabama, probably including western North Caro-
hna and northern Georgia, and westward to Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky, and Lawrenceburg, Tennessee. Alleghen-
ian and Carolinian Zones." (Goldman) Plate XXXIII.
386
WOOD RAT
Subgenus Homodontomys
Characterized chiefly by cranial and dental characters; tail
and hind foot as in subgenus Neotoma.
—
Dusky-footed Wood Rat. Neotoma fuscipes fiiscipes Baird.
Large in size; tail long, practically unicolored; ears large.
Upperparts light ochraceous buff, thickly sprinkled Vv'ith
black-tipped hairs on top of head and back; face grayish;
sides clearer in tone than back; ears brownish white on fore-
;
feet, toes of hind feet, and heels; dusky on "ankles," hind

feet, muzzle, and orbital ring; tail blackish; underparts pure
white except for abdomen which is tinged with creamy buff.
1.7 inches. Found in "Pacific coast region from San
Francisco Bay north to Salem, Oregon. Upper Sonoran
and Transition Zones." (Goldman)
—
Streater Wood Rat- Neotoma fuscipes streatori Merriam.
Smaller and paler than typical fuscipes; tail bicolored hind ;
feet white from tarsus down. Upperparts pale ochraceous

buff with the usual dorsal darkening; feet pure white; tail
above blackish, below whitish; rest of pelage as in typical
fuscipes. Total length, 15 inches; tail vertebras, 7.5 inches;
hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found along "West slope of the
Sierra Nevada in California from Tehama County south to
Porterville, Tulare County. Upper Sonoran Zone."
(Goldman)
Portola Wood Rat. — Neotoma fuscipes annectens Elliot.
Distinguished from typical fuscipes, chiefly by cranial
characters, color essentially the same. Total length, 17.3
Found in "Coast region of California from San Francisco
Bay to Monterey Bay and thence inland and southward
along the small valleys and mountain ranges east of the
Santa Lucia Mountains to Carriso Plains, San Luis Obispo
County. Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones." (Gold-
man)
Fort Tejon Wood Rat. —Neotoma fuscipes simplex (True).
Smaller than typical fuscipes; tail bicolor,- feet white. Up-
perparts pale ochraceous buff, darker along back; tail above,
grayish brown, below, whitish; feet white; underparts pure
white except for creamy buff tinge on abdomen, a median
line of hairs white to roots, pelage elsewhere on abdomen
slate-colored at base. Total length, 15.6 inches; tail vertebrae
7 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches. Found on "Eastern basal
slopes of the Sierra Nevada in Inyo and Kern counties,
Cal., and through Walker Pass to the foothill region at the
southern end of the San Joaquin Valley. Upper Sonoran
Zone." (Goldman)
—
Mohave Desert Wood Rat. Neotoma fuscipes mohavensis
Elliot.
Smaller than typical fuscipes; color grayer; tail bicolored.
387
Upperparts brownish gray, heavily sprinkled with black-

tipped hairs on back; sides paler than back; ears grayish;
feet white, streaked with dusky on hind feet; tail above
brownish black, below dull white; underparts white, occas-
ionally with creamy tinge on abdomen. Total length, 15.5
Found in "The Mohave Desert, in southern California,
Lower Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
—
Large-eared Wood Rat. Neotoma fuscipes macrotis (Thomas).
Resembling mohavensis, but darker. Upperparts grayish
brown, tinged with buff to ochraceous buff, with dorsal
darkening of black-tipped hairs; paler on head and sides;
dusky on "ankles" and hind feet; white on forefeet and toes
of hind feet; tail above, brownish black, below, whitish;
underparts white, sometimes tinged with buffy on abdomen,
where pelage is slate-colored basally. Total length, 14.2
Found in "Pacific coast region from Monterey Bay, Cali-
fornia, south through the San Pedro Martir Mountains,
Lower California. Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones."
(Goldman)
Subgenus Teonoma
Characterized by large, bushy tail; hind foot densely furred
on sole; and by various cranial characters.
—
Gray Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea cinerea (Ord).
Size large; hind feet large and heavily furred from heel to
posterior plantar tubercle ears large pelage long and thick.
;
;
Upperparts grayish buff to ochraceous buff, thickly sprink-

led with dusky hairs on back; fore- and hind feet white; ears
edged faintly with whitish, clothed with brownish and gray-
ish hairs; tail noticeably bushy but flattened, above brown-
ish gray, below white, banded with pale buffy at base;
underparts white. Total length, 15.5 inches; tail vertebras,
6.5 inches; hind foot, 1.7 inches. Found in "Rocky Moun-
tain region in southern British Columbia, Montana, Idaho,
western Wyoming, Utah, northern Arizona, and thence
westward through the mountains of central Nevada to the
southern part of the Sierra Nevada in California. Canadian
Zone and down along cold cliffs and canyons well into the
Transition Zone." (Goldman) Plate XXXIIL
—
Nevada Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea lucida
Goldman.
Much smaller and paler than typical cinerea. Upperparts
light buff to light ochraceous-buff, with faint sprinkling of
black-tipped hairs; buffy grayish on middle of face, sides of
muzzle and outer sides of limbs; tail above grayish, below
white; underparts and feet white. Total length, 13.4
388
WOOD RAT
Found on Charleston Peak, Charleston Mountains, Clark

County Nebraska.
—
Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea drummondi (Rich-
ardson).
Resembling typical cinerea, but pelage longer, tail more
bushy. Upperparts grayish buff, washed with dusky;
dusky on orbital ring; rest of pelage as in typical cinerea,
except that there is a sharp line of demarcation between
^Ô^
Fig. 83. Bushy-tailed Wood Rat
dark color of forelegs and white feet instead of insensible

blending as in cinerea. Total length, 15.3 inches; tail
"Rocky Mountains of eastern British Columbia and
western Alberta, north of the range of N. cinerea. Canadian
Zone." (Goldman)
—
Osgood Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea saxamans
(Osgood).
Darker in color and tail more bushy than in typical cinerea.
Upperparts buffy gray darkened everywhere by sprinkling
of dusky; feet white; tail above brownish gray for one-third
of its length, slaty gray on last two-thirds, below white,
banded with buffy gray at base; underparts white. Total
inches. Found in "Northern British Columbia west of the
Rocky Mountains, limits of range unknown. Canadian
and Hudsonian Zones." (Goldman)
389
Western Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. — Neotoma cinerea occiden-

talis (Baird).
Resembling typical cinerea, but darker in color, "ankles"
more dusky. Upperparts brownish buff, heavily sprinkled
with dusky head and sides with less dusky than back ears
; ;
brownish, whitish along edge; fore- and hind feet white;

forearms brownish buff in marked contrast to white feet;
"ankles" dusky; tail above brownish black grizzled with
gray, below white, banded with buffy at base; underparts
dull white, ochraceous buff under forelegs. Total length,
i6 inches; tail vertebrae, 7 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches.
Found "From Pacific coast region of southwestern British
Columbia to northern California (except the narrow coastal
strip west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon), and thence
eastward over the lava beds to south-central Idaho and
northeastern Nevada. Mainly Transition and Canadian
Zones." (Goldman)
—
Fuscous Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotomu cinerea fusca
(True).
Resembling typical cinerea, but darker, pelage more woolly,
ears smaller, and tail without white on under surface.
Upperparts mixed grayish tawny and black, the black pre-
dominating along back; head and sides with less black;
dusky on muzzle, ears (which are faintly edged with whitish),
upperpart of hind feet and "ankles"; tail above, blackish,
below, buffy gray, washed with blackish; underparts
whitish, pure white to roots on breast and inguinal region,
washed with grayish tawny on inner sides of legs, and with
tawny ochraceous on throat. Total length, 16 inches; tail
"Humid coastal belt west of the Cascade Mountains in
Oregon. Transition Zone." (Goldman)
—
Colorado Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea orolestes
(Merriam).
More ochraceous than typical cinerea. Upperparts ochrace-
ous buff, sprinkled with blackish on back; sides brighter
than back feet white tail above grayish buff for one-third
; ;
of length, brownish buff for last two-thirds, below white,

banded at base with pale buffy; underparts white, pelage
white to base on breast and inguinal region. Total length,
Found in "Rocky Mountain region from northern New
Mexico north through Colorado and Wyoming to southern
Montana and thence eastward to the Black Hills in South
Dakota. Mainly Transition and Canadian Zones." (Gold-
man)
—
Arizona Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea arizoncE
(Merriam).
Resembling typical cinerea, but smaller, tail less bushy,
color brighter. Upperparts ochraceous buff, thinly sprink-
led with dusky; sides brighter than back; feet white; tail
390
WOOD RAT
Fig. 84. Distribution of the subspecies of Neotoma ctnerea,

after Goldman
1. Neotoma cinerea cinerea 5- Neotoma cinerea fusca
2. Neotoma cinerea f}rummondi 6. Neotoma cinerea orolestes
3. Neotoma cinerea saxamans 7- Neotoma cinerea arizoncn
4. Neotoma cinerea occidentalis 8. Neotoma cinerea rupicola
391
above, grayish brown, below, white; underparts white.

1.44 inches. Found in "Upper Sonoran Zone in north-
eastern Arizona, southeastern Utah, and probably north-
ward along the Green River Valley, southwestern Colorado,
and northjêstem New Mexico." (Goldman)
—
Pale Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Neotoma cinerea rupicola
(Allen).
Similar to typical cinerea, but smaller, tail shorter, and color
paler. Upperparts cream-buff, sprinkled moderately with
blackish; tail above, brownish gray, lighter at tip, below,
white; feet clear white; underparts pure white. Total
length, 14 inches; tail vertebrce, 5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.7
inches. Found in "Big Bad Lands region from south-
western South Dakota, through southeastern Wyoming
and western Nebraska to northeastern Colorado. Upper
Sonoran Zone." (Goldman)
The Wood Rat is found only in the Western Hemisphere
and here range is restricted to North and Middle America,

its
with by far the greater number of species occurring in the

western half of the continent. Wood Rats are easily distin-
guished from other rodents by their size and rat-like form, the
only species liable to be confused with them being the two
—
introduced Rats, the Norway Rat and the Roof Rat. Aside
from important dental and cranial characters, the introduced
Rats differ from the Wood Rats in the details set forth in the
discussion on page 452.
Over much of the western range of the genus the Wood Rat
is common rodent. The round-tailed species are essentially
a
mammals of the lower life zones, found on plains, deserts, and
in brushy areas of the more open forests; the bushy-tailed
species are forest dwellers, found in the Rocky Mountains and
adjacent ranges and in the higher life zones. In the eastern
United States, the only species found as far north as New
York is pennsylvanica, rare and local in distribution. In the
southeastern states, the forms of the floridana group are found.
From the Great Plains westward the genus is represented by
many forms and nearly every peculiar environment has its
own distinct race.
In many places these Rats build large conspicuous nests of
dead twigs, and debris of various sorts, this habit being
leaves,
especially obvious in the deserts and arid plains. In regions
of cactus growth the spiny cactus lobes are placed on the nest
392
WOOD RAT
and the nest itself may be built about one of these thorny
plants. Wood Rats have a very inquisitive disposition and
seem possessed of a collecting instinct. Small objects of metal
especially attract them and the Rats bear off to their nests
anything of this sort that is left lying about a camp. Coins,
small traps, belt buckles, nails, and any bright object within
their powers of transportation will be carried away by these
visitors, and in the morning the articles can usually be found
piled on a nearby nest.
The Bushy-tailed Wood Rats generally live in rocks or cliffs
and do not build large and conspicuous nests in the open.
Piles of debris may be seen in crevices in the rocks, but the

animals count more upon a retreat back of the rocks them-
selves. These species have the mania for collecting, however,
and it is not always so easy to find what they have carried off,
since it may be hidden in some out-of-the-way crevice. The
name Trade Rat is especially apt for these creatures because
they frequently bring some object to place on the spot where
they have stolen something. I have known Trade Rats to
carry off rivets from the blacksmith shop of a mining camp and
fill up the box where they got the rivets with pebbles and other
objects gathered up outside the shop. Perhaps in the eyes of

the Rat this was a fair exchange and no robbery.
Although never becoming a house Rat to the extent that
the introduced Rats have become, Wood Rats sometimes leave
their native abodes and take up quarters in bams, ranch-
houses, and miners' cabins. Under such circumstances they
become a nuisance, chiefly because of the noise they make at
night and because of the articles they carry off. They are not
as destructive as the domestic Rats, however, although, of
course, they eat grain or whatever food of a- similar nature
they have access to. The bushy-tailed, mountain species
make a noise at night out of all proportion to their size, run-
ning over rafters, thumping on the floor, rattling the kindling
in the wood-box, or romping with care-free abandon. They
are apt to be bold rather than timid, and sit blinking at a light
instead of running for cover like a Norway Rat when their
midnight frolic is interrupted.
Wood Rats are attractive creatures, with rather large eyes
and soft fur, and little of the slinking, furtive appearance of
the introduced Rats. As pets they soon become friendly and

393
are gentle and easily cared for. They are cleanly in habits
and, as far as I am While
aware, are not carriers of disease.
most active after sundown, they are not infrequently seen dur-
ing the daytime and are curious enough to come out and
investigate any unusual disturbance. Wood Rats are active
throughout the year and do not hibernate.
In the northern part of their range, Wood Rats raise but
one brood of young a year, but in the regions of mild winters
several litters a year is more the rule. These litters contain
from three to six individuals.
The pelage of the Wood Rat is quite soft, but it is of no
commercial value as fur; at least no market for it has yet been
established. The flesh of these Rats is white and palatable,
being eaten by some of the western Indians, but because the
animal bears the name of Rat it is not apt to become a com-
mon article of diet with most people.
Subfamily Microtinae. Voles and Lemmings

Cricetine rodents with flat-crowned molars; molar pattern
prismatic, composed of angular figures; habit terrestrial,
fossorial, or semiaquatic.
Genus Synaptomys^
Dentition: Incisors, J
; Canines, ^ ; Premolars, <] ; Molars, 3=16.
Lemming Mouse. — Synaptomys cooperi

and related forms
—
Names.- Lemming Mouse; Bog Mouse; Bog Lemming.
—
General Description. Externally very much like a small,
short-tailed Meadow Mouse, but differing in cranial and
dental characters. Form thickset; tail very short; pelage
coarse; incisors orange; upper incisors with longitudinal
groove rostrum very short molars rootless nail of first digit of
; ; ;
forefoot flat and strap-shaped; plantar tubercles six; dwelling

in bogs and swamps. Plate XXX.
Color. — Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation not very
great.
' For a full revision of this genus see A. B. Howell, North American
Fauna, No. 50. 1927.
394
;
LEMMING MOUSE
Upperparts mixed gray, yellowish brown and black, giving

a,
cinnamon-brown; tail bicolor,
grizzled appearance similar to
above brownish, below whitish; underparts soiled whitish
wash over slate-colored underfur.
Immature pelage darker and more slaty than adult.
—
inches; tail vertebra, .7 inch;hind foot, .72 inch.
—
Geographical Distribution. Boreal North America.
—
Food. Vegetation, see page 398.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Foxes, and
Dther small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Synaptomys
Subgenus Synaptomys
Cooper Lemming Mouse. —

Synaptomys cooperi cooperi Baird.
As described above. Found in the cooler zones, in favored
localities, from Minnesota to the Atlantic and south through
New York and Michigan.
Synaptomys fatuus Bstngs = Synaptomys cooperi cooperi.
—
Stone Lemming Mouse. Synaptomys cooperi stonei Rhoads.
Closely related to typical cooperi and intermediate between
it and helaletes in size of rostrum; incisors wide (1.7 mm.);
color about as in typical cooperi. Total length, 5.1 inches;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Lower
tail vertebrae, .8 inch;
portion of Transition and northern half of the Upper
Austral Zones in the United States east of the Plains, from
central Wisconsin and Illinois east to the Atlantic coast
occurs as far north as Massachusetts and south in the
mountains into North Carolina." (Howell)
Virginia Lemming Mouse. —
Synaptomys cooperi helaletes
(Merriam).
Resembling cooperi, but with larger head and feet and longer
tail; incisors very broad (1.9 mm.); color very much as in
cooperi. Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, .85 inch;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Extreme southeastern
Virginia and northeastern North Carolina." (Howell)
Goss Lemming Mouse. — Synaptomys cooperi gossii (Coues).
Somewhat redder in colorthan helaletes which it resembles;
skull long and heavy; rostrum wide. Total length, 5.4
inches; tail vertebrae, .8 inch; hind foot, .8 inch. Found
in "The west-central Mississippi Valley country, mostly in
the Upper Austral Zone, from northeastern Arkansas and
southern Illinois into Iowa and extreme southeastern South
Dakota." (Howell)
395
"
Subgenus Mictomys
Distinguished from the subgenus Synaptomys by cranial and
dental characters.
Richardson Lemming Mouse. —

Synaptomys horealis (Rich-
ardson)
"A dark, richly colored race, with foot somewhat short.
Skull rather small, dorsal coloration rich and dark.
. . .
. . Argus brown
. plentifully mixed with black-
. . .
tipped hairs. . The tail is distinctly bicolor. . . .

. .
Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrse, i inch; hind foot,

.^2 inch." (Howell) Found in "The Athabaska-Macken-
zie region of Canada from Great Bear Lake south to near
Edmonton, and eastward (provisionally) to Lake Winni-
peg." (Howell)
Dall Lemming Mouse. — Synaptomys horealis dalli (Merriam).
"A rather bright-colored race, with skull of moderate size.
Upperparts Brussels brown mixed with blackish. Total
length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, .8 inch; hind foot, .8 inch.
Found in "Hudsonian Zone in Alaska and south to central
British Columbia to the eastward of the coast district."
(Howell)
Synaptomys andersoni Allen is said by Howell to be indis-
tinguishable from dalli.
Chapman Lemming Mouse. —Synaptomys horealis chapmani
(Allen).
"A dark but dull-colored race with but slight dorsal tinge
of chestnut. Incisive foramina and rostrum long." Color
dull and gray, with some brown on rump tail faintly bicolor. ;
Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrse, i inch; hind foot, .72
inch. Found in "Evidently the Canadian Zone of the
eastern portion of the southern half of British Columbia,
and adjacent mountainous slopes in extreme western
Alberta." (Howell)
Wrangell Lemming Mouse. — Synaptomys horealis wrangeli
(Merriam).
"A race that is quite variable in coloration, with very low,
flat brain case, rather slender rostrum. ... In coloration,
ranging from skins that are a perfect match for the bright-
est, brownest dalli, to others that can not be told from gray
and grizzled specimens of chapmani, but the warmer tone
of color seems to be somewhat the more prevalent and to be
more typical of the unworn condition of pelage." Total
length, 5.3 inches; tail vertebra, i inch; hind foot, .64 inch.
Found in "Coastal strip in the Canadian Zone from the
Alexander Archipelago southward to the northern border of
the United States. " (Howell)
Synaptomys truei Merriam is considered by Howell to be
indistinguishable from wrangeli.
396
'
LEMMING MOUSE
Ungava Lemming Mouse. —Synaptomys borealis innuitus

(True).
"Skull very small and flat, with short and narrow rostrum.
Color.— Not dependable, as the type has been in alcohol
ever since collected (1884). Known only from Fort Chimo
, '
Ungava, Canada. (Howell)

—
Labrador Lemming Mouse. Synaptomys borealis medioximus
(Bangs).
"Coloration bright. The skull is intermediate sizem
between those of innuitus and sphagnicola. The type, in
very full pelage, is quite bright dorsally. Anteriorly the
coloration is slightly darker, because, in large measure, of
the more plentiful admixture of black-tipped hairs. Feet
and tail dark, the latter scarcely bicolor. Underparts,
without buff." Total length, 4.8 inches; tail vertebrae, .88
inch; hind foot, .84 inch. "Known only from the coast
district of southern Labrador." (Howell)
—
Preble Lemming Mouse. Synaptomys borealis sphagnicola
(Preble).
"A race with large, well-ridged skull, long rostrum, . . .
Dorsal coloration close to the Prout brown of Ridgway,

which is most intense upon the rump; anteriorly duller,
grayer, and more grizzled. Tail, distinctly bicolor.
'
Total
'
length, 5.3 inches; tail vertebrae, i inch; hind foot, .8 inch.

Found in "Canadian Zone in the northern New England
States from the type locality north to include New Bruns-
*******
wick and the portion of Quebec east and south of the St.
Lawrence River." (Howell)
''Synaptomys is not common in collections, but it is by no

means certain that it is not more numerous in nature than
is generally supposed. Except in a very few places, or in
years of unusual abundance, lemming mice have proved
exceedingly difficult to obtain in numbers. Because they are
usually confined to bogs and tracts of swampy land, they are
rarely if ever of economic importance.
"The habits of lemming mice are almost unknown. The
members of the genus Synaptomys belong at the present day
and in the north, although usually
definitely to a boreal fauna,
found moist situations, they also occur in dry patches of
in
grass and other low cover, as well as in bogs. In the districts
farther south, however, they have evidently been able to
survive only because of the presence of occasional cold
sphagnum bogs, to which they are almost entirely confined in
the lower latitudes of the Eastern States. Near Lake Drum-
mond, Va., however, and at Horseshoe Lake, Mo., in Indiana,
397
and at several other places the genus has been found in grass-
land, both moist and dry.
"Observations on food habits have been confined practically
to the recording of the presence of cut green grasses in the
runways, but judging from the habits of related rodents, these
animals may occasionally feed upon a variety of bulbs and
even insects, as well as succulent herbage. Examination in
the Biological Survey of 1 1 stomachs from Kansas and i from
Minnesota also showed contents of finely ground grass and
sedge leaves and a few insignificant traces of other green
vegetation. Further observations on the food habits of
Synaptomys are greatly needed.
"Well-defined runways are maintained, and burrows are
constructed in the ground or through beds of sphagnum.
Nests are occasionally placed in tussocks of grass or amid other
surface cover, according to published reports.
"Collectors, mostly those of the Bureau of Biological
Survey, have trapped females containing from four to six
embryos, from March ii to October 7. This indicates that
litters are only of moderate size. Probably several litters are
borne each year, the period of greatest reproductive activity
being largely confined to the warmer months.
"Lemming mice are so rarely obtained that collectors are
likely to seek them whenever possible. Further material from
certain critical localities is badly needed, however, and it is
hoped that field parties will make special efforts to procure
such desiderata. Until more specimens are obtained further
progress in the proper understanding of the relationships of
several races can hardly be expected." (Howell)
Genus Lemmus
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, [J
; Premolars, %\ Molars, f = 16.
Lemming. —Lemmus trimucronatus

and related forms
Names. — Lemming; Brown Lemming; Back Lemming.
General Description. —A small, thickset rodent with much
the appearance of a large, short-tailed Meadow Mouse.
Soles of feet hairy, without well-developed tubercles; forefeet
large and strong, with well-developed claws, thumb much
398
LEMMING
reduced, with long, flat, nail-like claw; upper incisors without

grooves; ears small, hidden in long pelage of head and neck;
pelage long and lax; tail very short, well haired. Plate XXX.
Color.—Sexes colored seasonal variation not con-
alike;
spicuous as in the Lemmings of the genus Dicrostonyx.
Upperparts. — Head and shoulders to middle back grizzled
buff}^ slaty black and grayish; lower back and rump rusty
Fig. 85. Lemming

red or rufous; sides light ochraceous; tail above, yellowish
brown, belov/, slightly lighter; feet dusky; pelage everywhere
slate-colored at base.
Underparts. — Light ochraceous with slate-Colored basal
pelage showing through.
Immature more unicolor than adults, yellowish brown.
—
.8 inch; hind foot, .8 inch.
inches; tail vertebras,
—
Geographical Distribution. Arctic North America and
south along Rocky Mountains to western Alberta.
—
Food. Grasses, foliage of Arctic plants, mosses, lichens,
etc.
—
Enemies. Owls, Hawks, Weasels, Arctic Foxes, and other
predatory mammals.
399
.
Species of the genus Lemmus

American Lemming Back Lemming.
;
—Lemmus trimucronatus
(Richardson)
As described. Found on the Melville Peninsula, Booth
Peninsula, northern shores of Hudson Bay, and adjacent
territory; west to Great Bear Lake and Anderson River;
limits of range unknown. Named Back Lemming for Capt.
Back.
Tawny Lemming. —Lemmus helvolus (Richardson).
Yellower and more tawny than trimucronatus which it equals
in size. Upperparts yellowish brown, grizzled with gray
and dusky on head and shoulders. Found in alpine swamps
and meadows of Rocky Mountain district about the head-
waters of the southern Peace River, Alberta; has been
recorded from Telegraph Creek, British Columbia limits of
;
range unknown.
—
Point Barrow Lemming.^ Lemmus alascensis Merriam.
In coloration somewhat intermediate between trimucronatus
and helvolus. Upperparts warm yellowish brown with
tendency toward rusty on the rump; head and shoulders
grizzled buffy, grayish, and blackish. In winter the pelage
is more fulvous and with less ochraceous tinge. Total
length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebras, .9 inch; hind foot, .83 inch.
Found in Alaska, from Point Barrow south limits of range
;
unknown.
Yukon Lemming. —Lemmus yukonensis Merriam.
"Size small, ears relatively large; general color dark anteri-
orly, with bright fulvous or rufous rump and flanks; audital
bullae immense." (Merriam) Total length, 5.2 inches; tail
vertebra, .7 inch; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in Alaska in
the region of Charlie Creek, Yukon River.
Osgood Lemming. —Lemmus minusculus Osgood.
Like alascensis, but smaller and with less difference between
color of head and shoulders as compared with rump. Upper-
parts ochraceous mixed with blackish rump hazel to chest-
;
nut; sides and underparts clear ochraceous. Total length,

5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, .5 inch; hind foot, .75 inch. Found
in the region of the Upper Nushagak River drainage, base of
Alaska Peninsula.
—
Black-footed Lemming. Lemmus nigripes (True).
Cinnamon-gray above; sides clear tawny brown; underparts
paler tawny; black on nose, upperside of forefeet, upper and
lower sides of hind feet and upperside of tail. Total length,
5.8 inches; tail vertebras, .5 inch; hind foot, .8 inch. Found
on St. George Island, Pribilof Islands, Alaska.
Preble, in North American Fauna, No 22, page 54, gives the

following account of habits, writing of trimucronatus.
"We found this fine species at but one locality, near the
400
LEMMING
mouth of Thlewiaza River, where it was common and where

a series of about seventy, comprising adults and young of
both sexes, was secured August 4 to 8. A succession of low,
fiat, boulder-covered areas, which lay between the shore and
some shallow lagoons a few hundred yards inland, was occupied

by the animals. The ground was dry and well covered with
short, thick grass, through which their runways extended in
every direction. They burrowed extensively, sometimes
beneath boulders, but as often in the sides of tiny terraces or
from a flat surface. Their holes seemed to be connected in an
endless labyrinth. We captured several by suddenly over-
turning some of the boulders, but most were taken in traps set
in their well-trodden roads. They paid no attention to bait,
but were readily caught in runway traps. When taken alive
they showed considerable ferocity for animals of their size,
snarling and biting vigorously. The breeding season seemed
to be nearly over, but a few females contained from four to six
embryos. The teats are eight in number, four inguinal and
four pectoral."
The migrations of Lemmings are one of the marvels of rodent
life. These great movements of Mice have been well known
in northern Europe from early times, and similar activity has
been noted in Arctic America. When conditions have been
unusually favorable for the Lemmings and the normal checks
on the annual increase have been unable to keep down the
numbers of the Mice, the Lemming population becomes too
vast for the available food supply. Great swarms of Lem-
mings start for new territory and move in vast waves of rodent
life which do not stop for rivers, lakes, or any obstacle of
topography. These hordes are followed by the natural

enemies of the Mice, Hawks, Owls, Foxes, etc., and through
the constant attacks of these and the inroads of disease and
accident, the multitudes gradually melt away. After such a
migration the numbers of Lemmings may be very low until
the recuperative powers of the species have brought the cycle
onto the upturn once more.
Genus Dicrostonyx^
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, ^; Premolars, §; Molars, f = 16.
For a full revision of this genus see G. M. Allen, Bulletin Museum of
^
Comparative Zoology, Vol. LXII, pp. 509-540, 1919.

401
Collared Lemming. Dicrostonyx hudsonius

and related forms
—
Names. Collared Lemming; Snow Lemming; Pied Lem-
ming.
—
General Description. A stout-bodied Mouse, related to the
Meadow Mice, with large third and fourth claw on forefoot
(abnormally large in winter) small ears short tail very small
; ; ;
thumb; pelage white in winter, long and soft.

Color. —Sexes colored alike; marked seasonal variation.
Upperparts (summer) buffy gray to almost dear gray pro-
duced by mixture of gray, buffy gray, and black; a median
Fig. 86. Forefoot of Collared Lemming

Upper figure foot in winter,
lower figure foot in summer
black line from forehead to tail not sharply marked off from
surrounding pelage; ears tufted with tawny, enclosed by
indistinct grayish patch; buffy on and about
sides of nose
eye; tail like rest of upperparts; collar formed by tawny band
from armpits across throat; underparts washed with pale
tawny.
Winter pelage, everywhere white, hairs slaty at base.
Immature pelage (summer) like adults but darker, collar
less distinct.
Measurements. — Sexes of equal size. Total length, 6
inches; tail vertebras .8 inch; hind foot, .88 inch.
Geographical Distribution. —Arctic America.
—
Food. Vegetation.
402
COLLARED LEMMING
Enemies. — Hawks, Owls, Ravens, Weasels, Foxes, Lynxes,

Wolverines.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Dicrostonyx.
Subgenus Dicrostonyx
—
Labrador Collared Lemming. Dicrostonyx hudsonius (Pallas).
As described above. "This species is confined, so far as
known, to the barren-ground area of the Labrador Penin-
sula, from (probably) the Straits of Belle Isle on the south-
east to about the latitude of Great Whale River (55° N.) on
the west side. It is also found on some of the small islands
along the eastern side of Hudson Bay, but on the west side
of the bay its place is taken by Z). r. richardsoni." (G. M.
Allen)
Subgenus Misothermus
Alaskan Collared Lemming. —Dicrostonyx ruhricatus ruhri-
catus (Richardson).
Brighter colored than hudsonius. Upperparts (summer)
chestnut, grizzled with white; lower back grizzled whitish
and blackish; nose to nape black and continuous as a
narrow, black, median stripe to base of tail ears tufted with
;
rusty; hips grayish; feet and tail whitish; underparts

washed with orange buff or (less frequently) whitish.
Winter pelage white. Total length, 6.1 inches; tail verte-
brae, .76 inch; hind foot, .80 inch. Found on "the barrens of
northern Alaska, including the peninsula and eastward
along the Arctic coast of Mackenzie to Coronation Gulf."
(G. M. Allen)
Richardson Collared Lemming. —
Dicrostonyx ruhricatus
richardsoni (Merriam).
Without such a bright and contrasted color pattern as
typical ruhricatus. Upperparts (summer) varying from
ruddy gray to brownish buff -yellow on sides of nose and
;
flanks grizzled black and buff y from nose to tail tawny on

;
;
ears and on shoulders; and tip of tail whitish, washed

feet
with buffy; underparts washed with pale cinnamon-buff;
band across throat tawny. Winter pelagje white. Total
length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebrse, .56 inch; hind foot, .78
inch. Found in Barren Grounds from Fort Churchill, Hud-
son Bay to Aylmer Lake, western Keewatin and Artillery
Lake, eastern Mackenzie and north almost to Coronation
Gulf on the Arctic coast.
—
Unalaska Collared Lemming. Dicrostonyx ruhricatus unalas-
censis (Merriam).
"Closely related to ruhricatus from which it differs in its
relatively longer and more slender rostrum, its weaker, less
broadly rounded zygomata, and slightly more protruding
403
incisors. External characters unknown. . Confined, so

. .
far as known, to the island of Unalaska, Alaska Peninsula."

(G. M. Allen)
St. Lawrence Island Lemming. —Dicrostonyx exsul G. M.
Allen _
Resembling ruhricatus but grayer in color. Upperparts

(summer) pinkish gray gray on nose and cheeks sprinkling
;
;
of black hairs on nose, on cheeks, and along median line of

back; ochraceous buff mixed with tawny about ear; sides
brighter than back; feet pale buff; tail whitish; underparts
washed with ochraceous buff, chin and undersides of fore-
legs pure white, throat tinged with tawny. Winter pelage
white. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebrae, .68 inch;
hind foot, .80 inch. Found only on St. Lawrence Island,
Bering Sea, Alaska.
—
Greenland Collared Lemming. Dicrostonyx grcenlandicus
(Traill).
Most like ruhricatus but much smaller and differing in
various cranial characters. Upperparts (summer) grizzled
blackish and gray neck and shoulders washed with ochrace-
;
ous orange narrow black median stripe from nose to shoul-

;
ders; feet and tail white tinged with buffy; underparts

washed with ochraceous orange. Winter pelage white.
Total length, 4.3 inches; tail vertebras, .35 inch; hind foot,
.60 inch. Found "from about latitude 69° N. on the east
coast of Greenland, northward to the limit of land, 83° 24',
and thence westward along the coast of North Greenland
to the Kane Basin, and across the Robeson Channel to
The
*******
Grinnell Land, Ellesmere Land, and south to Baffin Land."
(G. M. Allen)
Collared
color from
Lemmings are the only Mice which change
summer to winter pelage. In summer they look
like short-tailed Meadow Mice, brownish or grayish in color,
but when winter comes a pure white pelage appears and with
it the greatly enlarged claws on the front feet. By the single
character of the specialized claws, winter specimens of the
genus Dicrostonyx may be easily distinguished.
This genus is -Arctic and Subarctic in its distribution and is
usually found on the barren, open areas. These Mice make
burrows and have underground nest chambers which are
lined with grass and moss. In winter they make many run-
ways under the surface of the snow, but in summer there are
very few surface runways such as are made by Meadow Mice.
Collared Lemmings are chiefly nocturnal in habit.
These Mice sometimes become so abundant that they are
observed in a great migration similar to that of the Lemmings
404
PHENACOMYS
of the genus Lemmus, although this is of comparatively rare

occurrence since Dicrostonyx is usually not as abundant as
Lemmus. At such times Dicrostonyx swim streams and press
on in the face of all obstacles.
The young are bom in early summer and usually number
three to a litter.
Genus Phenacomys ^
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, {]
; Premolars, J]
; Molars, | = i6.
Phenacomys. —Phenacomys intermedius

and related forms
Names. — Phenacomys;
Lemming Mouse. For want of a
good colloquial or vernacular name for the members of the
genus, Howell suggests the generic term as the common group
name. The two arboreal species are called Tree Mice,
—
General Description. A small Mouse very similar in
external appearance to of the Meadow Mice from which
some
it may be certainly distinguished only by cranial and dental
characters (rooted molars as compared to unrooted molars in
Microtiis). Form normal and mouse-like; legs short; tail
short (long in some forms of the genus), pelage rather long and
loose; ears rather small and almost hidden in fur of head;
mammee eight in number; plantar tubercles six (as far as
known) a rare Mouse in most localities. Plate XXX.
;
Color.—Sexes colored some seasonal variation, but

alike;
little is known on point. this
Upperparts. — Color variable, from tawny olive to umber,
pelage slate-colored at base and showing through to some
extent. In winter grayer. Tail bicolor.
Underparts. —Whitish, sometimes with buffy wash.
Immature pelage darker than adult.
—
Measurements. Sexes of approximately equal size. Total
inch.
Geographical Distribution. —
Found in the colder zones and
mountain summits of Canada and the western United States.
Food. —Vegetation, seeds, stems, soft parts of plants; in
case of two species, needles of conifers.
^ For a recent and comprehensive revision of this genus see A.B. Howell,
North American Fauna, No. 48, 1926.

—
Enemies. —Very known of the life-history of this

little is
genus, but undoubtedly has the same enemies as Meadow

it
Mice, namely, Snakes, Hawks, Owls, and small carnivores.

The Blue Jay is said to pre}^ on the young of the two arboreal
species of Phenacomys.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Phenacomys
Intermedius Group
Characterized by short tail, and face without distinct

yellow wash; found in mountains of the West.
Rocky Mountain Phenacomys. — Phenacomys intermedius in-

termedius Merriam. Plate XXX.
As described above. Found in "British Columbia west of
the eastern divide of the Rocky Mountains, northeastern
Washington, Idaho, eastern and southern Oregon, and
northern California; thence in the mountains through
southern Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and into northern
New Mexico." (Howell) Phenacomys orophilus Merriam,
P. prehlei Merriam, and P. cofistablei Allen are all synonyms
of P. i. intermedius.
—
Alberta Phenacomys. Phenacomys intermedius levis A. B.
Howell.
Resembling typical intermedius but skull smaller and
weaker. Pelage of upperparts drab at base, tipped with
brown, feet pure white; tail faintly bicolor; underparts
grayish, sometimes tinged with buffy. Total length, 5.5
"Upon the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains at least
from central Alberta south to Teton County, Mont."
(Howell).
—
Olympic Phenacomys. Phenacomys intermedius olympicus
(Elliot).
Darkest of the short-tailed forms of the genus. Upper-
parts dark drab; underparts clear gray; feet white; tail
bicolored. Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.7
inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found "In the Hudsonian Zone
of the Olympic and Cascade Mountains of Washington, and
as far south as central Oregon." (Howell)
Sierran Phenacomys. Phenacomys intermedius celsus A. B.
Howell.
Very pale, slightly smaller than olympicus. Upperparts
wood-brown tail bicolor; underparts whitish, tinged usually
;
with buffy. Total length, 5.9 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6

inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found in "The Sierra Nevada
of California from the Lake Tahoe region south probably
as far as Tulare County." (Howell)
406
PHENACOMYS
Ungava Group
Characterized by distinct yellow coloration of face found in
;
Canada east of the Rocky Mountain region.
Ungava Phenacomys. —Phenacomys ungava ungava Merriam.

"A medium-sized, short-tailed, yellow-nosed species of
bright coloration." Upperparts bright chestnut-brown;
tail faintly bicolor; feet pale buff; underparts pale buffy
gray; face -yellowish, brightest on nose. Total length, 5.5
inches; tail vertebras, 1.3 inches; hind foot, .76 inch. Found
in "Probably suitable places throughout the whole of
407
Quebec, including Ungava, and at least as far west as central

Ontario." (Howell)
Phenacomys latimanus Merriam = Phenacomys ungava
ungava.
Labrador Phenacomys. —
Phenacomys ungava crassus (Bangs)
Large and dull-colored. Upperparts snuff-brown; under-
parts grayish; tail bicolor; nose yellowish. Total length,
Found in "Southern Labrador: Limits of range unknown."
(Howell)
—
Mackenzie Phenacomys. Phenacomys mackenzii Preble.
Rather small, tail short, feet small. Upperparts brown,
darkest on rump, grayer on foreparts; face yellowish; feet
pale; tail bicolor; underparts grayish white. Total length,
Found in "The territory east of the mountains in Alberta,
north almost to Great Bear Lake, and east to Hudson
Bay." (Howell)
Albipes Group
Characterized by long tail (slightly hairy) and sooty nose;

found along Pacific coast of northern California to Oregon.
Coast Phenacomys. —
Phenacomys albipes Merriam.
Dark brown in color, tail long. Upperparts rich warm
rich
brown, mixed with black-tipped hairs, brownest member of
the genus; tail bicolor; face sooty; feet light; underparts
clear gray, in fall pelage with buffy tinge. Total length,
6.8 inches; tail vertebra, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .78 inch.
"Occurs in a coastal strip of unknown width from Areata,
Humboldt County, Calif., north to the vicinity of the
Columbia River probably, and east as far as Vida, Oregon."
(Howell)
.
Longicaudus Group
Characterized by arboreal habit and long, heavy tail,
somewhat hairy; found in humid coastal forests of northern

California and Oregon.
Red Tree Mouse. —Phenacomys longicaudus True.
Rather large in size; tail long, somewhat hairy; toes long;
color bright reddish. Upperparts uniform cinnamon, with
a few black-tipped hairs; sides slightly paler; tail blackish;
ears and feet colored like upperparts; underparts whitish.
Females slightly larger than males. Total length, males,
6.6 inches, females, 7.3 inches; tail vertebrae, males, 2.7
inches, females, 2.9 inches; hind foot, males, .8 inch, females,
.84 inch. Found "Locally in humid coast district from
Mendocino County, Calif., into central Oregon, and possibly
to the Columbia River." (Howell)
408
PHENACOMYS
—
Forest Tree Mouse. Phenacomys silvicola A. B. Howell.
Resembling longicaudus in characters of long tail and toes,
but nose sooty and color warm brown. Upperparts cinna-
mon-brown, with some black-tipped hairs; sides slightly
paler; tail blackish; underparts whitish. Total length, 7.7
inches; tail vertebras, 3.5 inches; hind foot, .84 inch.
"Known only from the type locality, [Tillamook, Oregon]
and from Corvallis, Oreg.; undoubtedly confined to the
forested area of the humid coast belt." (Howell)
The members of the genus Phenacomys are rare in collections

and comparatively little is known of their life-histories. The
group is confined to North America, and although it has
rather a wide geographic distribution and has been eagerly
sought by collectors, only a few specimens have been taken
in the thirty-seven years that Phenacomys has been known.
These Mice frequent various habitats and have different
habits accordingly. Some forms, such as the intermedins
group, live in open, grassy parks in the forest, or in patches of
heather or moss; albipes haunts borders of small streams in
humid forests while longicaudus and silvicola are arboreal and
;
have well-made nests in coniferous trees. The terrestrial

forms sometimes make well-defined runways, when the cover
is dense, similar to those of Meadow Mice.
The nests of longicaudus are large affairs made of the
needles and twigs of the fir (Douglas and Grand Firs), four to
ten inches deep and a foot or more in diameter. The average
height from the ground about thirty feet and there is evi-
is
dence to indicate that perhaps it is mostly the females which

have an arboreal existence and that the males may be almost
entirely terrestrial in habit. Also there is reason to believe
that the Tree Mouse is more plentiful in its chosen
rather
habitat than its scarcity in collections would indicate.
The terrestrial forms of Phenacomys are very easily con-
fused with the small species of Meadow Mice. There are no
good field characters to afford a quick and certain identifica-
tion of these mammals and about the only safe way to proceed
is which are caught in
to suspect all small, short-tailed Aloles
territory known to be inhabited by the genus.
Specimens of
this rare genus are very desirable for museum collections, and
any large museum will be glad to identify these specimens for
the sake of adding to our knowledge of the group.
409
Howell believes that more than one litter of young is raised

annually and gives the number in a litter as from four to nine,
the usual number being five or six (for longicaudus one to
three). None of these Mice hibernate and it is unlikely that
any them are of any economic importance, since most of the
of
species do not come into conflict with agricultural interests.
Genus Evotomys ^
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, g ; Premolars, %\ Molars, f = i6.
Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys gapperi

and related forms
Names. —Red-backedj_Mouse Red- backed Vole. ; Plate
XXX.
General Description. —A small to medium-sized Mouse
with small eyes; low ears, just reaching above fur; short tail;
pelage rather long and usually characterized by a broad, red-
dish dorsal band; habitat cool forests and brushy areas.
Color. — vSexes colored alike, a slight seasonal variation.
Upperparts. —Winter: dorsal band from crown to base
of tail bright chestnut, sprinkled with black; sides buffy
ochraceous feet clear gray tail bicolor, brownish above, black-
; ;
tipped, grayish buff below.

Underparts. Pale buff. —
Summer pelage slightly darker.
Immature pelage with less bright tones and more subdued
coloration.
—
Geographical Distribution. Northern portions of wooded
North America.
—
Food. Green vegetation and seeds, stems, leaves, and soft
parts of grass and low-growing plants.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Foxes, Skunks,
and most small carnivores.
^The only revision of this genus now available is by Vernon Bailey.

Proceedings Biological Survey Washington, Vol. XI, pp. 1 13-138, 1897.
Some forms have been described since then and the ranges are not very
well known.
410
;
RED-BACKED MOUSE
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Evotomys.
Gapper Red-backed Mouse. — Evotomys gapperi gapperi

(Vigors).
As just described. Found "From Massachusetts, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania northward and from the Atlantic
coast westward to the Rocky Mountains in Canada."
(Bailey)
—
White Mountain Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys gapperi och-
raceiis Miller.
Slightly larger than typical gapperi, duller and paler.
Dorsal area poorly defined, dull rusty rufous; sides buffy
clay color. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6
inches; hind foot, .76 inch. Found in "The White Moun-
tains of New Hampshire and (probably eastward to)
Nova Scotia." (Bailey)
Rhoads Red-backed Mouse. — Evotomys gapperi rhoadsi Stone.
Resembling typical gapperi but dorsal stripe slightly darker.
Upperparts chestnut; sides buffy gray. Total length, 5.6
in region about Mays Landing, Atlantic County, New
Jersey; limits of range unknown.
—
Loring Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys gapperi loringi Bailey.
Size small, color bright. Upperparts (winter) pale reddish
hazel; sides ashy; feet and underparts white; tail bicolor,
blackish brown and whitish. Summer pelage dark rich
chestnut above. Total length, 5 inches; tail vertebras,
1.3 inches; hind foot, .7 inch. Found in "Timbered valleys
along edge of plains in Minnesota and eastern North and
South Dakota." (Bailey)
—
Athabasca Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys gapperi athahascce
Preble.
Resembling typical gapperi in size but lighter colored.
Upperparts as in typical gapperi, but face and sides grayer
1.6 inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found in vicinity of
Fort Smith, Slave River, Mackenzie, Canada.
—
Gale Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys gapperi galei (Merriam).
Lighter in color than typical gapperi and with slightly
longer tail. Upperparts (winter) reddish chestnut, clearly
differentiated from buffy gray sides; feet and underparts
whitish to yellowish gray. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found in " Boreal
Zone of mountains of Colorado and northward along
eastern ranges of Rocky Mountains to northern Montana."
(Bailey)
British Columbia Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys gapperi
satiiratus Rhoads.
Resembling typical gapperi but larger, longer tailed and
with conspicuous areas over lateral glands of males. Upper-
parts bright reddish chestnut; sides dark gray; underparts
411
;
white; tail indistinctly bicolor, dark gray above, light gray

below. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.8 inches;
hind foot, .72 inch. Found in "The Blue Mountains of
Oregon, mountains of northern Idaho, and northward into
British Columbia to Cariboo Lake." (Bailey)
—
Mogollon Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys limitis Bailey.
Larger than galei, colors duller and grayer. Upperparts
(summer) dark chestnut, with gray sides. Winter pelage
grayer. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1,7 inches;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found in the Mogollon Mountains of
New Mexico.
Short-tailed Red-backed —
Mouse. Evotomys hrevicaudus
(Merriam).
Differing from gapperi in larger hind foot and shorter tail;
paler in summer pelage. Total length, 5 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.25 inches; hind foot, .76 inch. Found in
"Boreal cap of Black Hills in South Dakota." (Bailey)
—
Carolina Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys carolinensis Mer-
riam.
Size large; tail long; color dark and rich. Upperparts
(summer) dark chestnut, not sharply defined from brownish
sides, sprinkled with black; ears dusky; tail faintly bicolor,
blackish above, grayish below; underparts white to buffy.
Winter pelage paler and brighter. Total length, 6 inches
"Boreal parts of Allegheny Mountains of North Carolina,
Tennessee, and West Virginia [also Virginia and Maryland]."
(Miller)
Ungava Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys ungava Bailey.
"Size about as in gapperi; tail and feet slender; ears very
small, not projecting beyond fur; colors dull; tail bicolor,
. . Dorsal area not sharply defined, dull brownish chest-
.
nut; sides and face buffy gray, finely lined with blackish
hairs; belly dark plumbeous, heavily washed wi*h buffy."
foot, .76 inch. Found about Fort Chimo, Ungava, Canada.
—
Idaho Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys idahoensis Merriam.
Larger than gapperi, with longer tail and grayer sides.
Upperparts with well-defined, pale hazel stripe; sides clear
ashy gray feet gray tail bicolor, blackish and gray under-
; ; ;
parts whitish. Total length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6

inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Mountains of south
central Idaho, between Snake River and the Sahnon."
(Bailey)
Cascade Red-backed Mouse. —
Evotomys mazama Merriam.
"Large, long- tailed, and bright- colored; ears not rufous;
. . side glands conspicuous in all of the adult males."
.
(Bailey) Upperparts with rufous or hazel dorsal band

blending into buffy gray of face and sides; grayish spot
over lateral glands; tail sharply bicolor. Total length, 6.3
inches; tail vertebra, 2 inches; hind foot, .75 inch. Found
412
RED-BACKED MOUSE
along "Crest of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon."

(Bailey)
Dusky Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys ohscurus Merriam.
"A rather large, grayish species, with small gray ears and
indistinct markings; side glands inconspicuous, but easily
discovered on blowing apart the fur. . Upperparts
. .
olive-gray, with an ill defined dorsal area of cinnamon-

rufous, obscured by black hairs; lower part of sides and
face clear gray; belly washed with dull buff; ears dusky,
not rufous tipped; feet dusky gray; tail distinctly bicolor."
foot, .70 inch. Found on "West slope of the southern
Cascade Range and northern Sierra Nevada in southern
Oregon and northern California." (Bailey)
California Red-backed Mouse. —
Evotomys californicus Mer-
riam.
Very large, dark, and long-tailed. "Upperparts dark
bister or sepia, becoming dusky on rump and dull, dark
chestnut on back; dorsal area indistinct and shading
gradually into color of sides; oval patches of dense fur
covering side glands plumbeous in slight contrast to surround-
ing fur; belly pale buffy or soiled whitish, darkened by the
plumbeous under fur; tail sharply bicolor, blackish above
and at tip all round, whitish beneath; feet whitish or
but sHghtly dusky; ears dusky, with no rufous or Hght-
colored hairs." Total length, 6.4 inches; tail vertebras,
2 inches; hind foot, .84 inch. Found in "Coast strip of
Oregon and northern California." (Bailey)
—
Western Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys occidentalis Merriam.
Smaller than californicus; tail long; dorsal area indistinct.
Upperparts (summer) dull, burnt umber to dark chestnut,
mixed with black; sides dark gray suffused with buffy;
tail almost unicolor, dusky; feet dusky; underparts buffy.
foot, .72 inch. Found in "Coast and Puget Sound region
of Washington and southern British Columbia." (Bailey)
—
Olympic Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys nivarius Bailey.
Resembling occidentalis but color lighter and brighter.
.
Upperparts with distinct band of light chestnut; sides

dark gray; tail bicolor, feet and underparts whitish. Total
length, 6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, .72 inch.
Found on "Mt. Ellinor and probably other high peaks in
the Olympic Mountains." (Bailey)
—
Labrador Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys proteus Bangs.
Size large, color variable; ear and hind foot large. Usual
color of upperparts sepia, merging into smoke-gray mixed
with yellowish on sides; feet and underparts grayish; tail
faintly bicolor. Sometimes dorsal region is bright_ chest-
nut. Total length, 6.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches;
hind foot, .82 inch. Found about Hamilton Inlet, Labra-
dor.
413
Northwestern Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys caurinus

Bailey.
Size small; colors dark; tail short. Upperparts (summer)
dark rich chestnut, sprinkled with black; dorsal band very-
distinct; sides sepia gray, with buffy tinge; face dark gray;
ears dusky; tail bicolor, above like back, below buffy;
underparts whitish to buffy. Winter pelage brighter above,
sides clearer gray. Total length, 5.4 inches; tail vertebras,
1.45 inches; hind foot, .72 inch. Found in the vicinity of
Malaspina Inlet, British Columbia.
Wrangell Island Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys wrangeli—
Bailey.
Large; dull colored; short-tailed; thick-furred. Upper-
parts dull dark chestnut; sides sepia gray; feet dusky; tail
bicolor; underparts whitish. Total length, 5.9 inches;
tail vertebrse, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found on
Wrangell and Revillagigedo Islands, southern Alaska.
—
Dark-colored Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys phcBus Swarth.
Size rather large; tail relatively long. Upperparts dark
brown, dorsal band not very distinctly outlined; sides and
face yellowish brown; tail bicolor, above like back, below
yellowish; underparts gray. Total length, 6.2 inches;
tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in
southeastern Alaska.
Dawson Red-backed Mouse. —Evotomys dawsoni dawsoni
Merriam.
A bright-colored form with prominent ears. Upperparts
bright rusty red, lightly sprinkled with black, sharply
defined from buffy sides; tail bicolor; underparts pale
buffy. Total length, 5.8 inches; tail vertebras, 1.3 inches;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found "From Finlayson River and
Fort Liard west to Yakutat and Juneau, and north along
the coast to Norton vSound." (Miller)
—
Island Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys dawsoni insularis
Heller.
Upperparts rusty rufous sides yellowish tail bicolor, above
; ;
like back, below yellowish brown; underparts grayish.

foot, .78 inch. Found on Hawkins Island, Prince William
Sound, Alaska.
—
Orca Red-backed Mouse. Evotomys orca Merriam.
Size medium; colors dark. Upperparts dark chestnut to
hazel; sides yellowish, mixed with black; face dark; tail
above, dusky, below, buffy; underparts deep buffy. Total
inch.
*******
Found in the vicinity of Orca, Prince William
Sound, Alaska.
Red-backed Mice live

essentially forest dwellers.
in cool,
They
damp localities and are
are usually distinguished
414
MEADOW MOUSE
from the Meadow Mice, which they rather closely resemble,

by the more or less conspicuous, reddish, dorsal band. When
this band is lacking, as is sometimes the case, the distinction
is not so apparent. As a rule, the closer, softer pelage, longer
ears, and rather more slender form will identify the Red-back.
Good places to seek these Mice are about old logs or in
mossy, overgrown localities. They are diurnal as well as
nocturnal in habit and usually do not occur in large colonies
like the Meadow Mice. They may be trapped in the same
spots as Microtus, and use the runaways of the Meadow
Mice in some places, but are not restricted to tunnels cut
in the grass and wander about freely, at least in temperate
regions. In the North the Red-backed Mice go to the limit
of trees and are even found on the tundras. They do not
hibernate but tunnel under the snow and move about in the
dead of winter as freely as in summer.
The number of young varies from four to eight and there are
several families a season wherever the environment is favor-
able to these Mice. The young are bom in a grass-lined
nest which is usually under the surface of the ground, but
may be under a log, rocks, or in some surface shelter. Young
have been noted from early April to October.
Genus Microtus'
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, ^; Molars, f = i6.
Meadow Mouse. — Microtus pennsylvanicus

and related forms
Names. —Meadow Mouse; Meadow Vole; Field Mouse;
Field Vole; Vole. Plate XXX.
—
General Description. A medium-sized, robust-bodied
Mouse, with long, loose pelage and comparatively short tail.
Ears short, well haired, not projecting much beyond pelage;
legs of normal length, hind legs not elongated; tail covered
with short hairs; sole of hind foot with six tubercles; claw of
thumb pointed; molar crowns bounded by a series of angles;
molars rootless; upper incisors simple, ungrooved; pelage
^ For a detailed revision of the Meadow Mice see Vernon Bailey,

North American Fauna, No. 17, 1900. Many forms have been since
described, however.
long, soft, and lax, rough in appearance; transition between

color of upper and lower parts gradual; may be active at any
hour of day or night.
Color. — Sexes colored alike; seasonal variation usually not
very marked.
Upperparts (summer) chestnut-brown varying with the
individual to yellowish chestnut, sprinkled with black along
Fig. 88. Meadow Mouse
back; feet brownish; tail above dusky, below slightly paler;

underparts gray, with dusky tinge or washed with cinnamon.
Winter pelage grayer than summer.
Immature darker than adults, nearly black.
—
Geographical Distribution. Practically all of habitable
North America.
Food. —Vegetation: grass, foliage, twigs, roots, seeds, bark.
Many and trees are included in this
species of plants, shrubs,
diet and Meadow Mice may become very destructive to field
crops and orchards; meat is eaten when occasion affords.
—
Enemies. Preyed upon by practically every predatory
creature: Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Crows, Ravens, Weasels,
416
MEADOW MOUSE
Poxes, Wildcats, Skunks, and all the other carnivorous

mammals.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Microtus.
This genus embraces so many forms that it becomes no easy

task to differentiate between the various species and sub-
species. In many cases, distinctions are based upon cranial
characters, and these, as well as superficial characters, may
be of a nature impossible to detect without an abundance of
specimens. For this reason it is easiest, when attempting to
identify one of these Mice, to employ a geographical method
of approach. From the known ranges of Meadow Mice one
can narrow down the possibilities to a comparatively few
forms and at once rule out all the rest of the genus. The
several varities of Meadow Mice living in any given locality
generally belong to distinct major groups of species or to
different subgenera which are not so troublesome to dis-
tinguish, one from the other.
Subgenus Microtus
Characterized by six plantar tubercles lateral glands in

;
skin over hips (adult males); ears generally projecting beyond

fur;mammae normally 8 in number, 4 inguinal, 4 pectoral;
and by various dental characters,
Pennsylvanicus Group
Ord Meadow Mouse; Eastern Meadow Mouse Pennsylvania

—
Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsyl-
;
vanicus (Ord.) Plate XXX.

As described above. Found in "Eastern United States and
westward as far as Dakota and Nebraska, shading into
modestus of the western plains and Rocky Mountains. In
a general way it occupies the Transition Zone from the
Atlantic coast to the edge of the Great Plains." (Bailey)
—
Albermarle Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsylvanicus ni-
grans Rhoads.
Larger and darker than typical pennsylvanicus. Upper-
parts (summer) dull bister mixed with black; feet blackish;
tail black above, sooty below; underparts ashy, sometimes
with cinnamon wash. Winter pelage darker than summer,
almost black on back. Total length, 7 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2 inches; hind foot, .95 inch. Found in "Coast
region of northern North Carolina and southern Virginia
in the Austroriparian Zone." (Bailey)
417
—
Acadian Mouse.— Mi era ius pennsylvanicus acadicus Bangs.

Smaller and paler than typical pennsylvanicus. Upper-
parts (summer) yellowish bister sprinkled with black; tail
indistinctly bicolor, above dusky, below slightly lighter;
—
underparts ashy. Winter pelage. Buffy gray above,
belly washed with pure white; tail sharply bicolor, blackish
and white. Total length, 6.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.9
inches; hind foot, .84 inch. Found in "Nova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island." (Bailey)
—
Sawatch Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus
(Baird).
Resembling typical pennsylvanicus in size but more yellow
in color. Upperparts (summer) dull ochraceous, sprinkled
with black; tail faintly bicolor, blackish and dull grayish;
feet slaty; underparts soiled whitish to ashy or cinnamon.
Winter pelage with many black hairs along upperparts;
underparts with wash of creamy white; tail more distinctly
bicolor than in summer. Total length, 7 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .82 inch. Found in "Rocky
Mountains and western Plains from New Mexico to British
Columbia, and from the Black Hills of South Dakota to
central Idaho, and beyond, with slight variation, to the
plains of the Columbia, mainly in Transition Zone."
(Bailey)
Badland Meadow Mouse; Bean Mouse. Microtus pennsyl-
vanicus wahema Bailey.
Paler than typical pennsylvanicus and slightly smaller.
Upperparts buffy, sides grayer; underparts pale gray.
foot, .8 inch. Found in the Badlands section of the
Missouri River valley and westward over southwestern
North Dakota and eastern Montana.
—
Forest Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsylvanicus fontigenus
(Bangs).
Smaller than typical perinsylvanicus. Upperparts (autumn)
dark bister mixed with black, darker on back than sides;
feet slaty; tail bicolor, blackish and grayish; underparts
washed with whitish or ashy. Total length, 6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind-foot, .84 inch. Found in
"Eastern Canada, in the Hudsonian Zone." (Bailey)
Little Labrador Meadow Mouse. —
Microtus pennsylvanicus
labradorius Bailey.
"Color. — (Much changed by alcohol.) Upperparts dark
brownish; belly whitish; tail bicolor; feet pale." (Bailey)
foot, .8 inch. Known only from Fort Chimo, Ungava,
Laborador.
—
Block Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus provectus Bangs.
Resembling typical pennsylvanicus but larger, underparts
always gray. Upperparts yellowish brown mixed with
dark brown; tail indistinctly bicolor, dusky above, grayish
418
'
MEADOW MOUSE
below; underparts clear gray, whitish along middle of

belly and between arms. Total length, 7 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found only on
Block Island, Newport County, Rhode Island.
Drummond Meadow Mouse. — Microtus drummondi (Audubon
and Bachman).
Smaller than typical pennsylvanicus, paler in color. Upper-
parts (summer) yellowish bister sprinkled with dark brown
or black-tipped hairs; more yellowish on sides of nose and
in front of ears; feet silvery gray; tail bicolor, blackish and
whitish; underparts white, sometimes washed with buffy.
Winter pelage paler, yellower on ears and nose. Total
inch. Found "From Hudson Bay to the west slope of
the Rocky Mountains and Alaska, and from the northern
edge of the United States north to Fort Anderson, N.W.T.,
in Canadian and Hudsonian Zones." (Bailey)
—
Admiralty Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus admiraltia
Heller.
Resembling drummondi but grayer. '
Upperparts grizzled
'
grayish brown, the brown predominating; sides somewhat

paler and grayer but changing rather abruptly to the light
grayish wash of the underparts. Feet grayish. Tail well
haired sharply bicolor, dusky brown above, whitish below.
,
'
(Heller) Total length, 6.2 inches; tail vertebras, 1.8 inches ;
hind foot, .84 inch. Found only on Admiralty Island,

Alaska.
—
Barren Ground Meadow Mouse. Microtus aphorodemus
_
Preble.
Similar to drummondi but larger. Upperparts dark
yellowish brown sprinkled with yellow- tipped hairs; under-
parts whitish to grayish, sometimes with wash of light
brown. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found on the Barren Grounds of Kee-
watin from the vicinity of Cape Churchill (west coast of
Hudson Bay) northward; limits of range unknown.
Aztec —
Meadow Mouse. Microtus aztecus (Allen).
Resembling typical pennsylvaniciis in size, .but tail shorter
and foot larger. Upperparts (winter) dull buffy sprinkled
with many black hairs; feet slate- colored; tail sharply
bicolor, black and soiled white; underparts washed with
creamy or pale buff. Total length, 6.9 inches; tail verte-
bras, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found in "Valley of
the San Juan River in northwestern NewMexico, in
Transition Zone." (Bailey)
Large Labrador Meadow Mouse. — Microtus enixus Bangs.
Large and darker than typical pennsylvanicus. Upper-
parts (summer) mixed dark yellowish bister and blackish;
feet dusky; tail above, black, below, grayish brown; under-
parts ashy, occasionally with buffy wash. Total length,
419
Found on "Eastern coast of Labrador from Hamilton

Inlet to Ungava Bay, in Hudsonian Zone." (Bailey)
—
Newfoundland Meadow Mouse. Microtus terrcenovcB (Bangs).
Somewhat larger than typical pennsylvanicus and yellower.
Upperparts (summer) dark russet sprinkled with brownish,
paler on sides and face; patch on nose dark buffy to dull
russet; feet grayish brown; tail bicolor, blackish and
soiled whitish; underparts ashy with median longitudinal
streak of dusky cinnamon. Winter pelage paler above
and below, with more contrast. Total length, 7.3 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .94 inch. Found
in Newfoundland and Penguin Island.
—
Beach Meadow Mouse. Microtus hreweri (Baird).
Larger and paler than typical pennsylvanicus; pelage long
and coarse; upperparts (summer) buffy gray sparingly
sprinkled with brown and black; sides paler; feet silvery
gray; tail bicolor, rusty brown to blackish and soiled
whitish. Total length, 7.3 inches; tail vertebras, 2.2 inches;
hind foot, .9 inch. Found only on Muskeget Island,
Massachusetts,
—
Gull Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus nesophilus Bailey.
Resembling pennsylvanicus in size but darker. Upper-
parts (summer) mixed dark yellowish bister and black;
nose and face dark; feet blackish; tail above, blackish,
below, dark brown; underparts dusky, tinged with cinna-
mon. Total length, 7.4 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6 inches;
hind foot, .84 inch. Found only on Great Gull Island, at
entrance to Long Island Sound, New York, and probably
now extinct.
Montanus^ Group
Peale —
Meadow Mouse. Microtus montanus montanus (Peale)
Size about that of typical pennsylvanicus; color dark; hip
glands of male conspicuous; ears very hairy. Upperparts
mixed bister or ashy and blackish; feet slate- colored; lips
usually touched with white; tail faintly bicolor, blackish
and slate-colored; underparts ashy. Total length, 7 inches;
tail vertebras, 2.1 inches; hind foot, .86 inch. Found in
"Northeastern California, eastern Oregon, northern Utah
and Nevada, in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones."
(Bailey)
Yosemite Meadow Mouse. — Microtus montanus yosemite
Grinnell.
Resembling typical montanus in size but lighter colored.
Upperparts buff to light buckthorn-brown mixed with
blackish sides much lighter feet gray tail bicolor, brown or
; ; ;
^ For a recent revision of such of the forms of this group as occur

in California see Remington Kellogg, Univ. of California Publ. in Zo-
ology, Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 245-274, 1922.
420
MEADOW MOUSE
black and gray; underparts gray to whitish. Total length,

7 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .84 inch.
Found in "Sierra Nevada and Great Basin regions of
eastern California from head of San Joaquin River, in
Fresno County, north to Goose Lake, Modoc County,
west to vicinity of Cassel, Shasta County, and east across
the Nevada line. Vertical range from 3000 feet up to 10,350
feet; zonal range Transition to Hudsonian." (Kellogg)
—
Gary Meadow Mouse. Microtus montanus caryi Bailey.
Resembling typical montanus in size but paler and with
shorter tail. Upperparts (spring pelage) warm buffy gray
grizzled with black; sides of nose clear buff; tail above
dusky, below whitish; underparts and feet white to silvery
gray. Total length, 7.1 inches; tail vertebrae, 1,8 inches;
hind foot, .84 inch. Found in Wyoming "along streams
in the arid sagebrush country of the Bear River, Green
River, and Wind River Valleys ..." (Bailey)
—
Arizona Meadow Mouse. Microtus montanus arizonensis
Bailey.
Resembling typical montanus but brighter colored. Upper-
parts (winter) yellowish to rusty brown; feet dark grayish;
tail bicolor, blackish and grayish; underparts whitish.
.8 inch. Found in "Plateau country of eastern Arizona,
at head of Little Colorado, in the Transition Zone."
(Bailey).
—
Utah Meadow Mouse. Microtus montanus rivularis (Bailey).
Larger than typical montanus, lighter in color. Upper-
parts (winter) dull bister sprinkled with black; sides almost
as dark as back; feet dull grayish; tail bicolor, blackish
and grayish; underparts whitish. Total length, "^.2 inches;
Washington Côunty, Utah, "probably restricted to Lower
Sonoran Zone." (Bailey)
Dwarf Meadow Mouse. — Microtus nanus nanus (Merriam).
"Size small; tail short;ears short and rounded; color dark
grayish; skull slender." (Bailey) Upperparts (summer)
everywhere mixed gray, sepia, and blackish; feet grayish;
tail bicolor, dusky gray and whitish; underparts whitish.
.72 inch. Found in "Rocky Mountains and outlying
ranges, from central Idaho southward to central Nevada
and southern Colorado, in Canadian Zone." (Bailey)
—
Gray Meadow Mouse. Microtus nanus canescens Bailey.
Lighter gray than typical nanus; adult males with con-
spicuous hip glands. Upperparts (summer) mixed pale
buffy and black producing general dark gray tone; sides
lighter than back feet dark gray tail bicolor, blackish and
; ;
grayish; underparts white. Total length, 6 inches; tail

vertebrae, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Northern
Washington and southern British Columbia, east of the
421
Cascades. Apparently confined to the Transition Zone."

(Bailey)
Gray-tailed Meadow Mouse. — Microtus canicaudus Miller.
Resembling typical nanus but yellower, tail grayer. Upper-
parts (winter) bright yellowish bister sprinkled with black;
sides paler; feet grayish; tail unicolor, grayish, with faint
dusky dorsal line. Summer pelage much as in winter,
tail more dusky on upperside. Total length, 5.6 inches;
tail vetebrte, 1.4 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in
"Willamette Valley, Oregon, and the east base of the
Cascades in southern Washington, in Transition Zone."
(Bailey)
Dutcher —
Meadow Mouse.^ Microtus dutcJieri Bailey.
"Size rather small; tail short; ears small, nearly concealed
by fur; color dark above and below; lips and usually nose
white; hip glands present in adult males." Upperparts
(summer) dark bister and brown; feet grayish; tail bicolor,
dusky and whitish; underparts dull cinnamon to buffy
brown. Total length, 6.5 inches; tail vertebras, 1.5 inches;
hind foot, .82 inch. Found in "Hudsonian Zone of the
southern Sierra Nevada." (Bailey)
—
Nevada Meadow Mouse. Microtus nevadensis Bailey.
"Size large; ears small; tail rather short; fur coarse and
lax; colors dark; hip glands conspicuous in adult males."
(Bailey) Upperparts (winter) dark sepia or bister, heavily-
sprinkled with blackish; sides lighter; feet dark gray; tail
faintly bicolor, blackish and gray; usually white on lips
and tip of nose; underparts ashy. Total length, 8 inches;
tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, i.o inch. Found in
Nye County (Ash Meadows) and Pahranagat Valley,
Nevada, Lower Sonoran Zone.
Califomicus^ Group
West-central California Meadow Mouse. — Microtus californi-

cus californicus (Peale).
Size medium; ears large and rising well above fur; hip
glands on adult males; pelage coarse and harsh. Upper-
parts ochraceous tawny to cinnamon-buff, sprinkled with
blackish; sides with less black; feet grayish; tail bicolor,
dark clove-brown and gray; underparts gray. Total
length, 7 inches; tail vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .88
inch. Found in "Coastal region of west-central California,
west of San Joaquin Valley, from Pozo, San Luis Obispo
County, north to San Francisco, and to Walnut Creek, Con-
tra Costa County. Vertical range from sea level up at
least to 2800 feet; zonal range Upper Sonoran and Transi-
tion." (Kellogg)
^ For a recent and full revision of this group see Remington Kellogg,
University of California Publications in Zoology, Vol. 21, No. i, pp.

1-42, 1918.
422
MEADOW MOUSE
Cape Mendocino Meadow Mouse. —

Microtus californicus con-
Bailey.
strict iis
Size slightly smaller than typical californicus; color duller.
Upperparts from buckthorn-brown to ochraceous tawny,
sprinkled with blackish hairs; underparts grayish, rest of
pelage about as in typical californicus. Total length,
6.8 inches; tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, .84 inch.
Found in "Northwest coast of California in vicinity of
Cape Mendocino, Humboldt County, from Capetown
north to Eureka and interiorly to Fair Oaks and Cudde-
back. Vertical range from sea level up at least to 1000
feet; zonal range Transition." (Kellogg)
—
Sanhedrin Meadow Mouse. Microtus californicus eximius R.
Kellogg.
Distinguished from typical californicus chiefly by cranial
characters; color about as in typical californicus, except
that tail is dark fuscous black above instead of dark brown.
Total length, ^.2 inches; tail vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot,
.88 inch. Found in "Northwestern California (excepting
a narrow coastal strip from Cape Mendocino north to
Oregon line), and south-central Oregon; from Olema,
Marin County, California, east to Rumsey, Yolo County,
and north to Drain, in the Umpqua River Valley, Oregon.
Vertical range from sea level up to 7500 feet; zonal range
Upper Sonoran and Transition." (Kellogg)
Tule Meadow Mouse. — Microtus californicus csstuarinus- R.
Kellogg._
Large in size, dark in color. Upperparts near cinnamon-
buff sprinkled with black; lighter on sides and rump due
to absence of black hairs; lips whitish; nose dark; tail
bicolor, blackish and gray; feet dark brown; underparts
grayish. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebras, 2.4 inches;
hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "San Joaquin and Sacra-
mento River valleys, from Tulare Lake, Kings County,
north to Chico, Butte County, and east to near Gait, in
San Joaquin County; also west along north side of San
Francisco Bay to Bolinas, Marin County. Vertical range
from sea level up to hardly 500 feet zonal range Lower and
;
Upper Sonoran." (Kellogg)

Mariposa Meadow Mouse. — Microtus californicus mariposcB
R. Kellogg.
Size large, color warm brown. Upperparts tawny olive or
pinkish buff sprinkled with blackish: sides and rump with
less black than back; feet gray; tail bicolor, blackish and
gray; underparts gray. Total length, 8 inches; tail verte-
bras, 2.4 inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "Western
foothillregion of Siena Nevada, from Minkler, Fresno
County, north to Dutch Flat, Placer County. Vertical
range from 200 feet up to at least 3800 feet; zonal range
Upper Sonoran and Transition." (Kellogg)
423
Owens Valley Meadow Mouse. —Microtus californicus valli-

cola Bailey.
Large and dark. Upperparts mixed buff and dark brown
or black; feet gray; tail bicolor, black and giay; under-
parts gray. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.4
inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "Owens Valley
region of California, east of Sierra Nevada, from Olancha,
Inyo County, north to Benton, Mono County; east to
head of Willow Greek in north end of Panamint Mountains.
Vertical range from 3700 feet up at least to 5400 feet;
zonal range Lower and Upper Sonoran." (Kellogg)
Amargosa Meadow Mouse. — Microtus californicus scirpensis
(Bailey).
Large and bright- colored. Upperparts cinnamon-buff to
buckthorn-brown, with light sprinkling of black; sides
lighter; rest of pelage about as in typical californicus.
Total length, 8.5 inches; tail vertebrse, 2,7 inches; hind
foot, i.o inch. Found only in "a small tule marsh at a
spring near Shoshone on the Amargosa River, in eastern
Inyo County. Altitude of station 1500 to 1600 feet;
zonal range Lower Sonoran." (Kellogg)
—
Kern River Meadow Mouse. Microtus californicus kernensis
R. Kellogg.
Size large, color light. Upperparts clay color to cinnamon-
buff, with light sprinkling of blackish brown; sides lighter;
feet gray; tail bicolor, warm sepia and whitish; under-
parts gray. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5
inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in "Kern River basin,
from Taylor Meadow, Tulare County, west to Bakersfield
and Fort Tejon, Kern County. Vertical range from 400
feet up to 7000 feet; zonal range Lower Sonoran to Transi-
tion." (Kellogg)
Mohave River Meadow Mouse. —
Microtus californicus moha-
vensis R. Kellogg.
Size large. Upperparts ochraceous tawny to cinnamon-
buff, lightly sprinkled with blackish; sides with less black;
feet gray; tail bicolor, brownish or blackish and pale gray;
underparts gray. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebrae,
2.6 inches; hind foot, .96 inch. Found in a "limited area
along the Mohave River, in San Bernardino County, from
Victorvillenorth to Oro Grande. Vertical range from
2500 feet up at least to 2700 feet; zonal range Lower
Sonoran." (Kellogg)
—
Southern California Meadow Mouse. Microtus californicus
sanctidiegi R. Kellogg.
Size large. Upperparts buckthorn-brown to cinnamon-buff,
lightly sprinkled with blackish; sides brighter; rump with-
out black hairs; feet grayish white; tail usually bicolor,
blackish and whitish; underparts grayish in general tone,
often with light buffy wash on breast. Total length, 8
424
MEADOW MOUSE
Found in "San Diegan faunal district, from Mountain

Spring and mouth of Tiajuana River, San Diego County,
northwest to Gaviota Pass, Santa Barbara County, and
north to Bluff Lake, San Bernardino Mountains, San
Bernardino County. Vertical range from sea level up at
least to 9000 feet; zonal range Lower Sonoran to Canadian."
(Kellogg)
Operarius Group
Tundra Meadow Mouse. — Microtus operarius operarius
(Nelson).
"Size small; tail short, densely haired; ears small and wholly
concealed in long winter fur; colors yellowish." (Bailey)
Upperparts (winter) dark, rich buff lightly sprinkled with
black on dorsal region; sides with less black; feet gray;
tail with faint blackish line on upper side, dirty whitish
on sides and undersurface, underparts pale buffy to creamy
white. Summer pelage darker yellow above, more buffy
below. Total length, 6.7 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6 inches;
hind foot, .8 inch. Found on "Barren grounds from
Bristol Bay, St. Michael, and Kowak River, Alaska, east
to Anderson River." (Bailey)
Interior Meadow Mouse. — Microtus operarius endcecus Os-
good.
Resembling typical operarius in size and color, but with
slightly larger skull; distinguished from drummondi by
yellowish coloration, especially by buffy yellow underparts.
foot, .8 inch. Found in east central Alaska.
—
Macfarlane Meadow Mouse. Microtus macfarlatii Merriam.
Resembling operarius but with shorter tail; pelage very
long in winter. Upperparts (winter) light buffy gray; feet
gray; tail bicolor, black and white; underparts whitish.
Summer pelage darker, more buffy. Tail vertebrae, 1.2
inches; hind foot, .75 inch. Found in "Tundra region of
Arctic America, east of the Mackenzie River." (Bailey)
—
Yakutat Meadow Mouse. Microtus yakutatensis Merriam.
Size of operarius, pelage dusky. Upperparts (summer)
dusky gray, with light wash of brownish dorsally; feet
gray; tail bicolor, black and whitish; underparts soiled
whitish to pale buffy. Total length, 6.5 inches; tail
vertebrce, 1.5 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found on "Main-
land of Alaska from Glacier Bay to Prince William Sound."
(Bailey)
—
Kadiak Meadow Mouse. Microtus kadiacensis Merriam.
Larger than yakutatensis; underparts white; ears small.
Upperparts (summer) yellowish brown sprinkled with a
few black hairs on dorsal region; feet gray; tail faintly
bicolor, black and whitish; underparts with wash of clear
white. Total length, 7.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches;
hind foot, .84 inch. Found only on Kadiak Island, Alaska.
425
Unalaska Meadow Mouse. — Microtus unalascensis unalas-

censis Merriam.
Larger and heavier than operarius underparts white upper-
; ;
parts dull yellowish brown, darkened on head and rump;

tip of nose whitish; feet gray; tail bicolor, blackish and
soiled white; underparts white to soiled whitish. Total
inch. Found only on Island of Unalaska, Alaska.
—
Popof Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus unalascensis popof-
e7isisMerriam.
Resembling typical unalascensis but with no white on nose.
Upperparts and underparts as in typical unalascensis except
that nose is dusky to tip. Total length, 7.5 inches; tail
vertebras, 1.7 inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found only on
Popof Island. Alaska.
Sitka Meadow Mouse. —
Microtus sitkensis Merriam.
Size of unalascensis which it somewhat resembles in color.
Upperparts (summer) rusty brown, sprinkled with blackish,
brownest on nose and rump; sides with less black; nose
blackish; feet grayish; tail bicolor, black and pale buff;
underparts dark buff. Total length, 7.6 inches; tail
vertebras, 1.8 inches; hind foot, .92 inch. Found only on
Baranof Island, Alaska.
Innuit Meadow Mouse. — Microtus innuitiis Merriam.
Size large; tail sharply bicolor. Known only from im-
perfect specimens from owl pellets and hence most of ex-
ternal characters are unknown. Tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches;
hind foot, .92 inch. Found only on St. Lawrence Island,
Bering Sea, Alaska.
—
Montague Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus elymocetes Os-
good.
Size large for the operarius group
' resembling typical
;
operarius in color but slightly darker, with underparts

heavily washed with buffy. Upperparts raw umber in
tone, mixed cinnamon and dusky; forefeet dusky brown;
hind feet grayish white on toes, dusky brown on "ankles";
tail sharply bicolor, dusky brownish above, whitish gray
below. Total length, 8 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches;
hind foot, .9 inch. Found only on Montague Island,
Prince William Sound, Alaska.
Abbreviatus Group
Hall Island Meadow Mouse. —

Microtus abbreviatus abbrevia-
tus Miller.
Size large; tail very short; feet large and strong; ears
hidden in long fur. Upperparts (summer) dark buff; feet
dirty white; tail bicolor, dark brownish and creamy; under-
parts creamy white to pale buff. Total length, 6.4 inches;
tail vertebrae, i.o inches; hind foot, .93 inch. Found only
on Hall Island, Bering Sea, Alaska,
426
MEADOW MOUSE
St. Matthew Island Meadow Mouse. — Microtus ahhreviatus

fisheri Merriam.
Slightly larger and darker than typical ahhreviatus. Upper-
parts (summer) dark rich buff, sprinkled with black dor-
sally; feet buffy; tail with faint dusky line above, sides and
under surface buff; underparts strongly buffy. Total
length, 6.6 inches; tail vertebras, i.i inches; hind foot, .90
inch. Found only on St. Matthew Island, Bering Sea,
Alaska.
—
Alaska Mountain Vole. Microtus miurus miurus Osgood.
Resembling ahhreviatus of which it is a miniature. Upper-
parts uniform pale tawny to pale buffy gray, more or less
mixed with black; underparts washed with buffy; tail
above, dusky, below, buffy. Total length, 6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.2 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Pound above
timber line in the mountains near Hope City, Tumagain
Arm, Cook Inlet, Alaska.
—
Toklat River Vole. Microtus miurus oreas Osgood.
"Similar to M. miurus but tone of color more ochraceous
(not so yellowish) throughout; tail slightly shorter and
chiefly ochraceous, slightly or not at all darker above than
below." (Osgood) Found about the head of Toklat
River, Alaskan Range, Alaska.
Townsendii Group
Townsend Meadow Mouse. — Microtus townsendii (Bachman).

Very large in size; ears conspicuous; adult males with well-
developed hip glands. Upperparts (summer) Vandyke
brown, plentifully sprinkled with black; sides dark buffy
gray; tail almost monocolor, blackish above, slightly
lighter below; feet dark gray; underparts grayish to dusky.
Winter pelage lighter above (grayer) and below. Total
inches. Found in low country west of the Cascades, from
the Puget Sound region south along the coast as far as
Eureka, California, up the valleys of the Willamette and
Rogue Rivers.
Vancouver Meadow Mouse. — Microtus tetramerus (Rhoads).
,Resembling toivnsendii but Pelage practi-
slightly smaller.
ically identical to that of townsendii. Total length, 7.2
Found on the southern end of Vancouver Island, British
Columbia.
Longicaudus Group
Long-tailed Meadow Mouse. — Microtus longicaudus (Mer-
riam).
Resembling pennsylvanicus in body size but tail longer,
ears larger, and color grayer. Upperparts (summer)
427
dull bister sprinkled with black; sides grayer; feet dark

gray; tail faintly bicolor, blackish and soiled whitish;
underparts dull buffy gray. Winter pelage grayer above,
tail more distinctly bicolor. Total length, 7.4 inches;
tail vertebras, 2.6 inches; hind foot, .84 inch. Found in
higher parts of the Black Hills, South Dakota, and down
the valleys of some of the cold streams into the Transition
Zone.
Cantankerous Meadow Mouse. — Microtus mordax mordax
(Merriam).
Resembling longicaudus; no conspicuous hip glands in
males. Upperparts (summer) grayish bister; sides grayer;
nose dusky; feet dark gray; tail faintly bicolor, dusky and
soiled whitish; underparts whitish. Winter pelage lighter
colored, more contrast between dorsal region and sides;
underparts whiter; tail sharply bicolor; feet whitish. Total
inch. Found in "Rocky Mountains and outlying ranges
from latitude 60° to northern New Mexico, and south in
the Cascades and Sierra Nevada as far as Kaweah and
Kern rivers, California. In the Cascades mainly confined
to the east slope, but extending west tothe Siskiyous, in
southern Oregon, and Salmon and Trinity mountains, in
northern California. Found in most of the isolated
ranges of eastern Oregon and northern and central Nevada.
Common in Canadian and Hudsonian Zones." (Bailey)
Sierra Nevada Meadow Mouse. — Microtus mordax sierrce R.
Kellogg.
Resembling typical mordax but color of upperparts and
sides slightly darker. "Upperparts mixed cinnamon-buff
to tawny olive and brownish black to black; rump and
sides grayer; underparts pale gray. Total length, 7.8
in eastern and northern California and adjoining parts of
Oregon, in Sierra Nevada, White, and Trinity Mountains.
—
San Bernardino Meadow Mouse. Microtus mordax hernar-
dinus Merriam.
Very much like typical mordax in size and color but differ-
ing in skull characters. Total length, 7.3 inches; tail
vertebrse, 2.5 inches; hind foot, .88 inch. Found in the
San Bernardino Mountains of southern Cahfomia from
7500-9050 feet above sea-level.
—
Tillamook Meadow Mouse. Microtus mordax abditus A. B.
Howell.
A very large, dark subspecies of mordax. Most nearly
like macrurus but darker and with longer foot and tail.
Total length, 8.8 inches; tail vertebrÊ, 3.7 inches; hind
foot, 1. 14 inches. Found "along the humid coast strip
from the mouth of the Columbia River to southern Oregon;
or possibly into extreme northern California." (Howell)
428
MEADOW MOUSE
Olympic Meadow Mouse. — Microtus mordax macrurus (Mer-

riam).
Resembling typical mordax but larger and darker. Upper-
parts (summer) dark bister, heavily spiinkled with black;
sides paler; feet dark gray; tail bicolor, blackish or brown-
ish and soiled whitish; usually tipped with white; under-
parts dull buffy to whitish. Total length, S.2 inches;
Olympic Mountains, and Mt. Rainier, Washington, and
along the coast strip of British Columbia and Alaska north
to Yakutat; possibly as far south as the Columbia River.
—
Coronation Island Meadow Mouse. Microtus coronarius
Swarth.
Much like macrurus in coloration but much larger. Upper-
parts dark Vandyke brown mixed with black; sides of
head much paler; feet grayish white; tail bicolor, above
brownish black, below whitish. Total length, 8.6 inches;
tail vertebrae, 3.4 inches; hind foot, i inch. Found on
Coronation and Warren Islands, Alaska.
—
Coast Meadow Mouse. Microtus angusticeps Bailey.
"Smaller and darker colored than typical mordax."
(Bailey) Upperparts (summer) dark bister, sprinkled with
black; face and nose darker, sides paler; feet dark gray;
tail bicolor, blackish and soiled whitish; underparts creamy
hind foot, .88 inch. Found in the "Coast region of north-
western California and southwestern Oregon." (Bailey)
—
Mountain Meadow Mouse. Microtus alticola aUicola (Mer-
riam).
Resembling longicaudus but with shorter tail and smaller
hind foot and ear. Upperparts (summer) sepia to dull
bister, with sprinkling of black; sides a little paler; feet
grayish; tail faintly bicolor, blackish to grayish; under-
parts pale buffy to whitish. Total length, 7 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.2 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in "Boreal
Zone of San Francisco Mountain (Arizona), from 8,200
feet altitude up to timberline at 11,000 feet." (Bailey)
Graham Mountain Meadow Mouse. — Microtus alticola leuco-
phceus (Allen).
Resembling typical alticola but slightly larger. Upper-
parts and underparts as in typical alticola. Total length,
7 inches; tail vertebr£e, 2 inches; hind foot .9 inch. Found
only in the Graham Mountains, Graham County, Arizona.
Mexicanus Group
Guadalupe Meadow Mouse. — Microtus mexicanus guadalu-
pensis Bailey.
A small to medium-sized Mouse with short tail. "Upper-
parts dull umber brown; belly buffy gray; feet and tail
brownish gray." (Bailey) Total length, 6 inches; tail
429
— —
vertebrse, 1.4 inches; hind foot, .8 inch. Found in the

Guadalupe Mountains, El Paso County, Texas; in Transi-
tion Zone.
MogoUon Mountain Meadow Mouse. — Microtus mogoUonen-
sis (M earns).
"Size small; tail and feet short; color dull rusty brown; fur
long and soft; ears not concealed. Upperparts dull
. . .
rusty brown, brightest on tips of ears; sides slightly paler;

belly cinnamon or buffy gray; feet grayish brown; tail
brownish gray above, grayish below." (Bailey) Total
inch. Found in "Plateau country of central Arizona."
(Bailey)
Xanthognathus Group
Yellow-cheeked Meadow Mouse. Microtus xanthognathus
(Leach).
Size very large; yellow on nose and ear patch; side glands
in adult males. Upperparts (early summer) dark sepia to
bister, heavily sprinkled with coarse, black hairs; bright
rusty yellowish on sides of nose and ear patch and a wash
of same shade about eye and on cheek; tail faintly bicolor,
blackish and dusky gray; feet soot}^; underparts dusky gray,
sooty on pectoral region. Total length, 8.6 inches; tail
vertebras, 2 inches; hind foot, 1.04 inches. Found in
"Northwestern Canada and Alaska, from central Alberta
north to the Arctic coast and west to central Alaska."
(Bailey)
Chrotorrhinus Group
Rock Vole. <

Microtus chrotorfhinus chrotorrhinus (Miller).
Resembling pennsylvanicus in size and general proportions,
but hind foot smaller, ears larger, and color much different.
Upperparts (summer) bright glossy bister sprinkled with
black; dull orange-rufous from nose to eyes; yellowish about
ears and rump; feet dark gray; tail above, grayish brown,
below, slightly paler; underparts dark gray. Winter
pelage darker and with more rusty above. Total length,
Found in "Mount Washington, the Catskills, central
Quebec, and northern New Brunswick, in the Hudsonian
Zone." (Bailey)
—
Gray Rock Vole. Microtus chrotorrhinus ravus Bangs.
Grayer than typical chrotorrhinus and more yellow on nose
and face. Upperparts (summer) grayish bister; yellowish
on nose, face, and rump feet buffy gray tail above, brown-
; ;
ish, below, slightly paler; underparts dark gray washed

with white. Total length, 6.5 inches; tail vertebras, 2
inches; hind foot, .86 inch. Found about Black Bay,
Strait of Belle Isle, Labrador.
430
MEADOW MOUSE
Subgenus Aulacomys
Characterized by conspicuous side glands on adult males; a
musk-bearing anal gland; five plantar tubercles; large feet;
long tail; long and full pelage.
Richardson Meadow Mouse. — Microtus richardsoni richard-

soni (De Kay).
Largest of the American Meadow Mice. Upperparts
(winter) grayish sepia sprinkled with black; sides paler;
feet silvery gray; tail bicolor, dusky and soiled whitish;
underparts washed with white. Total length, 9 inches;
tail vertebra, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 1.12 inches. Found in
the vicinity of Jasper House and Henry House, Alberta,
Canada.
Big-footed Meadow Mouse. —
Microtus richardsoni macropus
(Merriam). Plate XXX.
Resembling typical richardsoni but somewhat smaller.
Upperparts (summer) dark sepia mixed with black; sides
paler; feet dark gray; tail bicolor, sooty and whitish;
underparts washed with silvery white. Winter pelage
grayer above, with less black; more white below. Total
inches. Found in "Boreal Zone of the Rocky Mountains
from the Wasatch north to Canada, of the Wind River
Mountains of Wyoming, the Blue Mountains of Oregon,
and most of the intermediate ranges." (Bailey)
—
Cascade Meadow Mouse. Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides
(Rhoads).
Size of typical richardsoni, larger than macropus, darker
than either, Upperparts (summer): dark sepia mixed with
black; feet dusky gray; tail bicolor, blackish and soiled
whitish; underparts lightly washed with gray to silvery
white. Winter pelage darker above, more white below.
Total length, 9.4 inches; tail vertebrce, 3.2 inches; hind foot,
1. 16 inches: maximum size, total length, 10 inches; tail
vertebrce, 3.6 inches. Found in "Boreal Zone of the
Cascade Mountains, in Washington and Oregon." (Bailey)
Subgenus Pedomys
Characterized by presence of five plantar tubercles; long,
•coarsefur; side glands wanting or indiscernible; ears of
medium size.
Prairie Meadow Mouse. —

Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner).
Resembling pennsylvanicus in size, but tail shorter and
pelage coarser. Upperparts (winter) dark gray, grizzled
black and pale fulvous; sides paler; feet dusky; tail bi-
color, dusky and buffy; underparts pale cinnamon to
fulvous. Summer pelage darker. Total length, 6 inches;
431

"Central part of Mississippi Valley from southern Wiscon-
sin to southern Missouri and Fort Reno, Oklahoma, and
west into eastern Nebraska and Kansas. "_ (Bailey)
—
Louisiana Meadow Mouse. Microtus ludovicianus Bailey.
_
Resembling ochrogaster in size and color, but differing in

cranial characters (slenderer rostrum and nasals, and
larger bullae). Upperparts (winter) grizzled black, brown,
and white, producing general effect of dark gray; tail
faintly bicolor, dusky and buffy; underparts dull fulvous
to dark buffy. Total length, 6.5 inches; tail vertebrse, 1.3
inches; hind foot, .74 inch. Found in "Coast prairie of
southwestern Louisiana, in Lower Austral Zone." (Bailey)
Hayden Meadow Mouse; Western Upland Mouse. Microtus —
haydeni (Baird).
Larger and lighter colored than ochrogaster. Upperparts
(summer) light gray, grizzled whitish and blackish; feet
dusky gray; tail bicolor, dusky and whitish; underparts,
silvery white to soiled whitish or light buff. Total length,
Found in "Plains region of western South Dakota, Nebraska,
and Kansas, eastern Colorado and Wyoming, and southern
Montana, in Transition Zone." (Bailey)
—
Least Meadow Mouse; Little Upland Mouse. Microtus mi-
nor (Merriam).
Size very small, with a rudimentary sixth tubercle on sole
of hind foot. Upperparts (winter) gray, grizzled black and
whitish; feet gray; tail bicolor, dusky and buffy; under-
parts soiled whitish to pale buffy. Summer pelage mixed
with fulvous above; underparts darker. Total length, 5.2
on " Northern border of the Great Plains from northeastern
North Dakota to Edmonton, Alberta, and southeastward
to Minneapolis, Minn." (Bailey)
Subgenus Chilotus
Characterized by presence of five plantar tubercles; small

and dense without stiff hairs; side glands absent
ears; fur close
or obscure.
Oregon Meadow Mouse. — Microtus oregoni oregoni (Bach-

man).
Size small tail long fur short.
; ; Upperparts grizzled bister
and blackish; ears rising above fur, blackish; feet dark gray;
tail blackish above, slightly Hghter below; underparts dark
gray washed with buffy. Total length, 5.6 inches; tail
vertebrae, 1.6 inches; hind foot, .68 inch. Found in "Pa-
cific coast region from northern California to Puget Sound.'"
(Bailey)
432
MEADOW MOUSE
—
Rainier Meadow Mouse. Microtus oregoni cantwelli Taylor.
Larger than typical oregoni, slightly paler in color and with
different skull characters. Upperparts (midsummer) buck-
thorn brown; underparts grayish. Total length, 6 inches;
the dcinity of Mount Rainier, Washington (Chelan, Yaki-
ma, and Snohomish Counties).
YoUa Bolly Meadow Mouse. — Microtus oregoni adocetus
Merriam.
Very much paler and larger than typical oregoni. Upper-
parts sepia to reddish sepia brown; tail above, dark brown-
below, paler; feet whitish; underparts dull buffy.
ish,
Total length, 6.9 inches; tail vertebrce, 2 inches; hind foot,
.84 inch. Found in only the Boreal Zone on the South
Yolla Bolly Mountain, Tehama County, California.
—
Creeping Meadow Mouse. Microtus serpens Merriam.
Largest of the subgenus Chilotus; tail short; dark in color.
Upperparts (winter) uniform sooty gray; sides lighter; feet
dark gray; ears concealed in long fur; tail above, sooty,
below, silvery gray; underparts dark gray washed with
buff. Summer pelage paler and browner. Total length,
Found in "Low country of southern British Columbia and
northern Washington between the Cascade Mountains and
Paget Sound." (Bailey)
—
Baird Meadow Mouse. Microtus hairdi Merriam.
Smaller than oregoni; tail short; pelage short and glossy;
ears nearly hidden in fur. Upperparts glossy yellowish
bister, paler on sides; nose dusky; feet dark gray; tail
faintly bicolor, dusky and dark gray; underparts washed
with whitish. Total length, 5.2 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.3
inches; hind foot, .70 inch. Found only on Glacier Peak,
.Crater Lake, Oregon.
The Meadow Mouse one of the commonest of our small

is
mammals and in one many varying forms is found

of its
throughout practically the entire extent of North America
from the Barren Grounds southward. So adaptable to
different environments is this small rodent that we find
Meadow Mice living under all conditions, from swamp lands
to dry, semibarren plains, and from sea-level up to the sum-
mits of high mountain ranges. In size and color there is a
corresponding range of variation associated with the diversity
of habitat.
Probably the best known members of the genus are the
forms of the pennsylvanicus group, which live in meadows
and grass-lands, usually in considerable numbers, and denote
433
their presence by well-defined runways through the grass.

These Mice may be anywhere, provided there is sufficient
grass and low-growing foliage for food and cover, but the
best places to look for them are the extensive growths of
rank, heavy grass where there is sufficient moisture to main-
tain a meadow the year around. Here Microtus is found in
large colonies and the runways may be traced for long dis-
tances.
These runways are easily recognized as the highways of
small mammals. To form them the Mouse and deflects
cuts
the grass to form a clear passage or tunnel, and the floor is
kept clean of obstructions. Characteristic pellets, the mouse
droppings, are a feature of the runways, and are usually con-
centrated at intervals, often near the mouth of a burrow.
Here and there along the runways are holes leading down to
subterranean burrows and runways where the animals have
their nests. Often the runways make an obvious use of the
natural features of the terrain and extend along the sides of
logs, the lower rails of fences, etc. While most of the activities
of the colony are centered about the runways, individuals
may be trapped where there are no runways, showing that
the Mice are not entirely dependent upon them.
The runways afford shelter from enemies and Meadow
Mice are more or less active throughout the day. One
frequently sees a Mouse darting along these tunnels in the
grass, and during haying time numbers are caught above
ground. Some species have grass nests for summer occupancy
at the surface or beneath flat rocks, pieces of bark, boards,
etc. Most of these Mice, however, retreat underground
when not feeding. Probably Meadow Mice are most active
at night, even in the case of those species which are seen
during the daytime, for traps seem to catch the most between
the hours of sunset and sunrise.
The forms of the pennsylvanicus group have a very wide
geographical distribution, but nearly everywhere throughout
this range the preferred environment for pennsylvanicus and
its relatives is heavy grass-lands. The forms of most of the
other groups of species in the subgenus Microtus may be sought
in a like environment.The high-altitude species like nanus
mountain meadows and parks, and some of
live in beautiful
the mountain species go above the tree limit and are found in
434
MEADOW MOUSE
the zone of dwarfed plants and thick mosses. The large

townsendii is abundant in the luxuriant river-bottom meadows
along the Willamette and Columbia rivers. Some of the
forms of californicus are found in regions of scanty rainfall,
but one must locate grass-land near streams before the Mouse
can be encountered in any abundance.
In the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other ranges
species such as mordax may be encountered in scattered
localities where there are no meadows, and the Mice live in
the same situations as the White-footed Mice, under logs and
rocks. I have never encountered large colonies under these
conditions, however.
The large members of the subgenus Aulacomys, living in the
higher zones of the Rocky and Cascade Mountains and in
Alberta, are not as abundant, if my experience with macropus
may be taken as a criterion, as the forms of the subgenus
Microtus. They are found about cold mountain streams and
are large enough to pull out of the average mouse-trap.
On the open plains region east of the Rocky Mountains,
and on the sagebrush plains between these mountains and
the Cascade-Sierra system, one finds the Meadow Mice of
the subgenus Pedomys {Microtus) and genus Lagurus. Some
of these Mice are rare and very local, found only in small,
scattered colonies. Throughout most of this territory the
commoner species of the other groups of Meadow Mice are
found as well.
The Meadow Mice of the subgenus Chilotus are more sub-
terranean in habit than their relatives. Microtus oregoni
oregoni, the only species of this group I have observed, makes
small runways just under the surface of the ground, under the
sod, and seldom comes out on top of the ground. During
several years of trapping in a region where they are found,
the only specimens taken were caught in traps set in these
subterranean paths. The close thick pelage of these Mice is
another indication of a highly modified, subterranean exist-
ence.
Meadow Mice are very prolific and wherever conditions are
favorable doubtless have several litters of young annually.
The number of young to a birth varies somewhat with the
group and the subgenus, but is probably from four to eight.
Plagues of Meadow Mice have been recorded both in the
435
Old and New Worlds, and after a season or two of unusually

favorable food conditions the numbers of these Mice may
be swelled to an unbelievable extent. Some of the species
are very destructive to crops, not only to grain and pastures,
but to orchards. Although the Mice are the favorite prey
of a host of enemies, they are well able to hold their own or
under favorable food conditions to far exceed the normal
status.
Meadow Mice do not hibernate but are active summer
and winter. With the meiting of snow in the spring there
often is disclosed the traces of activity which went on under
the protecting white mantle.
Genus Lagurus^
Very similar to the genus Microtus of which it was formerly
a subgenus. Characterized by presence of five plantar
tubercles; glands on flanks; very short tail; pale coloration;
lax fur.
Subgenus Lemmiscus
Short-tailed Meadow Mouse. —Lagurus curtatus curtatus

(Cope).
"Tail very short; feet hairy; fur long and lax; color pale
buffy gray." (Bailey) Upperparts (winter) pale buffy
gray to ashy gray; sides paler; ears tinged with buff; feet
soiled whitish; tail soiled whitish, with faint dusky dorsal
line; underparts silvery white to soiled whitish. Summer
pelage slightly darker. Total length, 5.6 inches; tail
vertebra, i.i inches; hind foot, .70 inch. Found in "Tran-
sition Zone of the low mountain ranges in western Nevada
and eastern California east of the Sierra Nevada and north
of Death Valley." (Bailey)
Sagebrush Meadow Mouse. —Lagurus curtatus artemisicE
(Anthony).
Resembling typical curtatus in color but slightly smaller
and differing in cranial characters, Upperparts pale gray
lightly washed with brownish on crown and rump; base
of tail and lower rump buffy; tail faintly bicolor, above
like back, below, buffy white; ears blackish with a few
buffy hairs at base; underparts silvery white. Total
length, 5.1 inches; tail vertebras, i inch; hind foot, .68 inch.
Found on sagebrush plains of Malheur County, Oregon, in
Upper Sonoran Zone; limits of range unknown.
^ See footnote, page 415.
.
PINE MOUSE
—
Intermediate Meadow Mouse. Lagurus intermedius (Taylor)
Smaller than typical curtatus, slightly larger and paler than
pauperrimus. Upperparts grayish, no buffy on ears and
nose; underparts silvery white. Total length, 4.9 inches;
tail vertebrae, i inch; hind foot, .68 inch. Found in the
Transition Zone of the Pine Forest Mountains, Humboldt
County, Nevada.
Pallid Meadow yionsQ.— Lagurus pallidus (Alerriam).
Paler and smaller than curtatus; the palest Meadow Mouse
found in America. Upperparts pale buffy gray, tinged with
buff on ears and nose; feet pale gray; tail dusky above,
whitish below; underparts white to soiled whitish. Total
length, 4.8 inches; tail vertebrae, .80 inch; hind foot. .74
inch. Found in "Transition prairies of western North
Dakota, Montana, and as far north as Calgary, Alberta."
(Bailey)
Pigmy Meadow Mouse. —
Lagurus pauperrimus (Cooper).
Smallest form of the genus Lagurus; darker than curtatus.
Upperparts (summer) buffy gray, lightly sprinkled with
dusky; strong buffy tinge on nose and ears; feet pale buffy;
tail with dusky dorsal line, buffy below; underparts pale
buffy. Total length, 4.6 inches; tail vertebrae, .80 inch;
hind foot, .64 inch. Found in "Eastern Washington and
Oregon, central Idaho, and the north slope of the Uinta
Mountains, Utah, in Transition Zone." (Bailey)
* * * * * * *
The habits of the members of the genus Lagurus are

similar to those of other Meadow Mice; see page 433.
^
Genus Pitymys
This genus has been placed as a subgenus of Microtus by
many authors and bears considerable resemblance to that
genus. Forms of Pitymys are characterized by the presence of
five plantar tubercles; very small ears; short tail; hip glands
on adult males; pelage short, dense and glossy. Members
of this genus are known as Pine Mice, have a mole-like appear-
ance due to the close, fine fur, and are rather subterranean
in habit. Plate XXX.
Pine Mouse. —Pitymys pinetorum pinetorum (LeConte).
"Size small; ears very small; tail short; fur short and fine;
colors bright." Upperparts glossy bright russet

(Bailey)
brown; sides lighter; feet grayish brown; tail dark brown
above, lighter below; underparts dusky, washed with brown.
^See footnote, page 415.
437
.62 inch. Found in "Georgia and the Carolinas." (Bailey)
—
Mole Pine Mouse. Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides (Au-
dubon and Bachman).
Larger than typical pinetorum, darker and duller. Upper-
parts dull brownish chestnut sprinkled sparingly with
dusky; sides paler; feet brownish gray; tail faintly bicolor,
sooty and grayish; underparts washed with dull buff.
Total length, 5 inches; tail vertebras, .8 inch; hind foot,
.65 inch. Found in "Southern New York and westward
to Illinois, southward along the coast, blending into true
pinetorum.'' (Bailey) Recorded also from Coscob, Con-
necticut.
Bluegrass Pine Mouse. —Pitymys pinetorum aiiricularis
(Bailey).
Resembling typical pinetorum in size but ears larger.
Upperparts glossy dark chestnut sprinkled with dusky;
feet brownish; tail above and below, color of back; under-
parts washed with pale chestnut. Total length, 4.8 inches;
tail vertebrae, .88 inch; hind foot, .64 inch. Found in
"Northern Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern
Indiana, or in a general way the region between the Alle-
gheny Mountains and the Mississippi River, mainly in
the Lower Austral Zone." (Bailey).
—
Woodland Pine Mouse. Pitymys nemoralis (Bailey).
Size large for the group; ears relatively large; fur longer
and coarser than in pinetorum. Upperparts dull chestnut
sprinkled with blackish; sides paler; feet pale buffy to
dusky; tail faintly bicolor, above like back, below like
belly; underparts washed with bright cinnamon. Total
length, 5.4 inches; tail vertebras, i.o inch_; hind foot, .'J2
inch. Found "West of the Mississippi River from
central Arkansas north to Council Bluffs, Iowa." (Bailey)
—
Florida Pine Mouse. Pitymys parvulus Howell.
Resembling typical pinetorum but paler and smaller.
Upperparts tawny; sides and tail with tint of vinaceous
cinnamon; feet flesh color; underparts dusky with faint
wash of vinaceous cinnamon. Total length, 4.8 inches;
tail vertebrae, .6 inch; hind foot, .56 inch. Found in the
*******
vicinity of Ocala,
unknown.
Pine Mice are

more
Marion County, Florida; limits of range
Meadow Mice which have become

specialized for a subterranean life
rather
than their kindred.
The close, glossy fur is suggestive of the pelage of the short-
tailed Shrew, Blarina, and this character, together with the
short tail, serves to distinguish Pine Mice from the common
Meadow Mice.
438
ROUND-TAILED MUSKRAT
Pine Mice are found in forested and brushy areas, but not in
densely timbered regions, seeming to prefer an environment
where open patches alternate with stands of brush, shrubs,
or trees. Their runways are not on the surface like those
of the Meadow Mice, but are mole-like tunnels just
below
the surface of the ground. These tunnels are smaller than
Mole runways but like them in distribution and relation to
the surface. There are numerous openings to the surface of

the ground through which the Mice can pass in search
of
food, but much of the food is obtained under the

surface as
roots and bulbs. Pine Mice often use Mole runways when
these tunnelsmake contact with their own system.
Pine Mice are like the other Meadow Mice in their general
habits, such as activity throughout the year, tendency to
and fecundity. Several litters are raised in a
live in colonies,
year but the young number only from one to four, rather less
than in Microtus.
Pine Mice are destructive to agriculture, especially to
orchards, for their depredations are frequently not noticed
until too late to save the trees, and because their
presence is
so well hidden by the earth or the snow.
Genus Neofibex
Dentition: Incisors, \\ Canines, 2 ; Premolars, % Molars, f
;
= i6.
Round-tailed Muskrat; Florida Water Rat.— Neo-

fiber alleni and subspecies
General Description. —Appearance that of a diminutive

Muskrat, with a round tail. Pelage long and composed of
fore and hind-
glistening guard-hairs and short, soft underfur ;
in number; tail round;

feet not peculiar; plantar tubercles five
ears nearly hidden in fur.
Color.— Sexes colored alike; no marked seasonal variation.
Upperparts uniform dark brown; underparts whitish or
tinged with buffy.
Measurements.— Total length, 13 inches; tail vertebrae,
5 inches; hind foot, 1.6 inches.
Geographical Distribution.— Florida.
Food. —
Vegetation, such as grass, bark, and roots.
Enemies.— Hawks, Owls, Snakes, and small predatory
mammals.
439
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Neofiber
Florida Water Rat. — Neofiber alleni alleni True.

As described. Foundin northern and central Florida.
Everglade Water Rat.^ — Neofiber alleni nigrescens Howell.
Resembling typical alleni but less brown and more blackish
*******
on upperparts and more whitish (less buffy) below. Found
in southern Florida.
The Round-tailed Muskrat seems

intermediate between the
to
Meadow Mice and
occupy a position
the Muskrats,
Round-tailed Muskrat
not only in size but, to a certain extent, in habits as well.

It is not as aquatic as the Muskrat, although it is found about
the edges of streams and swamps and builds platforms of
grass stalks in shallow water upon which it sits to feed.
Harper, in The Mammals of the Okefinokee Swamp Region of
Georgia, page 361, writes:
" It is not quite confined to the prairies, for it probably enters
the water courses, and it builds its nest occasionally at the
bases of solitary cypresses or clumps of bushes in the prairies,
which may be regarded as incipient 'heads.' However, it is par
excellence a prairie species, with one of the most restricted
habitat ranges of any Okefinokee mammal. It is not even
found in all parts of the prairies. Where the water becomes
too open, or the vegetation (especially sphagnum) too sparse,
440
ROUND-TAILED MUSKRAT
signs of its presence are lacking. On the other hand, where

the prairies are so completely filled with sphagnum and other
aquatic plants that little open water is left, and sometimes
none at all is visible over considerable areas, there Neofiher
Fig. 90, Tail and hind foot of Round-tailed Muskrat
chooses its home. perhaps more of a bog inhabi-

In fact it is
tant than an aquatic animal. by runways over It progresses

the surface of the bog, and by tunnels through the oozy
muck. The latter must be constantly obstructed with the
thick peaty sediment that tends to fill up every open space
in the water of the prairie. Undoubtedly Neofiher also
swims when it encounters water of sufficient depth. . . .
"The foundations of the nests rest on top of the sphagnum

rather than in the water. Many of them are anchored abo.ut
a turf of some of the larger prairie plants. Some have . . .
a still more solid foundation, as at the base of a clump of

buttonbushes, . . . or at the foot of a solitary young cypress
that has invaded the edge of the prairie. The height of
several nests, that were somewhat closely examined, varied
fcom about 12 to 18 inches; the diameter, from 12 to 24 inches
(and in one case about a yard). The fresh nests appear
nearly globular; the older ones become somewhat de-
pressed. . . .
"The chamber is just about large enough to enable the

animal to turn around in it comfortably. Its floor is slightly
elevated above the water level, and is usually damp or moist.
There are invariably two entrances, or exits, on opposite
sides of the chamber. . . .
"Among the other works of Neofiher are its feeding-stands,

which one may find throughout its prairie haunts. These
are essentially like the foundation of a nest, without the
superstructure of vegetation. They are slight, smooth- . . .
worn mounds of sphagnum, peat, herb stems, and the like,

441
with two tunnels leading downward into the bog on opposite

sides. The distance between them here, as in the nests, is
about 4 to 6 inches. Likewise the platform, as in the nests,
rises barely above the water level. . . .
"Where the muck or the moss of the prairie rise close to or

above the water level, runways are generally seen in the
vicinity of the nests. They consist of more or less cleared
passages, about 3 inches wide, that extend over the surface
of the sphagnum and muck among fern, maiden cane, and
the like. . . .
"From these meager data it appears that the breeding

season extends from January at least to April, and very
likely into the fall."
Genus Ondatra [= Fiber of various authors]^

Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, g ; Premolars, g; Molars, f = 16.
Muskrat. — Ondatra zibethica
and related forms
Names. — Muskrat; Musquash. Plate XXVII.
General Description. —A large Rat with robust form; short
legs;broad feet, specialized for swimming, hind feet partially
webbed; tail long, laterally compressed, scaly and sparsely
haired; ears scarcely showing above fur; pelage dense and
composed of two types of hair, a close, waterproof underfur
and longer, glistening guard-hairs; perineal glands strongly
developed and secreting a pronounced musky odor; always
living near water.
Color.—Sexes colored Seasonal variation not con-
alike;
spicuous.
Upperparts. — Dark brown, darker on head; sides
slightly
chestnut; pelage glossy; underfur slate-colored at base.
Underparts. — Like pelage of but washed with tawny
sides,
and approaching whitish on throat and

lighter in appearance,
belly; a blackish spot on chin and blackish about wrists and
heels; tail black; feet dark brown.
Paler and duller in worn pelage. Occasionally occurs in a
black phase in which upperparts are black and underparts
dark.
I
For a full revision of the genus see N. Hollister, North American
Fauna, No. 32, 1911.
442
MUSKRAT
Young duller in appearance, dusky on back, paler on sides.

Measurements. — Total length, 22.5 inches; tail vertebrae,
ID inches; hind foot, 3.2 inches; weight, 2 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of North America, south
of the Barren Grounds.
Fig. 91. Muskrat

—
Food. Mainly vegetation, chiefly aquatic plants, but
sometimes traveling from water for other vegetation; animal
food such as mussels, fish, and salamanders.
—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Minks, Otters, Weasels, Foxes,
Wolves; occasionally Pike and Pickerel.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ondatra.
Common Muskrat. — Ondatra zihethica zihethica (Linnseus).
As just described. Found in " Southeastern Canada, north-
eastern and east central United States; from New Bruns-
wick and Quebec west to Minnesota, and south to northern
Georgia and Arkansas, except along the Atlantic seaboard
south of Delaware Bay." (HoUister).
Virginia Muskrat. —Ondatra zihethica macrodon (Merriam).
Largest form of the genus, total length, 24.6 inches; hind-
foot, 3.5 inches. Color lighter, brighter, and with less
black than typical zihethica. Found in "Middle Atlantic
443
. "
.
coast region of the United States, from Delaware Bay to

Pamlico Sound; inland to Washington, Virginia, and
Raleigh, N. C." (Hollister)
—
Labrador Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica aquilonia (Bangs).
Much like typical zihethica, but slightly brighter and more
richly colored. Found in "Labrador and Ungava.
(HolHster)
Hudson Bay Muskrat. — Ondatra zihethica alba (Sabine).
Smaller than typical zihethica; total length, 21.6 inches;
hind foot, 3 inches; paler in color above. Found in "Waters
draining into Hudson Bay from the west, in eastern Saskat-
chewan and Keewatin; north to the Barren Grounds."
(Hollister)
—
Northwestern Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica spatulata (Osgood).
Small and dark. Total length, 21.2 inches; hind foot,
3 inches. Color above, glossy brown, sides russet, under-
parts whitish washed with cinnamon. Found in "North-
western North America, from the Kowak River and Yukon
Valley, Alaska, east to the Anderson River and south into
British Columbia and Alberta." (Hollister)
—
Alaska Peninsula Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica zalopha
(Hollister).
Small, with short tail and small hind foot. Total length,
21.3 inches; tail vertebrse, 9.1 inches; hind foot, 2.8 inches.
Color bister. Found in "Alaska Peninsula, north to
Nushagak and east to the head of Cook Inlet." (Hollister)
—
Rocky Mountain Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica osoyoosensis
(Lord).
Like spatulata but larger; total length, 23.6 inches; hind
foot, 3.3 inches. Color dark brown to blackish above.
Found in "Puget Sound region and Rocky Mountains,
from southern British Columbia, Washington, Idaho and
western Montana, south in the mountains to northern
New Mexico." (Hollister)
—
Oregon Coast Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica occipitalis (Elliot)
Resembling osoyoosensis but paler and redder. Total
length, 23.6 inches; tail vertebrae, 10.8 inches; hind foot,
3.3 inches. Found in "Northern Willamette Valley and
coast of Oregon." (Hollister)
Nevada Muskrat. — Ondatra
zihethica mergens (Hollister)
Large and pale. Total length, 22 inches; tail vertebrae,
10. 1 inches; hind foot, 3.2 inches. Color above, grayish
brown. Found in "Northern part of the Great Basin;
southeastern Oregon, northeastern California, Nevada, and
western Utah." (Hollister).
—
Arizona Muskrat. Ondatra zihethica pallida (Meams).
Small, rusty red, no long black hairs on back. Total
inches. Found in "Colorado River valley (California,
Lower California, and Arizona), east to the Rio Grande
Valley in New Mexico." (Hollister).
444
MUSKRAT
13
Pecos Muskrat. —
Ondatra zibethica ripensis (Bailey).
Size of pallida, with shorter tail and darker pelage. Upper-
parts Vandyke brown. Found in "Pecos Valley, in Texas
and New Mexico." (Hollister)
Great Plains —
Muskrat. Ondatra zibethica cinnamomina
(Hollister).
Smaller than typical zibethica, pale in color, with cinnamon-
brown upperparts. Total length, 20 inches; tail vertebrae,
9.6 inches; hind foot, 2.9 inches. Found in "Great central
plains region of western United States and Canada; from
Manitoba south to northern Texas; east to central Iowa
and west to the Rocky Mountains." (Hollister)
—
Louisiana Muskrat. Ondatra rivalicia (Bangs).
Smaller than zibethica, pelage duller, underparts darker.
Total length, 21.9 inches; tail vertebree, 9.3 inches; hind
foot, 3.1 inches. Upperparts dark brownish black with
little of the warm reddish tinge of the other forms. Found
in "Coast region of Louisiana, north to northern Calcasieu,
Pointe Coupee, and Tangipahoa parishes." (Hollister)
—
Newfoundland Muskrat. Ondatra obscura (Bangs).
Small in size, with hind foot large in proportion, dark
brown to almost black above. Total length, 20 inches;
tail vertebra, 9 inches; hind foot, 3 inches. Found in
Newfoundland.
The Muskrat is a well-known American species familiar

either in its proper identity or as Hudson Seal after it leaves
the hands of the fur dresser. In the eyes of the fur trade the
Muskrat has come to assume an importance that makes it one
of the most valuable of our fur resources, when considered in
the aggregate. Fortunately this rodent has such a wide
distribution and is so prolific that the species can stand the
heavy annual toll exacted of it.
The Muskrat, as might be expected from its aquatic
specializations, is never found at any great distance from
water, and is found in greatest abundance in regions of exten-
sive marshes and waterways. Along the coasts it lives in the
salt marshes, and in the interior ranges along all of the river-
courses and lakes. As may be noted from the map, there are
few areas in North America between the northern limit of
tree growth and the Rio Grande where some form of the genus
Ondatra may not be found. Even in regions of comparatively
scanty rainfall, such as Arizona, this water-loving creature
lives along such streams as exist.
While the Rats themselves are not so scarce or wary as to
446
PLATE XXXI
PLATE XXXII
Ph';t,,,s by A. A. Allen
Two Views of Hibernating Jumping Mouse
{Zapus hiidsonitis)
MUSKRAT
be difficult of observation, to the casual observer they may be

best known by the houses they build of rushes and other
water-plants. These houses are built primarily as winter
homes and the summer nest may be an inconspicuous form of
grass. In some regions the animals make burrows into the
banks and have their nests above the level of the water,
but underground. Since the evidences of their presence are
very obvious, it is a simple matter for the trapper to find
places for his trap, and because the Rats enter a trap readily
large catches are easily made.
The female Muskrat has several litters each year and the
litters are large. Hollister gives (for Maryland) three to
five littersannually and the number of young in a litter vary-
ing from three to twelve or more, —
the average six or eight.
An animal with such potentialities for increase in numbers
might very well be a serious economic problem, except that its
food habits and choice of environment seldom bring it into
conflict with agricultural interests.
The principal items in its diet are roots, bulbs and foliage
of aquatic plants, but occasionally it may visit truck-gardens
or standing grain. It has been noted feeding on animal food
such as fish and amphibians and it seems to be especially
fond of fresh-water mussels.
One
of the greatest causes of annoyance due to the presence
of Muskrats is the holes they dig in ditch-banks, retaining
dams, and earth structures, which lead to subsequent leaks
or floods.
This Rat takes its name from musky odor
the pronounced
given off by a While penetrating in
pair of perineal glands.
character, this odor is not unpleasant. The Muskrat is
closely related to the Meadow Mouse, and in many respects is
only an enlarged and specialized edition of it but the genus ;
is peculiar in its general distribution, for it is found only in the
New World, whereas the Meadow Mice occur throughout the

Muskrat fur owes its value to the presence of a close, soft
undercoat which is normally concealed below the long, hard
guard-hairs. It is this short pelage which makes a water-
proof covering for the animal and which, when the long
hairs have been plucked by the furrier, bears a superficial
resemblance to the underfur of the Pur Seal. With such a
447
warm covering, the Muskrat has no fear of cold weather and

does not hibernate, being active throughout the year.
Muskrats, when undisturbed, may be seen moving about at
any hour, but the best times for observation are early in the
morning and, more especially, just before sunset. They are
expert swimmers and travel in the water in preference to run-
ning on the ground, although they may go overland to quite
a distance for some favorite article of food. Still or slow-
moving water is best suited to their mode of living, but I
have seen a Muskrat in a swift, white-water, mountain creek
in the autumn when, perhaps, it was seized with a wanderlust
and was seeking a new home site.
Family Muridae. Old World Rats and Mice

Form typically rat or mouse-like; molar teeth three on each
side,crown pattern tuberculate (in species introduced into
North America), tubercles arranged in three longitudinal
Subfamily Murinae. Introduced Rats and

Mice
Characters as given under the Muridae, no special
modifications.
Genus Mus
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, %; Molars, f = i6.
House Mouse. —Mus musculus musculus Linnaeus

—
Names. House Mouse; Domestic Mouse; Common
Mouse.
—
General Description. A small Mouse with long tail,
sparsely haired; pelage dull in color, no great contrast between
upper and lower parts.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no very noticeable seasonal
variation.
Upperparts mixed yellowish brown and black; feet brown-
ish; tail above, dusky, below slightly lighter; underparts
ashy gray.
448
Plate XXXIII
Oi .\\, Bushy- tailed

Wood Rat
HOUSE MOUSE
Measurements. —Total length, 6-6.5 inches; tail vertebree,
3.0-3.5 inches; hind foot, .70-.75 inch.

Geographical Distribution. —Found almost everywhere
in
United States and Canada where settlements or commerce
exist.
Food.—Almost omnivorous, but preferring grain and
various vegetable products.
Enemies. — Snakes, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Foxes, and all
small carnivores; domestic Cats and Dogs.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Mus.
Only the one species of this genus has established a foothold

in North America. In Alexico this Mouse has apparently
developed a distinct subspecies and it is possible that other
distinct races may appear in other places as this species
becomes a more integral part of our native fauna.
The House Mouse is too well known to require any extended
remarks, but since it may be confused, under certain circum-
stances, with some of the native species of Mice, attention is
directed to some of its distinguishing traits.
While this Mouse is more or less truly a "house" Mouse
about large cities, and where a severe winter climate forces it
to seek shelter, in many places it lives in the fields and waste
places and may be trapped side by side with native species.
From most of the common native Mice, Mus may be dis-
tinguished by the ashy underparts, dull color pattern, and long
semi-naked tail. Meadow Mice, with a somewhat similar
color pattern, have more robust bodies, longer, fuller pelage,
and generally a shorter tail. White-footed Mice need not be
confused with the House Mouse because of the much different
color pattern. The Harvest Mice bear the closest re-
semblance to House Mice, and although these native Mice
are usually smaller in size than an adult House Mouse, the
resemblance may be quite marked. Harvest Mice are more
slenderly built and have proportionally longer tails. An
infallible test may be applied if one has the skull of the Mouse
for examination. The molar teeth of the House Mouse, as
well as the molars of the three following species of introduced
Rats, have three longitudinal rows of tubercles along their
crowns, distinguishable at all stages of wear (in worn teeth
449
showing as low ridges rather than distinct tubercles) and no

Mouse or Rat native to North America has molars with these
three rows.
Genus Rattus
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, ^; Molars, f = i6.
Norway Rat. —Rattus norvegicus

(Best known in literature as Mus norvegicus). Plate XXXIII.
—
Names. Norway Rat; Common Rat; House Rat; Wharf
Rat; Barn Rat; Gray Rat; Domestic Rat; Brown Rat.
—
General Description. A good-sized Rat, with large, nearly
naked, ears; long, semi-naked tail, with rather conspicuous
Fig. 93. Norway Rat
annulations pelage somewhat coarse brown or grayish above,

;
;
ashy below.
Color.—Sexes colored alike, no noticeable seasonal
variation.
Upperparts. — Grayish or brownish, with mixture of more
or less black; feet grayish or whitish; tail not distinctly bi-
color, dusky above, somewhat lighter below.
Underparts. —Grayish to soiled whitish; transition in color
from sides to underparts gradual.
Immature pelage duller and grayer than adult.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, 15-16
inches; tail vertebras, 7-8 inches; hind foot, 1.6- 1.7 inches.
450
INTRODUCED RAT
Geographical Distribution. —Found nearly everywhere

men have settled.
—
Food. Practically omnivorous: grain, green vegetation,
meat, eggs, etc.
—
Enemies. Snakes, Owls, Hawks, Weasels, Cats, Foxes,
and most of the small carnivores domestic Cats and Dogs.
;
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Rattus.

Subgenus Rattus
—
Norway Rat. Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben).
As described above.
Subgenus Epimys
Black Rat. —Rattus rattus rattus (Linuceus). Plate XXXIII.
Smaller and more slender than norvegicus. Upperparts
slate-colored to black, darker and more glossy along dorsal
region; underparts somewhat lighter than above, slaty
gray to almost black; tail long, slender, and with finer
annulations than in norvegicus. Total length, 16.5 inches;
tail vertebrce, 9 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches; Found today
in only a few localities, commonest in southern states, but
formerly introduced over a wide territory. The Norway
Rat has driven out the Black Rat in most places where the
two species come into close contact. Occasionally the
Black Rat is taken in New York City.
—
Roof Rat; Alexandrine Rat. Rattus rattus alexandrinus
(Geoffroy). Plate XXXIII.
About the size of typical rattus but much lighter in color.
Upperparts reddish brown; underparts white, strongly
suffused with yellowish; tail very long and finely annulated,
colored above like back, lighter below. Total length, 17
Rare today in most of the states, but like the Black Rat
it has been introduced over a wider range from which it
has been driven by the Norway Rat. The Roof Rat ,
intergrades with the Black Rat and sometimes specimens
*******
display characters of both forms, upperparts intermediate
between black and reddish brown, and underparts yellowish.
The House Rat is the most thoroughly disliked of rodents
and has earned a reputation which all too often is transferred

to our much more attractive and less destructive native Rats.
The introduced Rat frequently lives under filthy conditions,
carries disease (the bubonic plague is borne by the rat-flea)
and is such a destructive creature that the hand of man has
been set against it from time immemorial.
451
The Norway Rat is aggressive and so easily adapts itself to

varying conditions that today it has a cosmopolitan distri-
bution, and drives out our native Rats wherever it meets
them. Living in great numbers in all our large cities and
water-fronts, it is also found widely spread over less inhabited
districts, frequenting fields and bushy areas where it finds
favorable conditions. The Norway Rat, with its coarsely
annulated tail, and ashy underparts, only
harsh pelage,
superficially resembles any and should
of our native species
be easily distinguished from the Wood Rats (which it most
resembles) upon a close examination.
The Black Rat and the Roof Rat are so rare in most places
that they will not lead to confusion with native Rats. The
color and texture of pelage (coarser than in the Wood Rats),
and long, nearly naked tail, are the best field characters. In
tropical America these two introduced Rats are quite common,
but throughout most of the United States they have been
driven out by the Norway Rat. These two Rats, especially
the Roof Rat, are more attractive in appearance than the
Norway Rat.
All three of the introduced Rats display in the three rows
of tubercles on the molar crowns an unmistakable character
of separation from all New World Rats.
Family Aplodontiidae. Mountain Beavers

Burrowing rodents of medium to large size; form robust;
legs rather short; tail vestigial; feet with five toes; tibia and
fibula distinct; skull massive, widened posteriorly, constricted
interorbitally ; molar teeth simple.
Genus Aplodontia^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, ;
§; Premolars, f Molars, f =22.
;
Mountain Beaver. —Aplodontia rufa

and related forms
—
Names. Mountain Beaver; Showtl; Sewellel; less fre-
quently Mountain Boomer, Ground-hog, Woodchuck. Plate
XX.
^ For a full revison of this genus see Walter P. Taylor, University of
California Publications, Zool., Vol. 17, pp. 435-504, 1918.
.
MOUNTAIN BEAVER
General Description. —A squirrel-like mammal of robust

build; tail so short as to appear absent; eyes and ears small;
head heavy and blunt neck short
; ; f ossorial in habit and active
Fig. 94. Mountain Beaver
only at night, hence seldom seen; pelage dark in color, some-

what crisp in texture.
Color. —Sexes colored alike; no very great seasonal change
of pelage.
Upperparts light ochraceous buff to light buff or vinaceous
cinnamon, of quite uniform intensity, darkest along mid-
dorsal region, with a sprinkling of black hairs; spot at base
of ear white; underparts grayish, with brownish wash; pelage
everywhere slate-colored at base.
—
Measurements. Sexes of approximately equal size.
Total length, 14 inches; tail so short as to be difficult of
accurate measurement; hind foot, 2.2 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found only in narrow strip
along western part of Pacific states.
—
Food. Green vegetation such as foliage and branches of
many species of plants, shrubs, small trees, and ferns.
Enemies. — "Weasels, skunks, of two genera, wild cats,
mink, gray foxes, golden eagles, and great horned owls."
(Taylor)
453
.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Aplodontia.

—
Brown Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa rufa (Rafinesque)
As described above. Found in "Neighborhood of the
Columbia River, in western Oregon, interiorly on the
Pacific side of the Cascades; thence southward in a belt of
unknown width to Mount Mazama in southern Oregon
and the Siskiyou-Trinity district in northern California;
northward to Puget Sound and the Chilliwack-Sumas
region in southwestern British Columbia. Altitudinal
range, from sea level in the Puget Sound district to 6,500
feet in the Siskiyou-Trinity Mountains of northern Cali-
fornia; zonal range. Transition and Canadian." (Taylor)
Olympic Mountain BesLwer.— Aplodontia rufa olympica (Mer-
riam).
"Above, in summer specimens, pinkish cinnamon to light
ochraceous-buff, often with something of a grayish cast;
the whole grizzled with more or less of an admixture of
black hairs; head and face brownish or grayish; under
parts grayish with a faint wash of pinkish buff or cinnamon-
buff. " (Taylor) Total length, 14 inches; hind foot, 2.0
inches. —
"Geographical Range. Northwestern Washing-
ton, vicinity of Olympic Mountains, intergrading with
Aplodontia rufa rufa in the vicinity of Steilacoom, southern
Puget Sound." (Taylor)
Northern Mountain Beaver. —Aplodontia rufa columhiana
(Taylor).
Upperparts varying in individuals from light pinkish
cinnamon to pinkish cinnamon grizzled with blackish
and sometimes a few whitish-tipped hairs; underparts
faintly washed with brown over pale drab gray; males
usually with irregular white patches on underparts. Total
length, 17 inches. Found in "Vicinity of Hope, British
Columbia, south in the Cascade Mountains of Washington;
probably intergrading with Aplodontia rufa rainieri be-
tween the international boundar}^ and Mount Rainier."
(Taylor)
Mount —
Rainier Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa rainieri
(Merriam).
Grayer than typical rufa, slightly larger. Upperparts
light ochraceous buff, liberally sprinkled with blackish
hairs which may be tipped with silvery white; back blacker
than sides; underparts plumbeous, with whitish markings
which are usually most conspicuous on throat. Total
length, 15 inches; hind foot, 2.5 inches. Found only on
Mount Rainier, Washington.
Pacific Mountain Beaver. — Aplodontia rufa pacifica (Mer-
riam). Plate XXXIV.
With more gray on head than in olympica and more con-
centration of blackish on dorsal region. Upperparts cinna-
mon to pinkish cinnamon, thickly sprinkled with glossy
454
MOUNTAIN BEAVER
black, usually arranged in broad dorsal band; top of head

black; face grayish; underparts grayish, lightly washed with
brown. Total length, 13 inches; hind foot, 2.1 inches.
Found on "Coast of Oregon, from Astoria on the north at
least to Port Orford on the south; ranging inland locally,
as in the vicinity of Eugene, Oregon, and gradually inter-
grading with Aplodontia rufa rufa probably in a broad belt
centrally on the Pacific slope of Oregon from the northern
to the southern boundaries of the state." (Taylor)
—
Humboldt Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa humholdtiana
(Taylor).
"Larger and less richly colored than Aplodontia rufa paci-
jicay (Taylor) Upperparts light ochraceous buff to pink-
ish buff, uniformly sprinkled with black hairs and some
silver- tipped hairs; underparts pale drab sprinkled with
silvery white hairs, sometimes faintly washed with buffy
brown; usually a white spot on lower abdomen. Total
length, 13.8 inches; hind foot, 2.2 inches. Found in "The
northern coast district of California from Humboldt Bay,
•
Carlotta, and Cuddeback along the coast in Humboldt and

Del Norte counties northward, at least to Requa; ranging
inland locally in Humboldt County and intergrading with
A. r. rufa in the vicinity of Weitzpek." (Taylor)
Sierra —
Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa californica
(Peters).
Grayer than typical rufa. Upperparts pale ochraceous
buff to ochraceous buff; uniformly sprinkled with black
hairs and a few silvery-tipped hairs; spot at base of ear
white; underparts light mouse-gray, lightly sprinkled with
black hairs which may be tipped with silvery white, some-
times with faint brownish wash. Total length, 14 inches;
hind foot, 2.2 inches. Found in "The Sierra Nevada of
California, from Mt. vShasta on the north at least to Mam-
moth, Mono County, on the south. Zonal range, Boreal."
(Taylor)
—
Point Arena Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa nigra
(Taylor).
The darkest form of the genus. Upperparts shiny black,
faintly sprinkled with pinkish buff hairs; sides paler than
back, pinkish buff overlaid with black; underparts slate-
colored, with light wash of pinkish buff. Total length,
13.8 inches; hind foot, 2.2 inches. Found only at Point
Arena, Mendocino County, California." (Taylor)
—
Point Reyes Mountain Beaver. Aplodontia rufa phcea (Mer-
riam).
The smallest form of the genus. Upperparts pinkish cin-
namon to cinnamon-buff (in winter sometimes grayish),
uniformly grizzled with blackish; underparts slate-colored,
with scattered sprinkling of black hairs, and washed with
light ochraceous-buff to pinkish buff. Total length, 12.4
inches; hind foot, 2.1 inches. Found in "Favorable situa-
456
PLATE XXXIV
MOUNTAIN BEAVER
tions in Marin County, California, where it is found within

an area of approximately no square miles." (Taylor)
"Mountain Beaver" is somewhat of a misnomer for this
animal which not a true Beaver, but belongs to a separate

is
and distinct family which is found only in North America,

where it is restricted to a very small area. It is very primitive
in structure.
The Mountain Beaver is so little known that no very ac-
ceptable vernacular name has was first discov-
appeared. It
ered by Lewis and Clark and was evidently well known to
various western tribes of Indians, from whom we get the
names, Sewellel (variously spelled), Showtl, Squallah, and
others less euphonious. The name Mountain Beaver is used
here because it is the one most apt to be remembered by the
layman, and it has appeared sufficiently often in literature to
have the sanction of usage.
This animal lives in extensive underground burrows and so
seldom comes above ground in the daytime that one might
live in the region frequented hy A plodontia and never suspect
the presence of the animal. The burrows are usually in moist
localities, sometimes with water running through them, and
the openings are under ferns, bushes, or logs. The burrows
are of generous size and run for long distances, with many
openings. Vegetation cut for food is frequently left outside
the burrow to wilt before being carried inside.
The Mountain Beaver is a very hardy animal, and although
it fights viciously when first taken from a trap, becomes tame
in a remarkably short time. The animal is strong enough to

give a very painful bite. One that I kept allowed me to
handle him freely before he had been captive twenty-four
hours, and ate what I gave him without showing the timidity
so often displayedby creatures just caught. He showed no
fear of water and swam to shore in an unconcerned manner
when I placed him in a small stream.
Mountain Beavers have a characteristic musky odor, pene-
trating but not unpleasant, reminiscent of that of a Muskrat.
Their fur, while pleasing to the touch, has no commercial value.
The tail of the Mountain Beaver appears as scarcely more
than a mere tuft of hairs, the vertebras themselves being about
457
an inch and a half long, but part of this so included under the
skin of the rump that the external tail seems very short.
Little is known of the breeding habits of this animal but it
is believed that the young are bom in June and number
three to five.
Family Zapodidae. Jumping Mice

Form hind legs and tail greatly elongated;
mouse-like;
internal cheek-pouches present; upper incisors narrow,
grooved in front; crown surface of molars with complex, folded
pattern; terrestrial in habit; gait saltatorial (when alarmed);
soles of feet naked.
Subfamily Zapodinae.
Genus Zapus'
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, §; Premolars, J ; Molars, f = i8.
Jumping Mouse. —Zapus hudsonius

and related forms
—
Names.^ Jumping Mouse; Kangaroo Mouse. Plate XXX.
—
General Description. A medium-sized Mouse with greatly
elongated hind legs; very long, slender, tapering tail; short
forelegs; ear not reaching much beyond surrounding pelage;
color yellowish brown above, white below; pelage long and
somewhat coarse when compared to that of the White-footed
Mice or Meadow Mice; throughout most of its range hiber-
nating in winter; when alarmed progressing by long leaps.
Color. — vSexes colored alike.
Upperparts (summer) mixed yellowish fawn and black,
pelage slate-colored at base and only tips of hairs colored; a
dark dorsal band from crown to base of tail where black-
tipped hairs predominate; tail above, grayish brown, below,
white, a sharp contrast between the two surfaces; feet white;
underparts white, sometimes tinged with color encroachment
from sides.
^ For a revision of this genus see E. A. Preble, North American Fauna,

No. 15, 1899.
458
JUMPING MOUSE
Winter pelage duller, yellower, and with less contrast

between color of sides and dark dorsal band.
Immature pelage more ochraceous than adults, and more
apt to show fulvous wash on underparts.
Fig. 96. Jumping Mouse
Measurements. — Sexes of equal size. Total length • 7

inches; tail vertebra), 5.3 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Geographical Distribution. — Most of the United States
and Canada north to Arctic Circle and south into California
and into North Carolina.
—
Food. Vegetation, seeds, and grains.
—
Enemies. Hawks, Owls, Snakes, Weasels, Foxes, and other
small carnivores.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Zapus.
There is rather close agreement in color patterns throughout

this genus that is, the Jumping Mice all have a (more or less
;
obvious) dark dorsal band, yellowish or ochraceous upperparts,

and white underparts. Also, there is no very great seasonal
variation, the winter pelage usually resembling that of sum-
mer, except for less contrast and a somewhat duller tone.
Hudson Bay Jumping Mouse. —Zapus hudsonius hudsonius

(Zimmerman).
As described above. Found in suitable localities "from the
southern shores of Hudson Bay south to New Jersey, and
in the mountains to North Carolina, west to Iowa and
Missouri, and northwest to Alaska." (Preble)
—
Labrador Jumping Mouse. Zapus hudsonius ladas Bangs.
Large and darker than typical hudsonius. Upperparts
459
bright ochraceous buff, darkened by black-tipped hairs,

dark dorsal band sprinkled with ochraceous; tail dusky-
above, white below, bicolor. Total length, 9.1 inches; tail
"Eastern Quebec north to Hamilton Inlet, Labrador; limits
of range unknown." (Preble)
Alaska Jumping Mouse.^ —Zapus hudsonius alascensis Mer-
riam.
Resembling typical hudsonius but larger and darker.
Upperparts dull dark ochraceous; dorsal band quite dis-
tinct, sprinkled with brownish; tail bicolor. Total length,
Found from "Yakutat Bay, north to Yukon River; limits
of range unknown." (Preble)
—
Carolinian Jumping Mouse. Zapus hudso?iius americanus
(Barton).
Smaller than typical hudsonius and dorsal band less dis-
tinct. Upperparts deep, dull ochraceous; dorsal band with
only light admixture of black; ears dark, almost black;
white underparts tinged with ochraceous. Total length,
Found "From vicinity of Raleigh, N. C, north through
Upper Austral Zone along coastal plain to southern Connec-
ticut and lower Hudson Valley, intergrading in upper edge
of its range with Z. hudsonius.'' (Preble)
Prairie —
Jumping Mouse. Zapus hudsonius campestris Preble.
Larger and brighter colored than typical hudsonius. Upper-
parts bright ochraceous buff, sprinkled with black; dorsal
area well developed; tail above, dark grayish, below, yellow-
ish white. Dorsal band and ears much darker in fall than
in summer. Total length, 8.9 inches; tail vertebra, 5.4
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "Great Plains
from Manitoba southward to Nebraska and westward to
Colorado and Wyoming." (Preble) Plate XXXI.
Kamloops Jumping Mouse. —
Zapus tenelliis Merriam.
Darker than typical hudsonius; larger in size; ears large.
Upperparts (early fall pelage) olive-yellowish, thickly
sprinkled with black; dorsal band not very well defined;
tail sharply bicolor; dusky on nose, ears, and outer sides of
legs. Total length, 8.3 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.1 inches;
hind foot, i .22 inches. Found only in vicinity of Kamloops,
British Columbia.
Rocky Mountain Jumping Mouse. —Zapus princeps princeps
Allen.
Larger than hudsonius. Upperparts yellowish brown,
lightly sprinkled with blackish; dorsal band mixed pale
yellowish brown and black; a clear yellowish brown la-
teral line separating white of underparts and darker color
of sides; tail indistinctly bicolor, paler brown above, grayish
white below; ears edged with yellowish white; underparts
white, sometimes strongly tinged with ochraceous. Fall
460
JUMPING MOUSE
pelage blacker along back and more yellow on sides. Total

inches. Found in "Rocky Mountain region from northern
New Mexico northward to Henry House, Alberta." (Preble)
Saskatchewan Jumping Mouse. —Zapus princeps minor
Preble.
Smaller than typical princeps, dorsal band darker. Upper-
parts yellowish brown; dorsal band with hea\'y admixture
of black; underparts tinged with salmon. Total length,
Found in "Plains of Saskatchewan." (Preble)
—
Blue Mountains Jumping Mouse. Zapus princeps oregonus
Preble.
Sides lighter colored than in typical princeps. Upperparts
yellowish brown, sprinkled with black, less black along back
and on head than in typical princeps; underparts clear
white; ears distinctly edged with whitish. Total length, 10
Found in "Blue Mountains of Oregon." (Preble)
—
Warner Mountain Jumping Mouse. Zapus major Preble.
Resembling princeps but larger. Upperparts ochraceous
buff, sprinkled with black; tail indistinctly bicolor; feet
dirty white; underparts whitish. Total length, 10.2 inches;
tail vertebras, 6.2 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Found only
in the Warner Mountains, Lake County, Oregon.
—
Nevada Jumping Mouse. Zapus nevadensis Preble.
"Size rather large; color light." (Preble) Sides light
ochraceous buff lightly sprinkled with black; dorsal band
mixed pale yellowish brown and black cheeks light-colored,
;
almost white; underparts clear white. Total length, 9.8

Found only in the Ruby Mountains, Elko County, Nevada.
Northwest Jumping Mouse. —Zapus trinotatus trinotatus
Rhoads,
Large in size bright in color. Upperparts dark ochraceous
;
buff, plentifully sprinkled with black; dorsal band well de-

fined, mixed black and dark ochraceous buff; tail sharply
bicolor, dusky brown and yellowish white; outer sides of
legs dusky; underparts white, frequently marked with
fulvous. Total length, 9.9 inches; tail vertebras, 6.1 inches;
hind foot, 1.34 inches. Found in " Coast region of southern
British Columbia, Washington (including Cascades),
Oregon (west of western base of Cascades), and northern
California, south to Humboldt Bay." (Preble)
—
Allen Jumping Mouse. Zapus trinotatus alleni (Elliot).
Paler than typical trinotatus. Upperparts pale ochraceous
buff interspersed with black; dorsal band distinctly lighter
in tone than in typical trinotatus; tail light grayish brown
above, yellowish white below, often tipped with white;
underparts white, without any fulvous. Total length, 9.6
inches; tail vertebrae, 6.0 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches,
461
—
Found on "Mount Shasta and southward in the Sierra

Nevada to Mammoth and North Fork of Kern River,
CaHfornia." (Preble)
Humboldt Jiunping Mouse. —Zapiis trinotatus eureka A. B.
Howell.
Resembling typical trinotatus but with less conspicuous
dorsal band. Upperparts (fall) tawny olive, with little
difference between dorsal area and sides; tail sharply bi-
color; underparts white, washed with tawny olive. Total
length, 9.2 inches; tail vertebras, 5.6 inches; hind feet, 1.32
inches. Found in " Northwestern coast region of Cali-
fornia, from Mendocino City, Mendocino County, north
at least through Humboldt County." (Howell)
—
Yellow Jumping Mouse. Zapiis luteus luteus Miller.
Resembling alleni but brighter and more ochraceous.
Upperparts ochraceous buff; dorsal band not well defined.
Total length, 9 inches; tail vertebrse, 5.5 inches; hind foot,
1.28 inches. Found in New Mexico, in Otero, Santa Fe,
and Taos Counties.
—
Southern Jumping Mouse. Zapus luteus australis Bailey.
Small and slender; colors pale. "Upperparts pale buffy
yellowish sparingly lined with black hairs; back slightly
darker but with poorly defined dorsal area lower-parts pure
;
white; heels dusky; feet white." (Bailey) Total length,

8.2 inches; tail vertebrse, 5 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Found in Socorro County, New Mexico.
—
Mountain Jumping Mouse. Zapus montanus (Merriam).
"Smaller and duller in color than Z. trinotatus." (Preble)
Sides dark ochraceous buff, sprinkled heavily with black;
well-defined dorsal area of mixed dusky and yellowish;
tail sharply bicolor, dark gray and whitish; outer side of
hind legs dusky; feet dirty white; underparts white. Total
inches. Found in " Cascade Range in Oregon." (Preble)
Coast Jumping Mouse. Zapus orarius Preble.
Dorsal area not sharply differentiated in color of sides.
Upperparts dark ochraceous, sprinkled with black; dorsal
area not well defined and with much the same tone as sides;
ochraceous on hind legs; feet yellowish white; tail above,
yellowish white, below, grayish; underparts white, heavily
washed with ochraceous, color deepest on sides of throat.
Total length, 8.8 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.1 inches: hind foot,
1.24 inches. Found on "Coast of California from Point
Reyes north to Mad River, Humboldt County; limits of
range unknown." (Preble)
Pacific Jumping Mouse. —Zapus pacificus Merriam.
Dorsal area not well differentiated. Sides buffy yellow,
sprinkled with black; dorsal area mixed yellowish and black,
the former predominating; tail sharply bicolor, grayish on
upper, white on lower side. Total length, 9 inches; tail
vertebrse, 5.6 inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found in
462
JUMPING MOUSE
"Interior valleys of southwestern Oregon and northwestern

California; limits of range unknown." (Preble)
Stickeen Jumping Mouse. —Zapus saltator Allen.
Resembling trinotatus but smaller. Upperparts
in color
(fall)yellowish, sprinkled with black; dorsal band well de-
fined, yellowish, plentifully mixed with black; ears edged
with yellowish; tail dusky above, gray below; underparts
clear white. Total length, 9.8 inches; tail vertebrse, 5.6
inches; hind foot, 1.28 inches. Found along "Telegraph
Creek south to mouth of Skeena River and Tschimshian
Peninsula limits of range unknown.
'
; (Preble) '
Genus Napaeozapus
Dentition: Incisors, \; Canines, g ; Premolars, %; Molars, f = 16
Distinguished from Zapus by absence of one tooth in each
upper jaw (premolar) and by the presence of a white tip on the
tail; otherwise color pattern is as in Zapus.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Napaeozapus

Woodland Jiimping Mouse. — NapcEozapus insignis insignis
(Miller).
"Size rather large, larger than Zapus hudsonius, with longer
earsand paler, more fulvous coloration. Tail tipped with
white." (Preble) Upperparts buff -yellow, lightly sprink-
^
led with black, bristly hairs; color clearer on cheeks, neck,

and narrow lateral line; dorsal band with black predominat-
ing, well defined; tail sharply bicolor, dark brown above,
white below, tip white above and below; feet white; under-
parts white. Total length, 9.5 inches; tail vertebrae 5.8
inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found in "Canadian Zone
in eastern Canada and south to western Maryland."
(Preble)
Roan Mountain Jumping Mouse. — Napceozapus insignis
roanensis (Preble).
Smaller than typical insignis and darker. "Sides bright
tawny ochraceous; entire upperparts, including ears, con-
siderably darker than in typical Z. iiisignis. Beneath, pure
white; amount of white on tail averaging less than in Z.
insignis.'* (Preble) Total length, 8.8 inches; tail verte-
brae, 5.2 inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found only on
Roan Mountain, Mitchell County, North Carolina.
Northern Woodland Jumping Mouse. —
Napceozapus insignis
ahietoruni (Preble).
"Larger than typical Z. insignis, with shorter ears and
peculiar skull. . Apparently not distinguishable from
. .
Z. insignis'' in color. Total length, 10.2 inches; tail verte-

brae, 6.4 inches; hind foot, 1.32 inches. Found "Probably
463
throughout Hudsonian Zone in eastern Canada; Hmits of

range unknown." (Preble)
—
Jackson Jumping Mouse. Napceozapus insignis frutectanus
Jackson.
Resembling typical insignis in size but differing in color.
Sides clay color sparingly mixed with black; dorsal band
clay color with heayy mixture of black; ears edged with
pinkish buff; nose and face dusky; tail bicolor, olive-brown
and white, white tip nearly an inch long; underparts
creamy white. Total length, 9.4 inches; tail vertebrae,
5.8 inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found in Oneida and
Oconto Counties, Wisconsin,
The Jumping Mouse is readily recognized by its long slender

tailand tawny or ochraceous color. The only other rodents
with such leaping modifications, namely, long hind legs and
elongate tail, are the Pocket Rats which, as their name im-
plies, may be known by their external cheek-pockets. In
addition, these latter rodents are much larger and of such
different structural and color characters that they should
never be confused with Jumping Mice.
Jumping Mice are peculiar in several ways. They are
erratic in distribution, more often rare than common and yet
in some localities being encountered as fairly abundant. They
hibernate (Plate XXXII.) during cold weather and prepare
for this dormant period by putting on a heavy layer of fat.
These Mice show a fondness for meadows and grassy spots,
and may be started in the daytime when they leap away from
a threatening foot step. The genus is distributed in forested
sections and on the less arid plains, although it seems to be
restricted to the brush and forest-bordered streams in the
latter instance.
In structure the Jumping Mice are set far apart from the
common rodents, the cricetines, and occupy a family position
next to the Porcupines. The genus Zapus is restricted to
North America, but Napceozapus is found in Asia as well.
The number of young is five or six and but one litter is
raised in a season.
Family Erethizontidae. American Porcupines

Large, robust rodents having quills 01 spines in their pelage,
the spines loosely attached to the skin; toes four in front, five
464
PORCUPINE
behind, all with strong, curved claws; eais short; tibia and
fibula distinct; mammse four; molar crown pattern complex.
Genus Erethizon
Dentition: Incisors, {; Canines, ^; Premolars, {; Molars, f =20.
Porcupine. —Erethizon dorsatum

and related forms
Names.- — Porcupine; Hedgehog misnomer, for the true
(a
Hedgehog is an insectivore) ;
Quill-pig. Plates XXVII and
XXXV.
Fig. 97. Porcupine
General Description. —A large, clumsy rodent with long,

sharp spines in its pelage. Head proportionally small;
muzzle blunt; body thick and heavy; limbs rather
lips hairy;
short; four claws on forefeet, five on hind feet; tail short,
thick, muscular; pelage composed of fairly long, soft, woolly
465
;
hair with which is mixed much longer, hard, ghstening hairs

and long spines; spines and barbed, and occurring
stiff, sharp,
all over upperparts from crown of head and sides to end of tail
underparts spineless; gait plantigrade.
Color. —
Sexes colored alike; no very marked seasonal
variation.
Everywhere slaty black, or brownish black to black, liber-
ally sprinkled on upperparts and sides with light-tipped hairs
which are whitish to yellowish white; spines yellowish white
Fig. 98. Quills of Porcupine; lower figure greatly enlarged to

show barbed tip
tipped with black; spines most conspicuous on rump and tail,
more or less concealed elsewhere; incisors orange-red.

Immature like adults.
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, 36-40
inches; tail vertebrae, 6 inches; hind foot, 3.5-4 inches; weight
15 to a maximum of 35 or 40 pounds when excessively
fat.
—
Geographical Distribution. Most of forested North Am-
erica north of 40° and south in the Rocky Mountains
almost to the Mexican boundary.
—
Food. Bark, buds, and foliage of many trees, shrubs, and
plants; in winter principally bark and small twigs of cotton-
woods, willows, aspens, hemlocks, jackpines, elms, basswood,
etc. very fond of salt.
;
—
Enemies. Well equipped to protect itself against most
enemies, but said to be preyed upon by the Fisher.
466
PLATE XXXV
Photo by G. Clyde Fisher

Immature Canada Porcupine
{Erethizon dorsahim dorsatum)
.
PORCUPINE
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Erethizon
Canada Porcupine. — Erethizon dorsatiim dorsatum (Linnaeus)

As described. Found from Nova Scotia south through
Pennsylvania in the mountains, westward in forests through
the Great Lakes district and northwestward to the Arctic
Circle. Plate XXXV.
Labrador Porcupine, —
Erethizon dorsatum picinum Bangs.
Like typical dorsatum but lacking the light-tipped hairs;
incisors dull yellow rather than orange. Color jet black to
brownish black, yellow-tipped hairs found only on rump and
sides of tail and then only sparingly. Total length, 32
inches; tail vertebrse, 7 inches; hind foot, 4 inches. Found
in Labrador.
—
Yellow-haired Porcupine. Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum
Brandt.
Resembling dorsatum but colored differently; long hairs
tipped with greenish yellow. Total length, 2,2 inches; tail
vertebrae, 6.5 inches; hind foot, 4.2 inches. Found from
Utah and Colorado northward through foiested country to
Alaska; known as far east as North Dakota; south in the
Cascade mountains into California, and down the Sierra
Nevadas to about Mt. Whitney.
—
Nebraska Yellow-haired Porcupine. Erethizon epixanthum
Swenk.
bruneri
"Similar to E. epixanthum epixanthum Brandt, of Califor-
nia, but slightly larger, with the hind feet comparatively
shorter, the general coloration paler and duller, the under
side of the tail largely or wholly brownish yellow. ..."
(Swenk) Total length, 34 inches; tail vertebrae, 8 inches;
hind foot, 4 inches. Found in forested areas in Nebraska;
limits of range unknown but recorded from Wyoming,
Montana, and Kansas.
—
Arizona Porcupine. Erethizon epixanthum couesi Meams.
Smaller and less yellow than typical epixajtthum; ears
larger; quills tipped with brown; long hairs tipped with
whitish; brownish on muzzle, feet, and underparts. Found
in Arizona (Yavapai County); limits of range unknown.
—
Dusky Porcupine. Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens Allen.
Yellow tipping of long hairs paler than in typic 1 epixanthum
and general coloration darker; pelage, exclusive of spines
and light tips of hairs, sooty black. Total length, 30 inches;
British Columbia in the region of Telegraph Creek, Level
Mountains and Shesley River; limits of range unknown.
—
Alaska Porcupine. Erethizon epixanthum myops Merriam.
"Similar to E. epixanthum but tail and hind feet shorter;
body, flanks and sides of tail even yellower; face whiter
from more abundant admixture of yellowish white hairs on
sides of face and between eyes, so that the fore part of head
appears almost grayish instead of sooty." (Merriam)
467

3.5 inches. Found on the Alaska Peninsula; limits of range
unknown.
The Porcupine is a big, clumsy, slow-moving rodent so

characteristic in appearance that it may be recognized as far
as it can be seen. Secure in its defense of sharp quills, it does
not need to be fleet of foot and can be easily approached

when encountered. Although the Porcupine usually makes
some effort to get out of the way of man, it relies upon its
quills if crowded, and with head down and quills erected waits
for any offensive move.
not aroused, the quills may often be fairly well hidden
VvT'hen
in the long, coarse pelage, but when alarmed, the animal has
the faculty of erecting the quills so that they stand out at a
steep angle from the body, especially along the lower back.
The thick, muscular tail is an effective weapon of offense and
with it the Porcupine delivers such a quick slap that a too-
inquisitive Dog will have its face driven full of quills, if it
comes up to a waiting Porcupine. The story of Porcupines
shooting quills is a pure myth and perhaps arose from the fact
that the animal is able to reach out and drive quills home with
a slap of the tail. Quills may be shaken loose if a Porcupine
isdisturbed, but they are not cast voluntarily. Quite often,
dislodged quills become lodged in the Porcupine itself after a
violent encounter with some enemy, but these presumably
cause no trouble to the Porcupine.
On the other hand, any animal that deliberately attacks a
Porcupine which is in a posture of defense, nose drawn in and
belly to the ground, can hardly escape injuries which are
likely to prove fatal. The
quills have tiny barbs and once
bedded in flesh tend to work inward. Quills in the head,

throat, or chest eventually pierce a vital spot and it is practi-
cally impossible for a wild animal to pull a quill out. In fact,
it is no easy matter for a man to pull them out of a Dog, and

it takes a good tug to draw out a quill that has been set in by
the the Porcupine. The base of the quill is but loosely
tail of
fastened in the skin of the big rodent and any slight pressure
against an enemy is sufficient to transfer the sharp spine
from the Porcupine to the attacker.
In temperment the Porcupine appears to be dull, stupid, and
468
PORCUPINE
surly, and not very social toward his own kind. He has an
inordinate desire for salt and frequently comes to grief because
of this fact. When one of these animals invades a camp he will
gnaw at anything that will yield the slightest trace of salt.
The perspiration which has dried on a shovel or pick handle
makes this wood a delicacy for the Porcupine and he will chew
itup; soapy water thrown out on the ground or against a
stump makes that spot have an irresistible attraction. Aside
from the damage done by the capable teeth of this rodent,
there is the possible danger of stumbling over the prowler after
dusk and the Porcupine is not a popular visitor.

In some parts of the country the Porcupine has earned
protection because of the fact that this animal may prove the
salvation of any one lost in the woods. It is the one mammal
which an unarmed man may easily kill and its flesh, while not
a delicacy, is a substantial article of diet under such circum-
stances. Porcupines may kill trees by removing too much
bark or by girdling, but in most places their depredations do
not assume very great economic importance. They are fairly
good swimmers and take to the water without hesitation if
they wish to cross a stream or narrow body of water.
The Porcupine has one to four young (usually one or two)
at a birth and but one litter a year.
They do not hibernate but are active in all weathers.
Although clumsy in build they are excellent climbers
and spend a good part of their existence in trees. They can
climb out on comparatively small branches and up into light
brush as well as up good-sized trees. If allowed to do so, a
Porcupine disturbed on the ground will try to climb the first
tree at hand.
469
Order LAGOMORPHA. HARES, RABBITS,
and PIKAS
Resembling the Rodentia but upper incisors four in num-
ber a large functional pair with enamel extending to posterior
;
face of tooth (as contrasted to enamel restricted to anterior

and a small pair without cutting
face of tooth in the Rodentia),
edges directly behind them; upper and lower jaws opposing
each other only one side at a time and motion of mastication
lateral in consequence; bony palate very narrow from front
to back; tail short to very short; habit terrestrial.
Family Ochotonidae. Pikas

Size small; ears broad and rounded, small as compared to
the Leporidse; no visible, external tail; legs rather short and
hind legs not much longer than forelegs; feet digitigrade; toes
five in front, four behind; upper incisors deeply grooved in
front.
Genus Ochotona. ^ Pikas or Conies
Dentition: Incisors, f ; Canines, §; Premolars, |; Molars, §=26
Pika. — Ochotona princeps

and related forms
—
Names. Rocky Mountain Pika; Rocky Mountain Cony;
Rocky Mountain Rock-rabbit; Little Chief Hare. Plate
XXXVI.
General Description — Body robust; tail so short as to be
practically non-existant ; legs short and hind legs but little
longer than forelegs; five toes on forefeet, four on hind

feet, a naked pad at base of each toe, palms and soles densely
^For a full and up-to-date revision of this genus see A. H. Howell,
North American Fauna, No. 47, 1924.
470
Plate XXXVI
Black-tailed Jack Rabbit
Arctic Hare
X
h.^W:
Alltel ope Jack RaJabtt Wtiite-txuled Jack Rabbtf'

PIKA
haired; eyes fair sized, but relatively much smaller than in

the Hares; ears rounded, of good size,haired inside as well as
outside; fur soft, lax, and dense. The voice of the Pika,
an indescribable "bleat," is like the call of no other mammal
and identifies the creature unmistakably.
Upperparts. —Grayish or buffy, the hairs slate-colored at
base, color variable with the individual and ranging from
Fig. 99. Pika
pinkish buff, clay color, or ochraceous tawny to a fuscous

or grayish mixture. Feet whitish to cinnamon-buff; ears
brownish or blackish; sides much like back.
—
Underparts. Whitish, varying to cinnamon-buff; soles of
feet buffy white, brownish, or fuscous.
Summer pelage more richly colored with tawny or ochrac-
eous than winter pelage.
Pikas molt twice annually (except for Ochotona ccllaris),
and there is generally a well-marked line between the fresh

and the worn pelage. The new pelage appears first on the
head and progresses evenly backward, replacing the old pelage
last on the underparts.
—
Measurements. No noticeable differences between males
and females. Total length, 7.6 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Rocky Mountain region.
Food. —Vegetation; leaves, flowers, stems of many species
of plants; much sun dried to make "hay." Among
of this is
other species the following plants have been noted in the

—
"hay-stacks" nettles, chokecherry, currant, gooseberry,
raspberry, lupine, aspen, goldenrod, fireweed, huckleberry,
elderberry, and grasses.
471
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ochotona
Subgenus Pika
Rocky Mountain Pika. — Ochotona princeps princeps (Richard-

son).
As described above. Found in "Rocky Mountains, from
eastern British Columbia (headwaters South Pine River)
and western Alberta (Muskeg Creek) south along the main
divide to eastern Idaho and western Montana (Bitterroot
Mountains)." (Howell)
—
Alberta Pika. Ochotona princeps lutescens Howell.
Like typical princeps but smaller; total length, 7.2 inches;
hind foot, 1.2 inches. Coloration paler. Found on "Mount
Inglesmaldie (near Banff) and other mountains in Canadian
National Park, Alberta, south to Mount Forget-me-not
(50 to 75 miles southwest of Calgary)." (Howell)
Hollister Pika. — Ochotona princeps lev is (Hollister).
Paler than typical princeps, darker than lutescens, size of
lutescens; total length, 7.3 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Found in "Mountains of southern Alberta and Montana
(east of the main divide) from Waterton Lake to the Belt
Mountains." (Howell)
—
Lemhi Pika. Ochotona princeps lemhi (Howell).
Small, pale, and with narrow braincase. Total length, 7.2
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "Mountains of
—
south-central Idaho the Lemhi, Lost River, Salmon River,
and Sawtooth Ranges; eastward to the Beaverhead Moun-
tains, east of Leadore; northern limits of range imperfectly
known." (Howell)
—
Wyoming Pika. Ochoto?ia princeps ventorum (Howell) .
Like typical princeps, but summer pelage more buffy and

with less blackish mixture; darker than levis; total length,
8 inches; hind foot, 1.25 inches. Found in "Wind River,
Gros Ventre, Absaroka, and Teton Ranges, Wyoming,
north to the Beartooth and Absaroka Ranges in southern
Montana." (Howell)
—
Uinta Pika. Ochotona princeps uinta (Hollister).
Similar to ventorum but more buffy in coloration; total
length, 8.2 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "The
Uinta and Wasatch Ranges, in Utah, and the Salt River and
Wyoming Ranges, in western Wyoming." (Howell)
—
Ruby Mountains Pika. Ochotona princeps nevadensis (Howell).
Paler than uinta, which it most resembles; total length, 8
inches; hind foot, 1.25 inches. "Known only from Ruby
Mountains, Nevada." (Howell)
—
Figgins Pika. Ochotona princeps figginsi (Allen). Plate
XXXVII.
Grayer than uinta and with more blackish; total length,
7.6 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "Western
Colorado, from Gunnison County north to eastern Routt
472
PLATE XXXVII
m BT^
PIKA
Fig. ioo. Distribution of the subspecies of OcJiotona princeps,

after A. H. Howell
1. Ochotona princeps brooksi 9. Ochotona princeps lenthi
2. Ochotona princeps fenisex 0. Ochotona princeps ventorum
3. Ochotona princeps brunnescens 1. Ochotona princeps uinta
4. Ochotona princeps fumosa 2. Ochotona princeps nevadensis
5. Ochotona princeps cuppes 3. Ochotona princeps figginsi
6. Ochotona princeps princeps 4. Ochotona princeps saxatilis
7. Ochotona princeps lutescens Ochotona princeps nigrescens
8. Ochotona princeps levis 16 Ochotona princeps incana
473
;
County (Hahn Peak) and to Bridger Peak, Wyoming."

(Howell)
Colorado Pika. — Ochotona princeps saxatilis (Bangs).
Size large, total length, 8 inches; hind foot, 1.3 inches.
Coloration "buffy-grayish." (Howell) Found in "East-
erly mountain ranges of middle Colorado from the Medicine
Bow Range south to the Sangre de Cristo Range; north-
ward to Medicine Peak, Wyoming; westward in southern
Colorado to the San Juan Range and to the La Sal Moun-
tains in eastern Utah altitudinal range approximately from
;
9,000 to 13,500 feet." (Howell)

—
New Mexico Pika. Ochoto7ia princeps incana (Howell).
Size of saxatilis but paler and less tawny; total length, 7.6
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "High mountains
of northern New Mexico, from Pecos Baldy north to the
Culebra Range and probably to Sierra Blanca, Colorado."
(Howell)
Jemez —
Mountains Pika. Ochotona princeps nigrescens
(Bailey).
Size of saxatilis but darker and grayer; total length, 8
inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in "Jemez Moun-
tains, New Mexico, north to the southern end of the San
Juan Mountains, Colorado." (Howell)
—
Bangs Pika. Ochotona princeps cuppes (Bangs).
Like typical princeps but darker; upperparts "suffused with
ochraceous-tawny instead of cinnamon-buff." (Howell)
Total length, 7.8 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Found in
"Southeastern British Columbia, northeastern Washington,
and northern Idaho, from Glacier south to Cabinet Moun-
tains; west to the Gold Range, British Columbia; exact
limits unknown." (Howell)
—
Ashnola Pika. Ochotona princeps fenisex (Osgood).
Resembling cuppes but paler and less ochraceous (summer)
total length, 7.3 inches; hind foot, 1.25 inches. Found in
_
"Interior mountain ranges of northern Washington and

southern British Columbia from vicinity of Wenatchee,
Washington, north to the upper end of Okanagan Lake."
(Howell)
Shuswap PiViSi.-Ôchotona princeps brooksi Howell.
Browner than fenisex, paler than cuppes; total length, y.y
inches; hind foot, 1.25 inches. Found in "Interior of
southern British Columbia from Shuswap Lake west to
Mount McLean and McGillivary Creek, Lillooet District;
limits of range unknown." (Howell)
—
Cascade Pika. Ochotona princeps brunnescens (Howell).
Like fenisex but browner above and more buffy below, in
winter pelage very much like brooksi; total length, 8 inches;
hind foot, 1.3 inches. Found in "Cascade Range from
southwestern British Columbia south to vicinity of Crater
Lake, Oregon; interrupted apparently in central Oregon
474
. .
pncA
(vicinity of Mount Jefferson and Three Sisters) by the range

oi fumosa." (Howell)
Dusky Pika. — Ochotona princeps fumosa (Howell).
Size of hrunnescens (total length, 8 inches; hind foot, 1.3
inches), but upperparts blacker and less brown. Found on
"Western slopes of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon, from
the upper Clackamas River south at least to Three Sisters;
also mountains near Paulina Lake, Crook County."
(Howell)
—
Collared Pika. Ochotona collaris (Nelson)
Like tj^pical princeps in winter pelage but "coloration de-
cidedly more grayish and less buffy, both above and below;
a more or less distinct grayish patch on nape and shoulders."
(Howell) Total length, 7.6 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches.
Found in "Central and southern Alaska and Yukon, from
Mount McKinley and the Ogilivie Range south to Teslin
Lake, British Columbia, and White Pass, Alaska." (Howell)
—
Gray-headed Pika. Ochotona schisticeps schisticeps (Mer-
riam)
"Head and shoulders smoke-gray, mixed with fuscous; rest
of upperparts vinaceous-cinnamon, mixed with fuscous."
(Howell), in winter. Total length, 7.5 inches; hind foot,
1.2 inches. Found in " Boreal Zones of the northern Sierra
Nevada, from Mount Shasta south to Donner Pass; alti-
tudinal range from about 5,000 feet (on Mill Creek, above
Morgan, Tehama County) to at least 9,000 feet."
(Howell)
—
Taylor Pika. Ochotona schisticeps taylori (Grinnell).
Smaller than typical schisticeps, more blackish, especially
on head. Total length, 7 inches; hind foot, 1.06 inches.
Found in "Northeastern California and southern Oregon,
from Madeline Plains north to Steens Mountains, Oregon,
and west to Goose Nest Mountain, Siskiyou County, Cali-
fornia; altitudinal range from 5,000 to 8,000 feet."
—
Lava-bed Pika. Ochotona schisticeps goldma?ii Howell.
Resembling taylori but much darker in color, the darkest
form of the genus; total length, 7.3 inches; hind foot 1.2
inches. "Known only from Echo Crater and Fissure Crater,
Snake River Desert, Idaho." (Howell)
—
Blue Mountains Pika. Ochotona schisticeps jewetti Howell.
Like typical schisticeps but paler in summer and slightly
darker in winter, larger than taylori; total length, 7.3
inches; hind foot, 1.24 inches. Found in "Wallowa Moun-
tains, StrawbeiTy Mountains, and southern portion of Blue
Mountains, northeastern Oregon altitudinal range approxi-
;
mately from 5,000 to 10,000 feet." (Howell)

—
Yosemite Pika. Ochotona schisticeps muiri Grinnell and
Storer.
Resembling typical schisticeps but paler, with less fuscous
suffusion on upperparts; total length, 7.5 inches; hind foot,
1.2 inches. Found in "Central portion of Sierra Nevada,
475
from Mount Tallac south to Mammoth Pass; altitudinal

range, 7,800 to 12,800 feet." (Howell)
—
Mount Whitney Pika. Ochotona schisticeps alhata (Grinnell).
Paler than muiri, which it most closely resembles the palest ;
of the American Pikas; total length, 7.3 inches; hind foot,

1.2 inches. Found in "Southern part of the high Sierra
Nevada, from Kearsarge Pass south to the headwaters of
the Tule and Kern Rivers; altitudinal range from about
8,500 to 13,000 feet." (Howell)
—
White Mountain Pika. Ochotona schisticeps sheltoni Grinnell.
Intermediate in color between typical schisticeps and muiri,
size of taylori; total length, 7 inches; hind foot, i.i inches.
Found in "The White Mountains of California and Nevada
(8,000 to 13,000 feet altitude)." (Howell)
—
Beaver Mountains Pika. Ochotona schisticeps cinnamomea
(Allen).
Smaller than typical schisticeps (total length, 7.5 inches;
hind foot, 1.14 inches); and paler on face, head, and nape
(summer); more cinnamon on sides. Found in "Beaver
Range, Utah, and Toyabe Mountains, Nevada; altitudinal
range from 8,000 to 1 1,000 feet." (Howell)
—
Parawan Mountains Pika. Ochotona schisticeps fuscipes
Howell.
Like typical schisticeps (summer) but with darker soles and
palms; total length, 8 inches; hind foot, 1.2 inches. Known
*******
only from type locality, Brian Head, Parawan Mountains,
Iron County, Utah.
The Pikas are easily identified by their form —appearance

that of a diminutive tailless Rabbit —their peculiar call, and
by the fact that they make their home masses
in the great
of loose slide-rock. Sometimes an animal is seen away from
the rock (I have known of one taking up an abode in the
slab-pile of an old sawmill), but it is typically a creature of the
piled-up debris of weathered cliffs, where sun and frost have
cracked off blocks and slabs of all sizes. Such piles are to be
found in greatest abundance in the upper elevations of the
Rocky Mountains and the and usually
Pacific coast ranges,
the Pika is to be seen only at high elevations. There are
exceptions to this rule, however, and Pikas are found on the
Fraser River of British Columbia at elevations of a few
hundred feet, and along the western slopes of the Cascades of
Oregon as low as 900 feet altitude.
Pikas occur in Asia, but the family is northern in its distri-
bution and does not range out of the northern part of the
476
PLATE XXXVIII
Photo by H. E. Anthony
Hay" Pile Made by Pika, Sawtooth Mountains,
Idaho
PIKA
Because of the protective coloration of these animals, they

are not easily discovered unless on the move. When a person
approaches slide-rock where Pikas dwell, he may be greeted
by the peculiar squeaking "bleat," a call that baffles descrip-
tion, but which is so distinctive that, once heard, it may
never be forgotten. This call is clear, penetrating, and seems
to possess a ventriloquistic property, for one can hear the
Pika call again and again and decide upon a different location
for the animal at each utterance. Perhaps some of this
elusive diffusion of the sound is due to the Pika's habit of
calling from under the rocks, although if the little fellow
has not been alarmed he may be calling from some point in
plain and obvious sight.
The most evident proof that Pikas are living about a rock-
pile is the "hay" stacked under the rocks or against the side
of some large stone. These "hay" piles may be numerous
and the grasses and foliage in them of varying stages of
"cure," from fresh, wilted green cuttings to dry and yellow
"hay." The size of the pile is also variable and occasionally
a great mass of vegetation, representing many hours of
industry, is found. Plate XXXVIII.
If an observer remains quietly near a rock-pile, the Pikas
soon come out from their hidden recesses and make their
noiseless way over the rocks. Their furry little feet never
betray their movements and the animals run soundlessly
over the fallen rocks where footing for most four-footed
creatures is extremely precarious.
Pikas are active throughout the day and may be seen at
most any time. There is evidence to show that they may, on
occasion at least, move about at night, possibly to move a
harvest that is threatened by approaching storms.
The young vary from three to five, usually three or four in
number, and are born from late May or early June to early
September.
Family Leporidse. Hares and Rabbits
Size medium to large for the Order Lagomorpha; feet digiti-

grade; hind legs elongate; ears large to very large; tail short;
clavicle reduced.
477
Genus Lepus^
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, ; 2 ; Premolars, f ;^Molars,f =28
Varying Hare. —Lepus americanus

and related forms
Names. — Varying Hare; Snowshoe Hare; Snowshoe Rabbit.

—
General Description. A medium-sized Hare, with hind
legs not excessively elongated, ears large but not as large as in
the Jack Rabbits. Hind feet large; tail short; color brownish
in summer, white in winter. Plate XXXVI.
Summer. —Upperparts. —Grayish brown to buffy brown,
generally grayer on top of head; some blackish wash down
mid-line of back, and heaviest on rump ears like top of head
;
but darker at tip, posterior half of ears grayish, merging into

black at tip nape of neck duller than back, grayish or brown-
;
ish; sides grayer or paler than back, with less black; top of
forefeet like top of head; hind feet brownish along outside,
merging into buffy near white of underparts, and whitish
or buffy on upperside; tail, above, blackish, below, white.
Underparts. —White along abdomen and chin;
throat buffy to cinnamon.
Fur slate-colored at base above and below.
—
Young. Less richly marked than adults, brown grizzled
with gray.
"Winter. — Pelage everywhere clear white except for dusky-
tipped ears.
Measurements. — Sexes indistinguishable Total in size.
length, 18-19 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches; hind foot, 5.3
inches; height of ear from notch, 2.5 inches.
Geographical Distribution. Northern half of North—
America.
—
Food. Foliage, twigs, bark of many species of shrubs,
grasses, trees, and plants.
Enemies. — Hawks, Owls, and carnivorous mammals such as
Weasel, Fox, Coyote, et cetera.
I
For a full review of the Rabbits and Hares of North America see
E. W. Nelson, North American Fauna, No. 29, 1909.
478
;
VARYING HARE
'-'
^ _ Co
4J O sis S
o "qJ
.2 ^H
<o <o ^ CO CO o'5 a-

ssssssaa 2^«
•^ « a a o a o-o u
t-H S 03.5
'v
>; 's "5 -5
's: 's: 's:
Ssssaasa
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479
—
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Lepus
Subgenus Lepus. Varying Hares; Arctic Hares; White- tailed

Jack Rabbits
This group is distinguished, among other characters, by two

distinct pelages, summer and winter, one or both of which is
white. The Varying Hares are all brownish in summer and

white in winter (except washingtoni).
Varying Hare or "White Rabbit.^ Lepus americanus anieri-

cawM5_Erxleben. Plate XXXVI.
The animal described above. Found in "Region about
southern end of Hudson Bay, including southern Keewatin;
southeastern Mackenzie; most of Saskatchewan; Manitoba;
east through northern Ontario (including Isle Roy ale and
Michipicoten Island, Lake Superior); northern Quebec; all
of Ungava except extreme northern part; Labrador; south
in the United States in all of Michigan north of Saginaw
(except western half of northern peninsula) and west in an
,
isolated colony on the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming.

Vertical range, from sea level at Hudson Bay to about
2,000 feet near Lake Superior and 10,000 feet in the Big-
horn Mountains of Wyoming; zonal range, mainly Cana-
dian." (Nelson)
Nova Scotia Varying Hare. —Lepus a7nencanus struthopus
Bangs.
About same body size as typical americanus, but ears
longer; color may be almost indistinguishable from that of
typical americanus, but generally with more cinnamon in
upperparts. Found in "Maine, east of Penobscot River,
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, eastern Quebec (south of
lower St. Lawrence and including Magdalen Islands), and
Newfoundland. Vertical range, from sea level up to over
2,500 feet altitude in New Brunswick; zonal range, Cana-
dian." (Nelson)
Virginia Varying Hare. —Lepus americamis virginianus
(Harlan).
The largest of the Varying Hares as well as the brightest
and richest in coloration (summer). Upperparts generally
with rusty ochraceous brown. Total length, 20-21 inches;
tail vertebrcB, 2 inches; hind foot, 5.5 inches. Found in
"Mountains of West Virginia and Virginia north through
Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware,
Connecticut, Rhode Island. Massachusetts, Vermont, New
Hampshire, most of Maine east to Penobscot River and
Mount Katahdin, and extreme southern Ontario. Vertical
range from near sea level in Rhode Island up to over 4,000
feet in the Adirondacks of New York; zonal range, Can-
adian." (Nelson)
480
—
VARYING HARE
—
Minnesota Varying Hare. Lepus americanus phcBonotus Allen.
Resembling typical americanus in size but paler and with
more buffy in summer pelage. Found in "Western half of
northern peninsula of Michigan, northern Wisconsin,
northern Minnesota, and north into extreme western
Ontario, and southern Manitoba. Vertical range from
about 900 to 2,000 feet in northern peninsula of Michigan;
zonal range, Canadian." (Nelson)
—
Turtle Mountain Snowshoe Rabbit. Lepus americanus his-
hopi (Allen).
A dull brown Hare resembling typical americanus, but
probably darker (rusty ochraceous) than the other forms
of americanus. Known only from very inadequate material
from Turtle Mountains of North Dakota.
Mackenzie Varying Hare. Lepus americanus macfarlani
Merriam.
Darker and larger than typical americanus; dark brownish
gray above. Total length, 19.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6
inches; hind foot, 6 inches; ear from notch, 2.6 inches.
Found "Wooded parts of Alaska, in Upper Yukon region,
in
and southwest to Cook Inlet; base of Alaska Peninsula and
all of Yukon Territory, western Mackenzie, northern
British Columbia, and northwestern Alberta, Canada. Its
northern limit coincides with that of the trees. Vertical
range, in the Mackenzie River region, from near sea level
up to over 2,000 feet altitude; zonal range mainly Hudson-
ian." (Nelson)
—
Alaska Varying Hare. Lepus americanus dalli Merriam.
Closely resembling macfarlani, but ochraceous buffy above
in summer pelage. Found in "Wooded parts of western
Alaska from below Fort Yukon to coast of Bering Sea at
mouth of Yukon, and from Bristol Bay north to tree limit.
Vertical range from near sea level on lower Yukon up to
about 2,000 feet on adjacent mountains; zonal range mainly
'
Hudsonian. (Nelson)
'
British Columbia Snowshoe Rabbit. —

Lepus americanus colum-
biensis Rhoads.
Smaller than typical americanus; total length, 17.5 inches;
tail vertebras, 1.6 inches; hind foot, 5.4 inches; ear from
notch, 2.6 inches. Color of upperparts dingy yellowish
buffy. Found in "Rocky Mountain region of southeastern
British Columbia (except extreme southeastern comer) and
western Alberta, Canada (from Vernon, British Columbia,
to Jasper House, Alberta). Vertical and zonal ranges not
definitely known." (Nelson)
—
Washington Varying Hare. Lepus washingtoni washingtoni
Baird.
Summer and winter pelages both dull, dark reddish brown
(no white winter pelage) tops of feet more intense reddish;
;
soles of hind feet sooty. Size small, with short ears and
feet. Total length, 17-18 inches; tail vertebras, 1.6 inches;
481
hind foot, 5 inches; ear from notch, 2.5 inches. Found in

"Washington and north to Fraser River, British Columbia,
from the western slope of the Cascade Mountains to the sea
(including the Olympic Mountains). Vertical range from sea
level to about 3,500 feet on the west slope of the Cascades;
zonal range mainly Transition and Canadian." (Nelson)
—
Oregon Snowshoe Rabbit. Lepus washingtoni klamathensis
(Meiriam).
Closely resembling typical washingtoni in size and color, but
pelage paler and with more pinkish cinnamon tone. Found
in "Cascade Mountains and adjacent parts of Oregon and
higher parts of Sierra Nevada of eastern California south at
least to Pacific, Eldorado County. Vertical range from
about 4,000 feet in mountains near Fort Klamath up prob-
ably to timberline; zonal range, mainly Canadian. " (Nelson)
—
Rocky Mountain Snowshoe Rabbit. Lepus bairdi bairdi
Hayden. Plate XXXIX.
_
vSize of body about as in typical americanus, but with longer

ears and hind feet. Total length, 18.4 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.6 inches; hind foot, 5.8 inches; ear from notch, 2.8 inches.
Color of upperparts (summer) buffy grayish brown to rusty
brown; winter pelage white, with black-bordered tips of ears
and underparts pale salmon. Found in "Higher parts of
Rocky Mountains from Idaho, Montana, and extreme
eastern Washington and Oregon southeast through western
Wyoming, eastern Utah, and middle Colorado to central
New Mexico. Also probably extreme southern Alberta
and extreme southeastern British Columbia, though no
specimens have been seen from these areas. Vertical range
from about 8,000 to 11,000 feet (timberline) in northern
New Mexico and Colorado; zonal range, Canadian and
Hudsonian." (Nelson)
—
Cascade Mountain Snowshoe Rabbit. Lepus bairdi cascaden-
sis Nelson.
Color above (summer), darker than typical bairdi, with
more black on rump and more reddish along the back.
Like typical bairdi, white in winter. Size about as in
typical bairdi. Found in "Cascade Mountains near extreme
southern border of British Columbia from Hope, on Fraser
River, south along east side of mountains at least to Martin
and Easton, Washington. Vertical range undetermined;
zonal range probably Canadian and Hudsonian." (Nelson)
The Varying Hares are larger than the Cottontail Rabbits

and where both occur are generally less abund-
in the regions
ant. North of the range of the Cottontails, the Varying
Hares may be very abundant, and in general it may be said
that the latter live in colder climates (higher altitudes or more
northern latitudes) than the former. Varying Hares may be
482
PLATE XXXIX
'«^^
Photo by E. R. Warren
Rocky Mountain Snowshoe Rabbit
(Lepus bairdi hairdi)
^'§'^n%
Washington Jack Rabbit

{Lepus californicus wallaivalla)
VARYING HARE
distinguished from Cottontails by larger size, longer hind legs,

larger hind feet, tail (in brown summer
no white underside to
pelage),and white winter pelage; in the summer pelage the
Varying Hares are generally a duller brown than any of the
Cottontails.
The Varying Hares are so named from the fact that the
pelage varies with the season, brownish in summer, white in
winter. Although the transition seems to be rapid, and it
was formerly supposed to be a change of color in the hair itself,
the new pelage is the result of molt or shedding followed by a
growth of new hair. In fall and spring, specimens may be
secured in which the pelage is particolored, brown and white.
Next to the assumption of a snow pelage, the most note-
worthy feature of these Hares is the large hind feet which
earns them the name of Snowshoe Rabbits, in some localities.
The broad hind feet serve as snow-shoes and carry the Hare
over the surface of deep snows which would otherwise make
him an easy prey for the first Lynx he encountered.
In the North, Varying Hares have years of great abundance
followed by a year or two of great scarcity and then several
seasons of gradual increase. At the peak of one of these
cycles the Hares are everywhere, but the animals are soon
attacked by disease which nearly exterminates the species.
The disease may be of bacterial origin or due to an infestation
of insect parasites. Both diagnoses have been given for dead
Hares secured at such a time, according to Seton. This
Hare is one of the principal food mammals for small carnivores
over much of its range, and accordingly as the Hares are
abundant or scarce much of the other animal life may vary.
Varying Hares may be called up by squeaking on the back
of the hand. At least they will come to this call in the North,
according to Preble, and I have successfully called them in
the Rocky Mountain region.
Varying Hares have usually three or four young in a litter,
but may have as many as eight or ten during the cycle of
increase. There is evidence to show that these Hares have
more than one litter a year.
Lepus townsendii Group. —White-tailed Jack Rabbits

This section of the subgenus Lepus are all large forms,
heavy-bodied, with long ears and hind legs. Where the range
483
;
of these forms meets severe winter conditions, white winter

pelages are assumed. The tail is nearly always white.
—
Western White-tailed Jack Rabbit. Lepus townsendii town-
sendii Bachman.
Resembling campaniiis in summer pelage, but lacking the
buffy suffusion on upperparts. Smaller in size and with
less black on ears. Winter pelage, when white, as in
campanius, or becoming pale creamy or buffy gray. Total
length, 23 inches; tail vertebras, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 6
inches; ear from notch, 4.2 inches. Found in "Great Basin
region, including east slopes of Cascade Range, and thence
east to Rocky Mountains, occupying eastern Washington
and Oregon, and north to Fairview, in Okanogan Valley,
British Columbia; and from the northeastern comer of
California easterly through northern Nevada, western and
southern Idaho, extreme southwestern Wyoming, most of
Utah, and Colorado from western border to summit of
Rocky Mountains. Vertical range, from about 1,000 feet
in eastern Washington to 12,000 feet in Colorado; zonal
range mainly Upper Sonoran and Transition, but reaches
up to Hudsonian in the mountains of Colorado." (Nelson)
—
White-tailed Jack Rabbit. Lepus townsendii campanius Hol-
lister. Plate XXXVI.
Size large, body heavy, ears large, tail long and white
throughout the year. Total length, 24 inches; tail vertebrae,
3.6 inches; hind foot, 6 inches; ear from notch, 3.8 inches.
Color above (summer), practically a uniform buffy gray
with yellowish suffusion; nape buffy to grayish; tail com-
pletely white, sometimes with a faint dusky median line
above; legs much like back; tops of hind feet whitish under-
;
parts white, except for throat which is gray with buffy wash
ears brownish, washed with buffy or gray, black-tipped and
with white on posterior half. Winter pelage, in northern
part of range, pure white except for black tips to ears and
irregular buffy patches on top side of forefeet, nose, and
about eyes; dark rusty area about front and inside of ears;
underfur of upperparts usually reddish brown. Where
winter change of pelage does not occur the coat is much as
in summer, except paler in tone. Found in "Great Plains
of Saskatchewan in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba,
Canada, and thence south on plains of the United States,
east of the Rocky Mountains, over Montana, Wyoming
(except extreme southwestern part), the Dakotas, Minne-
sota to extreme southeastern comer (Lanesboro), Iowa east
to the Mississippi River (Muscatine), Nebraska, northern
half of Kansas, Colorado east of summit of the Rocky
Mountains, and middle northern border of New Mexico.
Vertical range from less than i ,000 feet in Iowa up to at
least 10,000 feet on the mountains of Colorado; zonal range,
mainly Upper Sonoran and Transition on the plains of the
484
WHITE-TAILED JACK RABBIT
western United States, extending into Canadian on the

mountains and in the northern part of its range. " (Nelson)
—
Sierra White-tailed Jack Rabbit. Lepus townsendii sierrcs
(Alerriam.)
Large, with larger hind feet and longer ears than either of
the other two forms. Summer pelage much like that of
typical townsendii. Winter pelage white with yellowish
about top of head and on forefeet ears broadly tipped with
;
black. Total length, 25.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 4.5 inches;

hind foot, 6.5 inches; ear from notch, 4.5 inches. "In
summer, high slopes of Sierra Nevada of California,
probably from Mount Shasta south to Mount Whitney; in
winter, ranging down the east slope to Mono Lake region
on the sagebrush plains of eastern California. Vertical
The
*******
range in summer from about 9,000 to over 12,000 feet;
zonal range, Boreal." (Nelson)
White-tailed Jack Rabbits are easily distinguished from

the other Jack Ra obits (subgenus Macrotolagus) by the very
apparent difference in the tails. The conspicuously white
tail of this group marks these forms as well as the white
underside of the tail advertises the Cottontail Rabbit.

White-tailed Jacks are denizens of the prairies and open
plains, but range up on mountain slopes to high elevations.
On the plains they may be found together with the Black-tailed
Jack Rabbits, but they are larger than the Black-tails and, I
believe, are faster runners. The powerful hind limbs propel
—
the White-tail in tremendous leaps, from twelve to twenty
feet in length. I have never found the White-tails to be as
abundant as the Black-tails. The average number of young

in a litter is four.
Lepus arcticus Group.' —Arctic Hares

This section includes the large, heavy Hares of the Arctic
regions, living, for the most part, north of the tree limit.
These species have two annual pelages, the winter one always
white; pelage quite long and thick. Plate XXXVI.
American Arctic Hare. —Lepusarcticus arcticus Ross.
Size large. Color in summer, above, grizzled silvery gray,
paler on top of head, which is faintly washed with buffy;
sides and rump darker; underfur dull brownish buffy; tail
white above and below ears blackish on anterior outer half,
;
whitish on posterior half, a small black tip; underparts

white, throat smoky gray. Winter pelage white except for
small black tip on ears. Total length, 26-27 inches; tail
485
vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 6 inches; ear from notch,

4.7 inches. Found in "Baffin Land, and probably adjoining
islands to the west extreme north coast of Hudson Bay and
;
Fig. 102. Arctic Hare
south across Hudson Strait to include most of Ungava to

Great Whale River on the east shore of Hudson Bay, and
Labrador north of Hamilton Inlet. Vertical range from
sea level to an undetermined altitude; zonal range, Arctic."
(Nelson)
Newfoundland Hare.^ — Lepus arcticus hangsi Rhoads.
Resembling typical arcticus, but upperparts grizzled, smoky
gray, head dull buffy; rump blackish; ears glossy black
grizzled with gray about anterior base, and with a narrow
white line along posterior border. Total length, 24 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 6.5 inches; ear from
notch, 3.6 inches. Found in "Newfoundland and probably
adjacent part of Labrador north to Hamilton Inlet, and
extreme eastern Quebec. Vertical range from sea level up
'
to an undetermined altitude zonal range, Arctic. (Nelson)

— ;
Hudson Bay Arctic Hare. Lepus arcticus canus Preble.

'
Much like typical arcticus, but paler gray above and more
white on ears in summer pelage. Found in "Barren
Grounds of northern Canada south to York Factory, Kee-
watin, and northern shores of Great Slave and Great Bear
lakes. Vertical range from sea level up to an undetermined
altitude; zonal range, Arctic." (Nelson)
—
Alaska Tundra Hare. Lepus othus Merriam.
Largest of American Arctic Hares, approached in size only
by grcenlandicus. Hind foot very large, 7 inches in length.
486
ARCTIC HARE
Darker in summer pelage than other American Arctic

Hares. Winter pelage white, ears black-tipped. Color of
back (summer), dusky brown, finely grizzled with gray,
grayer on sides, blackish brown on top of head, dark
cinnamon or buffy about nose and mouth; orbital ring white;
ears dusky, washed with gray, tipped with blackish under-
;
parts white. Found in "Tundras of northern and north-

western Alaska, exclusive of the Peninsula and Bristol Bay
section. Vertical range from sea level up to over 2,000
feet altitude; zonal range, Arctic." (Nelson)
Alaska Peninsula Hare. —Lepus poadromus Merriam.
Characterized by dull cinnamon coloration (summer), small,
dusky gray tail, white hind feet. Winter pelage white, with
black-tipped ears. Total length, 24 inches; tail vertebra3,
2.1 inches; hind foot, 6 inches; ear from notch, 3.2 inches.
Found in "Peninsula of Alaska and Bristol Bay district of
Alaska. Vertical range from sea level up to an undetermined
altitude; zonal range, Arctic." (Nelson)
vSubgenus Boreolepus
—
Greenland Hare. Lepus grcenlandicus Rhoads.
Larger than typical arcticus. Total length, 26.5 inches;
tail vertebras, 3 inches; hind foot, 4.8 inches; ear from notch,
3 inches. Color above (summer), dusky whitish, a fine
sprinkling of black hairs on back and sides of head; ears
dusky gray, with small black tip; below, pure white; the
summer pelage is essentially white, the winter pelage pure
white except for small, black tip on ears. Claws very
large; long and projecting upper incisors; pelage exceedingly
thick. Found in "Northwestern coasts of northern Green-
land and Ellesmere Land. Vertical range from sea level to
an undetermined altitude; zonal range, Arctic." (Nelson)
The large, heavy-bodied, Arctic Hares live so far north that

they are seldom seen except by the trapper or sportsman who
goes far afield. They are the largest American members of
the family Leporidas, some of the species reaching a weight of
1 1 pounds. These Hares are a principal food item for Foxes,
Weasels, Lynxes, and Great Snowy Owls. The change in
pelage is an aid in escaping enemies, since the summer coat
blends well with the scrub vegetation and open ground, while
the pure white winter coat matches the snow so well that the
outline of the animal is lost.
487
Subgenus Macrotolagus. — See Black-tailed Jack Rabbits.

White-sided Jack Rabbits
This group is made up of large Jack Rabbits which have a

whitish area on the sides from shoulder to rump and lack the
black on the posterior tip of the ears. This subgenus contains
the most showy of the North American Leporidae, all of the five
speciesand two subspecies being confined to desert or arid
regions. The group is essentially Mexican in its distribution,
only two forms ranging north into the United States.
—
Antelope Jack Rabbit. Lepus alleni alleni Meams,
Size very large; ears enormous; tail short. Total length,
24 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 5.2 inches;
ear from notch, 6 inches. Color of back cream-buff with
black wash; top of head like back; ears buffy in front,
whitish behind; nape brownish buff; eye- ring whitish or
buffy; sides of shoulders to rump and outside of hind legs
light iron-gray; upperside of forelegs and forefeet grayish
buff grizzled with dusky tail white except for blackish area
;
extending from rump down to about middle of upperside

of tail; underparts clear white except for buffy area on
throat. Found in "The desert plains of southern Arizona,
from Phoenix, Tucson, and Benson, south. .Vertical
. .
range from near sea level in Sonora up to about 3,500 feet

in southern Arizona; zonal distribution Lower Sonoran."
(Nelson) Plate XXXVI.
—
Gaillard Jack Rabbit. Lepus gaillardi gaillardi Meams.
Smaller than typical alleni; total length, 21.5 inches; tail
vertebrae, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 5.3 inches; ear from notch,
4.5 inches. Color above, head, and back, deep vinaceous
buff; a median dusky line down rump onto tail; front of
hind legs and feet white, forelegs grayer; underparts white
except for buffy throat. Found on 'Grassy plains of south-
'
western New Mexico near Mexican border and southward.

..." (Nelson)
Gray- sided Jack Rabbits
This section of the subgenus Macrotolagus comprises the

so-called Black-tailed Jack Rabbits, of large size, long hind
legs, long ears, and black tails. Plate XXXVI.
—
California Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus californicus Gray.
Size large, darkest colored of the Jack Rabbits found in the
United States. Total length, 24 inches; tail vertebrae, 4
inches; hind foot, 5.2 inches; ear from notch, 5.2 inches.
Color of upperparts dark ochraceous buffy, sometimes with
488
BLACK-TAILED JACK RABBIT
a heavy black wash; sides with less black than back and
toning gradually into a clearer buff y on lower flanks outside
;
of hind legs darker than sides; shoulders and forelegs

brighter, sometimes cinnamon-rufous; tops of forelegs and
hind legs whitish; eye-ring warm buffy; nape dark cinna-
mon; ears grizzled cinnamon and dark brown on anterior
Fig. 103. Black-tailed Jack Rabbit
half, whitish on posterior half, tip heavily marked with

black for an extent of from one to two inches; top of tail
black, an extension of the dark median area down rump,
underside of tail dark buffy color of underparts ochraceous
;
buffy, paler on middle of abdomen; throat a darker buff

than rest of underparts. Found in "Humid coast belt of
California from Gaviota Pass north to Cape Mendocino,
spreading inland over extreme northern end of San Joaquin
Valley, all of Sacramento Valley, up through the adjacent
foothills of the Sierra, and north through Shasta Valley to
Rogue River and Willamette Valley in Oregon. Vertical
range from sea level at San Francisco up to about 3,000
feet altitude on west slope of the Sierra zonal range mainly
;
Upper Sonoran and lower border of the Transition Zone."

(Nelson)
—
Washington Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus wallawalla
(Merriam). Plate XXXIX.
Paler and smaller than typical californicus, iron-gray above,
washed with pinkish buffy. Total length, 23 inches; tail
489
vertebras, 4 inches; hind foot, 5.4 inches; ear from notch,

4.5 inches. Found in "Northeastern Cahfomia, north-
western Nevada, and north through eastern Oregon and
eastern Washington. Vertical range from about 1,000 feet
in eastern Washington to 6,000 feet in northeastern Cah-
fomia; zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran extending into
lower part of Transition Zone." (Nelson)
—
San Joaquin Valley Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus richard-
soni (Bachman).
Smaller than typical californicus. Total_ length, 22-23
inches; tail vertebrae, 4 inches; hind foot, 5 inches; ear from
notch, 4.5 inches. Paler than typical californicus, color
above grayish buff to sandy buff. Found in "San Joaquin
Valley, California, and adjacent arid valleys to the west and
surrounding foothills. Vertical range from below 500 feet
in Salinas Valley up to 4,000 feet in mountains about San
Joaquin Valley; zonal range mainly Lower Sonoran, extend-
ing up through Upper Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
San Diego Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus hennetti (Gray).
Smaller and paler than typical californicus. Total length,
22 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.4 inches; hind foot, 5 inches; ear
from notch, 4.5 inches. Color above, pinkish buff washed
with black black ear- tip smaller than in typical californicus
;
and less contrast between color of tops of fore- and hind feet
and color of upper legs. Found in "Southern California
west of summit of Coast Range from near Gaviota Pass to
Mexican border and south. . .Vertical range from sea
.
level at San Diego up to about 6,000 feet altitude in moun-

tains to the eastward; zonal range mainly Upper Sono-
ran," (Nelson)
—
Colorado Desert Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus deserticola
(Mearns).
Very pale in color above, ashy gray, with very little black
wash; middle of abdomen white; smaller than typical cali-
fornicus, but with proportionally larger ears. Total length,
22 inches; tail vertebrae, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 5 inches;
ear from notch, 5 inches. Found in "Arid desert areas
.... north through southeastern California (east of Coast
Range and Sierra Nevada) at least to Mono Lake, through
most of Nevada, except the northwestern part north of
Pyramid Lake, most of Utah and southern Idaho, to
Pahsimeroi Valley, and east to Phoenix and San Francisco
mountains in Arizona. Vertical range from below sea level
in the Colorado Desert to 7,500 feet in the border of the pine
forest on the Mogollon plateau of northern Arizona, and to
9,000 feet in the San Bernardino Mountains, California;
zonal range mainly Upper and Lower Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
Arizona Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus eremicus (Allen).
Paler and lighter in color than typical californicus. Above,
dark cream-buff to light pinkish buff with heavy blackish
wash. Darker than deserticola. Total length, 24 inches;
490
ornicus,
Fig. 104. Distribution of the subspecies of Lepus calif
north of Mexico, after Nelson
Lepus californicus californicus

Lepus californicus wallawalla
Lepus californicus tularensis
Lepus californicus bennetli
Lepus californicus deserticola
Lepus californicus eremicus
Lepus californicus texianus
Lepus californicus melanotis
Lepus californicus merriami
ear from notch

tail vertebra, 4 inches; hind foot, 54 mches;
^ inches Found "north throughout southern Arizona east
mountains; also along the
of Phoenix and south of the high
border in southwestern New Mexico.
... Vertical dis-
tribution from about 2,000 feet
west of Tucson to 5,000
mainly Lower bonoran,
feet near Wilcox; zonal distribution
Sonoran Zone.
extending up into lower part of Upper
(Nelson)
491
;.
Texas Jack Rabbit. —Lepus californicus texianus (Waterhouse)

Light in color, large in size, long-eared. Pale buffy gray
above, with light black wash, a whitish gray rump patch
present; underparts white with practically no buffy suffus-
ion. Total length, 24 inches; tail vertebras, 3.4 inches;
hind foot, 5.4 inches; ear from notch, 5 inches. Found in
"arid western Texas (except northern Panhandle), New
Mexico (except northeastern part), northeastern Arizona
(valley of Little Colorado River), and southwestern part of
Colorado. Vertical range from about 1,500 feet above Del
Rio, Texas, to 7,500 feet altitude on mountains of New
Mexico; zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran, but extending
down into Lower Sonoran and up in summer into lower
border of Transition Zone." (Nelson)
—
Great Plains Jack Rabbit.' Lepus californicus melanotis
(Meams).
Above, ochraceous buffy, bright in tone, with dark wash of
black; conspicuous, large, whitish rump patch; black band
from rump onto tail broad and well developed throat richly
;
colored, deep ochraceous buff. Total length, 23 inches;

tail vertebrcB, 3.2 inches; hind foot, 5.2 inches; ear from
notch, 4.2 inches. Found in "Great Plains from east
central and northern Texas, northeastern New Mexico and
north through western half of Indian Territory, all of
Oklahoma, extreme southwestern part of Missouri, all of
Kansas and Nebraska, except perhaps extreme eastern
parts, southwestern Dakota, southeastern Wyoming, and
all of Colorado east of Rocky Mountains. Vertical range
from less than 1,000 feet near Independence, Kansas, to
over 6,000 feet on east base of mountains in Colorado;
zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
Merriam Jack Rabbit. Lepus californicus merriami (Meams).
Color above like eremicus, but darker; dark brownish buffy;
nape black or nearly so; iron-gray rump and hind legs;
underparts clear white. Total length, 24 inches; tail verte-
brae, 4 inches; hind foot, 5 inches; ear from notch, 4.6
inches. Found in "All of southern Texas from coast
prairies near Trinity River west to a little above Del Rio on
the Rio Grande, north to Mason and Antioch, and south
across the Rio Grande. . .Vertical range from sea level
.
in southern Texas up to about 5,000 feet in mountains . . .
zonal range mainly Lower Sonoran ..." (Nelson)
The Black-tailed Jack Rabbits are the most conspicuous of

western Lcporidas. They are not as showy as the White-sided
Jacks, but they are found over a much larger range in the
United States and are better known in consequence. The
Black-tails, with their high, leaping gait, are a common sight
from any of the transcontinental railroads or automobile
492
routes,and during seasons of abundance may be seen literally

by hundreds. Sometimes communities have organized drives
against Black-tailed Jack Rabbits, when crops were threat-
ened by too great numbers, and thousands have been killed
in a single day's drive.
These Rabbits are well characterized by large size, huge
hind legs and black tail, and will be recognized at
ears, long
long distances. The speed of the Black-tail is so great that
the average Dog stands no chance of catching it and onlyOrey-
hounds can overtake it in a fair run.
Both the senses of sight and of hearing are keen in the
Black-tail and often the Jack runs long before the hunter is in
range. At other times it may lie so close that it is almost
stepped upon. In brushy districts where the Jack must run
between the bushes, its course is erratic, but in tlie open it is
direct or slightly circling unless very closely pressed,' when the
animal may change direction very abruptly. When running,
every so often it leaps much higher than usual, probably
to enable it to watch the back track and the whereabouts, of
the pursuer.
When not feeding. Jack Rabbits lie in forms or under
bushes. The form is merely a shallow depression in the dust,
and when the animal cowers in it, with ears lying close along
the body, one is apt to pass by without noticing the Jack.
These animals do a great deal of damage in ranching dis-
tricts, gathering in large numbers about alfalfa fields or com-
ing in to hay stacks in winter. Natural enemies, such"as Coy-
otes, Wolves, Eagles, et cetera, check their numbers to a
certain extent, but since these latter animals are themselves
frequently killed at every opportunity, the rancher must rely
upon guns and poison to control the Rabbits. .
Jack Rabbits have from two to four young in a litter and

may have several litters a year. Young Jacks are more easily
caught than young Cottontail Rabbits and are more apt to
remain motionless, trusting to their protective coloration to
escape.
Genus Sylvilagus'
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, ^; Premolars, f; Molars, f =28.
;
493
Cottontail. — Sylvilagus floridanus

and related forms
Names. —Cottontail; Cottontail Rabbit; Wood Rabbit.
General Description. — Of small or medium hind size; legs
long, but not so well developed as in the Jack Rabbits;
Fig. 105. Cottontail
ears large but not excessively developed; tail short, with con-
spicuous white underside; pelage full and soft, brownish above,
white below. Plate XXXVI.
Upperparts. —Varying from dark buffy brown with reddish
tinge to brown with grayish wash; sides, rump, and back
finely sprinkled with black; nape rich rufous; forelegs dark
cinnamon-rufous, forefeet more bufify than legs; lower hind
legs intensely dark rufous; tail above, rusty brown, below,
clear white ears dark grayish buffy bordered with black.
;
—
Underparts. White, except for dark ochraceous buflfy
throat area.
Young. —Yellowish buffy brown, no appreciable rump
patch; rusty brown on nape and upperside of tail.
—
Measurements. Total length, 14-15 inches; tail vertebrae,
1.8 inches;hind foot, 3.6 inches; ear from notch, 2.2 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. North America, from Canada
southward,
494
.
COTTONTAIL
Food.—A great variety green vegetation,

of grasses, foliage,
bark, etc.
Enemies. — Hawks, Owls, Fox, Weasel, Coyote, Wolf, Lynx,
and any carnivorous mammal capable of catching it.
Species and subspecies of the genus Sylvilagus
Subgenus Sylvilagus
Cottontails
—Eastern Cottontails
Floridanus Group.
—
Florida Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus floridanus (Allen).
The animal described above. Found in "All of peninsular
Florida (including coastal islands) south of Sebastian River
and thence northward along the coast to St. Augustine on
the east side, and to an unknown distance on the west side.
Vertical range from sea level up to about loo feet altitude;
zonal range mainly Lower Austral." (Nelson)
—
Eastern Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas).
Size larger, ears longer than typical floridanus; less black
washing on upperparts which are dark rusty yellowish.
Total length, i8 inches; tail vertebra, 2.6 inches; hind foot,
3.7 inches; ear from notch, 2.4 inches. Found "Mainly east
of Allegheny Mountains from Long Island and the lower
Hudson Valley in extreme southeastern New York south
through New Jersey, Delaware, eastern Pennsylvania,
eastern West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, North and South
Carolina, Georgia, except northwestern part, and west along
Gulf coast to near Mobile Bay, and Alabama; also north-
western central parts of Florida south to about Lake Julian,
Polk County. Vertical range from near sea level in North
Carolina up to about 6,000 feet on Roan Mountain; zonal
range from Lower Austral up through Transition Zone,
mainly Upper Austral." (Nelson)
—
Hitchens Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus hitchensi Meams.
Resembling mallurus in size but paler in color, "with the
bright colors (black and rufous) of the upper parts obsolete,
giving a pale sandy fulvous shade to these parts; but the
.backs of the hind legs are a slightly darker chestnut than in
the mainland forms. The skull is larger, heavier. . . .
AH of the teeth are larger." (Mearns) Total length, 19

Found on Fishermans Island and Smiths Island, Northamp-
ton County, Virginia.
—
"Meams Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi (Allen)
Size of mallurus, but ears shorter, hind feet longer, and more
.gray on upperparts. Hind foot, 4.2 inches. Found "West
495
of Allegheny Mountains from

Lake Simcoe, Toronto,
Canada,_ central New
York, central Pennsylvania, western
West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky, and eastern Ten- J
nessee, west through southern Michigan and Wisconsin to
O U t, F o r ME
Fig. io6. Distribution of the subspecies of the Sylvilagus

floridanus group, north of Mexico, after Nelson
1. Sylvilagus floridanus floridanus
2. Sylvilagus fl.oridanus mallurus
3. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi
4. Sylvilagus floridanus similis
5. Sylvilagus floridanus alacer
6. Sylvilagus floridanus chapmani
7. Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri
8. Sylvilagus cognatus
9. Sylvilagus robustus
southeastern Minnesota, and south through Iowa to Trego-

County, Kansas, northern Missouri and Illinois, with all of
Indiana and Ohio. Vertical range from about 500 feet in
western New York to about 2,000 feet altitude in mountains
of western Pennsylvania; zonal range mainly Upper Austral,,
extending into lower part of Transition zone." (Nelson)
—
Nebraska Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus similis Nelson.
Smaller than mearnsi or mallurus. Total length, 16 inches;
tail vertebras, 2.1 inches; hind foot, 4 inches; ear from notch,
2 inches. Color of upperparts pale pinkish buffy washed
with grayish over shoulders and with black over rest of
back. Found on "Dry plains (mainly along wooded
streams) of extreme western Minnesota, eastern North and
South Dakota, all of Nebraska (except possibly the Missouri
496
COTTONTAIL
bottom lands), northern Kansas, northeastern Colorado,

along tributaries of Platte River to base of mountains near
Denver, and southeastern Wyoming, Vertical range, from
about 1,500 feet in northeast Nebraska to over 5,000 feet
west of Denver, Colorado; zonal range, mainly Upper
Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
Oklahoma Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus alacer (Bangs).
Resembling typical floridanus in size, but paler and with
more rusty red in pelage of upperparts. Found on "Gulf
coast from Mobile Bay, Alabama, to Matagorda Bay,
Texas, and thence north through most of Alabama to Tate,
northwestern Georgia; all of Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Arkansas; western Tennessee and Kentucky, extreme
southern Illinois, southern Missouri, southeastern Kansas,
all of Oklahoma except extreme western part, and eastern
Texas to eastern border of Panhandle. Vertical range from
near sea level in Louisiana up to about 2,000 feet altitude in
Oklahoma; zonal range mainly Lower Austral." (Nelson)
Texas —
Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus chapmani (Allen).
Size small; ears short; feet small; altogether one of the
smallest of the floridanus group. Pelage of upperparts dark
buffy brown grizzled with grayish. Total length, 16 inches;
tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, 3.6 inches; ear from notch,
2 inches. Found in "Arid parts of middle and southern
Texas from east of Corpus Christi to mouth of Pecos River
and from near Abilene south across the Rio Grande.- . . .
Vertical range from sea level near Corpus Christi up to about

1,000 feet altitude near Fort Clark, Texas. Zonal range
mainly Lower Sonoron." (Nelson)
—
Holzner Cottontail. Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri (Meams).
Paler and larger than chapmani, with more heavily furred
feet and larger ears. Upperparts pale grayish buffy. Total
inches; ear from notch, 2.5 inches. Found in "Higher
mountain ranges of extreme southern Arizona and south-
western New Mexico and thence south. . Zonal range
. .
mainly Transition and lower border of Canadian, ranging

down into Upper Sonoran in winter." (Nelson)
Manzano Mountain Cottontail. —Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson.
_
A long-eared, grayish, mountain-dwelling form. Total

inches; ear from notch, 2.7 inches. General color of upper-
parts, dull buffy grayish, washed with black. Found in
"High mountain summits and adjacent slopes of central-
eastern New Mexico. Vertical range from about 6,500 to
10,200 feet altitude on Manzano Mountains; zonal range
mainly Transition, and lower part of Canadian Zone."
(Nelson)
—
Davis Mountains Cottontail. Sylvilagus robustus (Bailey).
Resembling cognatus in color and in size, but with larger
skull, broader supraorbitals and larger auditory bullae..
497
;
Found in "Davis, Chinati, and Chisos mountains in south-

western Texas. Vertical range mainly above 6,000 feet in
Davis Mountains; zonal range mainly Transition." (Nelson)
New —
England Cottontail. Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs).
Distinguished by rich pinkish buffy upperparts, sometimes
heavily washed with black distributed as streakings; small
ears. Total length, 15-16 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches;
hind foot, 3.8 inches; ear from notch, 2.1 inches. Found in
"New England States north to Rutland, Vermont, southern
New Hampshire, extreme southwestern Maine, and south-
west through eastern New York (including southern end of
Lake George and Long Island), New Jersey, eastern
Pennsylvania, and Maryland to Alexandria, Virginia; also
along the Alleghenies through West Virginia to Roan
Mountain, North Carolina, and Brasstown Bald Mountain
in extreme northern Georgia. Vertical range from near sea
level in Virginia to 6,000 feet on Roan Mountain, North
Carolina; zonal range mainly Transition and thence down
into upper part of Upper Austral Zone." (Nelson)
Nuttalli Group. — Rocky Mountain Cottontails

Washington Cottontail. — Sylvilagus nuttalli (Bach-
nuttalli
man).
In size smaller than floridanus; ears short and rounded.
3.6 inches; ear from notch, 2.3 inches. Pelage of upperparts
dark fulvous-buffy brown; rump grayer; nape dark rufous;
legs rufous hind feet white (tops) underparts white, fur
; ;
of breast and abdomen white (generally) to base, elsewhere

slate-colored at base; throat dark buffy. Found in "Plains
and lower mountain slopes of Columbia River basin in
eastern Washington and Oregon; also northeastern Cali-
fornia, northwestern Nevada, and western Idaho. Vertical
range from about 100 feet on Columbia River to about 3,000
feet altitude near Prineville, Oregon; zonal range mainly
Upper Sonoran and lower part of Transition Zone."
(Nelson)
—
Black Hills Cottontail. Sylvilagus nuttalli grangeri (Allen).
Upperparts creamy buff lightly grizzled with gray; larger
than typical nuttalli. Total length, 15-16 inches; tail verte-
brae, 1.8 inches; hind foot, 3.8 inches; ear from notch, 2.3
inches. Found in "Western South Dakota, most of Mon-
tana and Wyoming; most of the sagebrush plains of Idaho
(except extreme western and northwestern parts), Nevada
(except northwestern comer and low valleys in the south)
mountains of middle eastern California from near Mono
Lake to Panamint Range; most of Utah, and northwestern
Colorado extends north of the United States into southern
;
Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada. Zonal range mainly

498
COTTONTAIL
Transition and upper half of Upper Sonoran Zone."

(Nelson)
—
Rocky Mountain Cottontail. Sylvilagus nuttalli ptnetis (Allen).
Resembling typical nuttalli in color but larger; darker than
grangeri. Upperparts creamy buff to dark pinkish buffy,
but always washed with black to give impression of darker
Fig. 107. Distribution of the subspecies of Sylvilagus nuttalli^

after Nelson
1. Sylvilagus nuttalli nuttalli
2. Sylvilagus nuttalli grangeri
3. Sylvilagus nuttalli pinetis (the artist has departed somewhat from
Nelson and the southwestern area of this figure should reach only
slightly south of the three detached areas)
color. Total length, 15-16 inches; tail vertebras, 2.4 inches;

hind foot, 3.8 inches; ear from notch, 2.5 inches. Found in
"Pine forests of mountains from central Arizona and middle-
western New Mexico, north through Colorado except north-
western comer. Vertical range in Colorado and New
499
;;
Mexico from about 7,500 to over 10,000 feet; zonal range

mainly Transition and lower edge of Canadian, moving down
in winter to border of Upper Sonoran Zone." (Nelson)
Auduboni Group— Western Cottontails

Sacramento Valley Cottontail. — Syhilagus auduboni auduboni
_
(Baird).
Size large; tail large. Total length, 16-17 inches; tail verte-
brae, 2.9 inches; hind foot, 3.5 inches; ear from notch, 2.4
inches. Upperparts dark ochraceous buffy brown, heavily
washed with black on back sides grayer and with less black
;
ears grayish inside, brownish outside; nape bright rusty;

legs buffy to rufous; tops of hind feet white; tail brownish
like back above, clear white below; underparts clear white,
throat brownish buff. Found in "Interior of north-central
California from Red Bluff in Sacramento Valley south in
suitable localities in valley and foothills to north end of San
Joaquin Valley (Chinese Camp on the east and Los Banos
on the west), and reaching the coast along the east and
south sides of San Francisco Bay, and thence south through
the adjacent Santa Clara Valley. Vertical range from sea
level at San Francisco Bay up to about 4,000 feet on west
slope of Sierra Nevada; zonal range mainly semiarid Upper
Sonoran." (Nelson)
San Joaquin Cottontail. — Syhilagus auduboni vallicola Nelson.
Resembling typical auduborii in size but ears larger, color
paler and yellower. Upperparts dull yellowish-buffy brown
rump grayish; nape pale ochraceous buff. Total length, 16
inches; tail vertebras, 2.2 inches; hind foot, 3.6 inches; ear
from notch, 2.8 inches. Found in 'Hot, arid parts of central-
'
interior California in Salinas, Upper Cuyama, and San

Joaquin valleys; north to beyond Raymond and south to
Walker and Tejon passes. Not found west of the outer
Coast Range. Vertical range from about 250 feet in
bottom of San Joaquin Valley to 4,500 feet altitude on
western slope of Sierra Nevada; zonal range mainly Lower
Sonoran, but extending into Upper Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
San Diego Cottontail. Syhilagus auduboni sanctidiegi (Miller)
Most like typical auduboni, but paler on sides and generally
with a grayish rump patch. Upperparts ochraceous buffy
brown, with grayer shoulders and sides; forelegs paler (dull
rusty rufous) than in typical auduboni. Total length, 16
from notch, 2.8 inches. Found in "Southern California
west of the mountains from the southern half of Ventura
County to the Mexican border .... Vertical range from
sea level at San Diego up to over 4,000 feet altitude on
mountains to the east; zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran."
(Nelson)
500 I
COTTONTAIL
Sylvilagus audu-
Fig 108 Distribution of the subspecies of
boni, north of Mexico, after Nelson
1. Sylvilagus audtihoni auduboni
2. Sylvilagus auduboni valhcola _
3. Sylvilagus axiduboni sanctidiegi

A. Sylvilagus auduboni arizona
5* Sylvilagus auduboni minor
6 Sylvilagus auduboni cedropMus
7. Sylvilagus suduboni ivarreni
8 Sylvilagus auduboni ba-dcyi
_
9. Sylvilagus auduboni neomextcanus

10! Sylvilagus auduboni parvulus
501
—
Arizona Cottontail. Sylvilagus auduhoni arizoncB (Allen).
Smaller than typical auduboni, with gray rump patch, large
(proportionally) ears. Total length, 14-15 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.1 inches; hind foot, 3.4 inches; ear from notch,
2.8 inches. Upperparts pale buffy gray, back lightly
washed with black, sides gray. Found in "Deserts of
extreme southern Nevada, California (east of the Sierra
Nevada and southern Coast Range) from Owens and Death
Valleys south across the Mohave and Colorado deserts into
northeastern Lower California; nearly all of Arizona below
6,000 feet (except northeastern part) from westerly slopes
of San Francisco and White Mountains, south into northern
Sonora, Mexico. Vertical range from below sea level in
Death Valley up to about 7,000 feet in mountains of western
Arizona; zonal range mainly Lower Sonoran, but extending
through Upper Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
Little Cottontail. Sylvilagus auduhoni minor (Meams).
Smaller than arizona, but similar to it in pale gray colora-
tion. Total length, 14 inches; tail vertebrae, 2.1 inches;
hind foot, 3.2 inches; ear from notch, 2.4 inches. Upper-
parts pale grayish buffy, sparsely washed with black on
back; ears darker gray with black border about tips; throat
grayish buff. Found in "Extreme western Texas (mainly
west of Guadalupe and Davis mountains) and Rio Grande
Valley above mouth of Pecos also plains of extreme south-
;
eastern comer of Arizona and southwestern New Mexico,

and thence south, , .Zonal range mainly Lower Sonoran,
extending up into the Upper Sonoran Zone." (Nelson)
—
Cedar Belt Cottontail. Sylvilagus auduboni cedrophilus
Nelson.
Upperparts dark grayish buffy; rump dull iron-gray; nape
deep rusty rufous; throat deep buff to rich ochraceous buffy.
3.6 inches; ear from notch, 2.5 inches. Found in "Mainly
the juniper and piny on pine belt from Alpine, in the Davis
Mountains of Texas, north through mountains of southern
half of New Mexico and along the Mogollon range to east
side of San Francisco Mountain of east-central Arizona.
Vertical range from about 5,000 to 8,000 feet in western New
Mexico; zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran." (Nelson)
—
Colorado Cottontail. Sylvilagus auduboni warreni Nelson,
Upperparts dark creamy buff with heavy black wash on
back; sides grayer; nape light rufous; well-defined rump
patch of iron-gray; throat dark buff. Total length, 15-16
inches; tail vertebrae, 2 inches; hind foot, 3.9 inches; ear
from notch, 2.7 inches. Found in "Southwestern Colorado,
southeastern Utah, northwestern New Mexico, north-
eastern Arizona, including lower half of valley of the Little
Colorado River, to east base of San Francisco Mountain,
and to Henry Mountains, southeastern Utah. Vertical
range from about 5,000 to 8,500 feet in northwestern New
502
BRUSH RABBIT
Mexico; zonal range mainly Upper Sonoran, extending into

Transition and Lower Sonoran Zones." (Nelson)
—
Wyoming Cottontail. Sylvilagus aiiduhoni haileyi (Merriam).
Pelage long and thick, color pale, ears and feet hairy, size
large. Total length, 16-17 inches; tail vertebrce, 2.3 inches;
hind foot, 3.8 inches; ear from notch, 2.6 inches. Upper-
parts pale creamy buff, lightly washed with black; nape
light rufous; throat dark to creamy buff. Found in "Plains
and valleys of eastern Montana, most of Wyoming, north-
eastern Utah, northwestern and eastern Colorado (east of
the mountains) western parts of North and South Dakota,
,
Nebraska, and as far east as Trego County, Kansas.

Vertical range from about 3,000 feet in Kansas to 7,000 feet
in Colorado; zonal range mainly arid Upper Sonoran, but
ranging into lower part of Transition Zone." (Nelson)
New Mexico Cottontail. — Sylvilagus auduboni neomexicanus
Nelson.
Like minor in size but ears shorter, hind feet longer, color
darker and redder. Total length, 15 inches; tail vertebrse,
2 inches; hind foot, 3.5 inches; ear from notch, 2.3 inches.
Upperparts dark buffy gray; nape rufous; poorly outlined
rump patch dull iron-gray; throat dark ochraceous buffy.
Found in "Pecos Valley from near Fort Stockton, Texas,
north to about Fort Sumner, New Mexico, and thence east
to Abilene and Wichita Falls, Texas, and north through
eastern New Mexico, western Texas, and western Oklahoma
to extreme south-central Kansas. Vertical range from about
2,500 feet in western Texas to 5,000 feet in eastern New
Mexico; zonal range Lower Sonoran and lower part of
Upper Sonoran Zone." (Nelson)
—
Mexican Desert Cottontail. Sylvilagus auduboni parvulus
_
(Allen)._
Size of minor, but more richly colored. Upperparts dusky
buffy gray faintly defined iron-gray rump patch nape and
; ;
forelegs deep rusty rufous; throat ochraceous buff. Found

"from Puebla north to Rio Grande Valley of Texas (from Rio
Grande City to mouth of Pecos River) Vertical range from
.
below 500 feet on the Rio Grande to over 8,000 feet altitude
on southern end of tableland in Mexico; zonal range Upper
and Lower Sonoran." (Nelson)
Bachmani Group. — Pacific Coast Brush Rabbits

This group is distinguished by small size, small tail, short
legs,and uniformly dark coloration.
California —
Brush Rabbit. Sylvilagus bachmani bachmani
(Waterhouse).
Small in size, with short ears, legs, and tail. Total length,
13 inches; tail vertebras, 1.3 inches; hind foot, 3 inches; ear
503
;
from notch, 2.2 inches. Pelage above, dark grayish brown,

Hghtly washed with reddish; no rump patch; sides grayer
than back ears dark grayish brown nape dark rusty rufous
; ;
tail above like back, below white but not as conspicuously

white as in the Cottontails underparts dull whitish throat
; ;
brownish buffy. Found in "California, from Monterey to

Santa Monica on west side of the Coast Range; and western
foothills of Sierra Nevada from Tulare County to Shasta
County. Vertical range along coast from sea level up to
over 3,000 feet altitude in adjacent mountains; zonal range
semihumid Upper Sonoran into semihumid Transition Zone
(mainly Upper Sonoran)." (Nelson)
—
Redwood Brush Rabbit. Sylvilagus bachmani uberi color
(Miller).
Larger than typical bachmani, but ears smaller, color darker
and redder. Total length, 14.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.5
inches; hind foot, 3.1 inches; ear from notch, 2 inches.
Upperparts rich reddish brown; nape dark rufous; under-
parts soiled whitish, sometimes washed with buffy; throat
dull buffy. Found in "Mainly humid coast belt from near
Monterey Bay, California, north to near Columbia River
(Beaverton), Oregon, and inland in northern California to
head of Sacramento Valley at Tehama and Stillwater.
Vertical range from sea level up to 1000 feet or more in
northern California; zonal distribution mainly Humid
Transition." (Nelson)
California Brush Rabbit. —
Sylvilagus bachmani cinerascens
(Allen).
Resembling typical bachmani, but grayer brown above and
grayer below, feet whiter, and ears larger. Total length,
12.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.6 inches; hind foot, 2.8 inches;
ear from notch, 2.3 inches. Upperparts varying from dark
grayish brown to dull buffy brown (grayer in spring and
summer) underparts white but with slate color of underfur
;
showing through. Found in "Arid brush-grown slopes of

southern and western sides of San Joaquin and neighboring
valleys in California, as far north as Jolon and Jamesburg
and thence south throughout southern California west of the
summit of the mountains (reaching the coast south of Santa
Monica) . Vertical range, from sea level up to 6,000
. .
feet altitude in northern Lower California; zonal range,

through Upper Sonoran Zone up into Transition (mainly
Upper Sonoran)." (Nelson)
Subgenus Tapeti
Palustris Group. — Swamp Rabbits
This group is characterized by a marsh or swamp habitat,
dark color, and short tail which lacks the conspicuously white
underside of the true Cottontails.
504
MARSH RABBIT
Marsh Rabbit; Carolina Marsh —

Rabbit. Sylvilagus palustris
pahistris (Bachman). Plate XXXVI.
About equal in size to Sylvilagus floridanus; feet small and
slender; tail very short ears broad and short.
; Total length,
17.5 inches; tail vertebrae, 1.3 inches; hind foot, 3.6 inches;
ear from notch, 2.1 inches. Upperparts rich dark reddish
a ULF QT MS X 2 C O
Fig. 109. Distribution of the species and subspecies of the

Sylvilagus palustris group, after Nelson
1. Sylvilagus aquatius aquaticus
2. Sylvilagus palustris palustris
3. Sylvilagus palustris paludicola
4. Sylvilagus aquaticus littoralis
brown; rump to back of hind legs dark rusty reddish; nape

dark rufous ears grayish buffy brown tail above like rump,
; ;
below, dingy gray (never white) underparts white, bordered

;
along flanks and sides with ochraceous buff throat ochrace-;
ous buff. Found in "Lowlands along rivers and coast of

southeastern States from Dismal Swamp, Virginia, south to
extreme northern Florida, and west through most of
southern Georgia and the Gulf coast of northwestern
Florida to east side of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Vertical
range from sea level to an undetermined altitude (probably
less than 500 feet); zonal range Lower Austral." (Nelson)
Florida Marsh Rabbit. — Sylvilagus palustris paludicola (Miller
and Bangs).
Smallest of the Marsh Rabbits as well as the darkest and
reddest, with very short, broad ears. Total length, 17
505
from notch, 1.8 inches. Upperparts dark ochraceous brown

becoming dark ochraceous buff on flanks and sides; rump
often more rufous than rest of upperparts; tail above, chest-
nut, below, grayish white to brownish gray; nape rich
cinnamon-rufous; feet and legs dark cinnamon-rufous;
underparts white but encroached upon by dark brownish
buff of lower sides. Found in "Peninsular Florida and
adjacent coast islands, north along the east coast at least to
San Mateo, and on the west side for an unknown distance
northwest of the type locality, but probably some distance
beyond the Suwanee River. Vertical range from sea level
up to about 100 feet altitude; zonal range extreme Lower
Austral and upper border of Humid Tropical Zone."
(Nelson)
—
Swamp Rabbit. Sylvilagus aquaticus aquatiais (Bachman).
Larger than palustris, with larger ears. Total length, 21-22
inches; tail vertebrse, 2,8 inches; hind foot, 4.2 inches; ear
from notch, 2.7 inches. Upperparts grayish brown washed
with buffy, top of head ochraceous buffy brown; rump
reddish brown; sides grayer than back; legs and feet
cinnamon-rufous; ears like top of head in cclcr; tail, above,
like rump, below, white; underparts clear white; throat dull
buffy grayish. Found in "River bottoms and swampy
woods from Lumpkin, southwestern Georgia, west to
Medina River near San Antonio, middle Texas, and north
at least to Hartshorne, Oklahoma, and to wooded bottoms
of Ohio and Mississippi rivers in southern Illinois; but
separated from Gulf coast by a narrow belt occupied by
littoralis. Vertical range from a little above sea level to
about 800 feet in Alabama, entirely in the Lower Austral
Zone." (Nelson)
—
Coast Swamp Rabbit.' Sylvilagus aquaticus littoralis Nelson.
Resembling typical aquaticus in size, but darker and redder.
4.3 inches; ear from notch, 2.6 inches. Upperparts reddish
brown with heavy wash of black; rump brighter (rufous)
than back; tail above, like rump, below, white; nape, legs
and feet rich cinnamon-rufous. Found in "A narrow belt
of swamps and marshes along the Gulf coast, nearly if not
entirely within upper limits of tidewater, from Bay St.
Louis, Mississippi, west through Louisiana to Matagorda
Bay, Texas. Vertical range below 50 feet altitude, wholly
within the Lower Austral Zone." (Nelson.)
The Cottontail Rabbitis one of the most widely known and
recognized of American mammals. Although the

North
genus Sylvilagus ranges over a great part of North America
and there are a great many different species and subspecies,
nearly everywhere the white underside of the tail is a trade
506
COTTONTAIL
mark that cannot

fail to be recognized. There are members
of this genus which do not have tails pure white below, but
these Rabbits are referred to here as Brush Rabbits or Swamp
Rabbits, although they may be known locally as Cottontails
where no "real" Cottontail occurs.
This animal is, no doubt, the most popular of all our small
game mammals, and it is a favorite with hunters ranging from
small boys to experienced sportsmen. It is the proud bag of
the boy's first kill and the stop-gap of the disappointed bird-
hunter. In spite of this army, the Cottontail is remarkably

successful in most regions and holds its own with a minimum
of encouragement. In many regions of the West it flourishes
in spite of open seasons the year around, and may become an
economic pest, although not to the same extent as the Jack
Rabbits.
In forested regions, Cottontail Rabbits frequent open
brushy areas among the trees, coming out to feed in the late
afternoon or early morning about the edges of fields or mea-
dows. They are seldom seen in heavy stands of trees where
there is no underbrush or an occasional glade. In the plains
districts the Cottontails may be anywhere, but are commonest,
of course, where green vegetation affords them the most
abundant food.
The Pacific Coast Brush Rabbits are very similiar to the
Cottontails in habits although, as their name would suggest,
they are less often encountered in the open and prefer a heavy-
brush locality. The Swamp Rabbits are so named because of
a preference for a more specialized habitat and are found in
the swampy or marshy districts in the southeastern United
States, These Rabbits may be encountered, either more or
less in the swamps or on higher ground between the sunken
areas.
Cottontails are very prolific and, in the warmer parts of
their range, young animals may be found during any month of
the year. Farther to the north the rearing of young is sus-
pended during the winter months, but several broods a year
is the general habit for this genus. Young Cottontails are
able to take good care of themselves at an early age and are
almost as difficult to run down and catch as the adults. The
number of young in a litter varies from three to seven, with
four as an average number.
507
These Rabbits may become quite abundant at times, but

never seem to reach the numbers attained by the Jack Rabbits
or the Hares in the North. The Cottontail is the host for
many forms of parasitic Hfe, the commonest being ticks and
the larvae of bot-flies.
Although the gait of the Cottontail appears to be rapid as
it dashes for safety, it has none of the specializations for speed
seen in the Jack Rabbits, and it places its chief reliance in

cover. In the brush it is able to double or change direction so
abruptly that it can generally escape from a Dog long enough
to get under a brush-pile or some other obstruction which
baffles the larger animal.
^
Genus Brachylagus
Dentition: Incisors, f Canines, §; Premolars,
;
§; Molars, f =28.
—
Idaho Pigmy Rabbit. Brachylagus idahoensis
(Merriam)
—
General Description. Smallest of the American Rabbits.
Form like that of a small Cottontail Rabbit; ears short and
broad; tail short, without white underside; summer pelage
brownish gray; winter pelage vinaceous.
Color. —Sexes noticeable seasonal variation.
alike in color;
Summer. —Upperparts.'— Back brownish gray; and feet legs
warm buffy; than back; nape ochraceous; tail above
sides paler
and below, buffy; ears like nape over posterior half, dusky-
grayish on anterior half legs and feet ochraceous buff.
;
—
Underparts. White, which may be washed with
buffy in some individuals; throat buffy.
—
Winter. Pelage long and very soft, lax; color above, pink-
ish drab, washed with gray on sides; ears cinnamon-buff
behind, like top of head on anterior half, with narrow black
edging near tip, ears inside with long, whitish hairs; forelegs
and feet deep cinnamon-buff, hind feet slightly paler; tail like
back above, somewhat grayer below; underparts white;
throat buffy.
Measurements. —Total length, 11-12 inches; tail vertebrae
.8 inch; hind foot, 2.9 inches, ear from notch, 1.6 inches.
508
IDAHO PIGMY RABBIT
—
Geographical Distribution. "Sagebrush plains of southern
Idaho, southeastern Oregon, extreme northeastern California,
and northern and central Nevada. Vertical range from about
4.500 to over 7,000 feet altitude in Nevada; zonal range,
mainly Upper Sonoran, but extending into the lower border
of Transition Zone." (Nelson)
—
Food. Foliage of shrubs, grass, and plants.
—
Enemies. Presumably the same as those of Cottontail
—
Rabbits, Hawks, Owls, Weasels, Coyotes, et cetera.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Brachylagus
******
Only the one species of
The Pigmy Rabbit

this
looks very
genus
much
is known.
*
like a small Cottontail
Rabbit, and since this animal lives in thick brush where it is
difficult to get more than a glimpse of the creature, one is very

likely to confuse the two genera. The best field character for
distinguishing Brachylagus from Sylvilagus is the difference in
tails, Pigmy Rabbit showing no conspicuous white under-
the
side to the tail as it scampers away. Young Cottontail
Rabbits will often pass for Pigmy Rabbits until they flash the
white tail. The gait of Brachylagus differs from that of
Sylvilagus in that the former runs closer to the ground with
less bounding.
For a long time this species was very rare in collections and
but little was known of its habits and distribution. Now we
have learned that it is not especially rare when one knows
where to look for it. The Pigmy Rabbit lives in thick clumps
of Sagebrush {Artemisia) and Rabbit-brush (Chrysothamnus)
where it has no trouble in escaping notice. Its coloration is
protective and it generally lies close until almost stepped upon,
when it scurries noiselessly away and is lost to sight in a
twinkling.
Because the first specimens of Pigmy Rabbit were trapped
in old Badger holes, it has been supposed that this species is
a dweller in burrows which might, in a measure, account for it
being so seldom seen. In eastern Oregon, I found it behaving
exactly as the Cottontail Rabbits, and, while I saw many, I
rarelysaw one run down a hole, although they do enter old
burrows on occasion, just as the Cottontails do.
The Pigmy Rabbit is peculiar among the small American
509
Rabbits inits assumption of a distinct winter

pelage. There
isa marked difference between the coats of summer
and winter
displays
and no member of the genus Sylvilagus (Cottontails)
such seasonal variation.
is not
This small Rabbit has rather a restricted range and
California
found outside of the area which takes in portions of
Nevada. In
and Oregon, where they meet with Idaho and
best success
searching for the Pigmy Rabbit I have had the
patches of Sagebrush where the yellow
by looking up the
very
Rabbit-brush was conspicuous and then hunting very,
slowly.
The number of young to a litter is three or four.
510
PLATE XL
Order ARTIODACTYLA. Even-toed Hoofed
Mammals
Mammals and fourth
of large size; feet digitigrade; third
with hoofs; molars with broad crowns
digits largest; digits
and ridged grinding surface; clavicle absent; herbivorous in
diet; terrestrial in habit.
Family Tayassuidse. Peccaries

Small, pig-like ungulates with peculiar dentition; incisors
rooted; upper canines pointing downward and with posterior
edges developed into keen cutting edges; snout pig-like; fore-
feet with four toes, hind feet with three toes; stomach com-
plex; caecum present.
Genus Pecari
~
Dentition: Incisors, ; Canines, { ; Premolars, |; Molars, | =38.
Peccary. —Pecari angulatus

and subspecies
Names. — Peccary; Collared Peccary; Wild Pig; Javeline;
: uik-hog. Plate XLI.
—
Gsneral Description. A small, pig-like ungulate. Head
pig-like, muzzle long, ears fairly large; neck thick; body com-
pact; limbs fairly short; pelage long and coarse; small, sharp
tusks present but not projecting noticeably beyond lips; a
well-developed, odorous gland on top of rump; tail very short;
mane of long hairs, erectile, from crown to rump.
Color. — Sexes colored alike;no pronounced seasonal varia-
tion.
Everywhere grizzled black and grayish, with yellowish wash
on cheeks and a more or less conspicuous grayish collar run-
ning from throat up to shoulder feet blackish.
;
Young yellowish brown grizzled with black, with black

stripe down back; underparts yellowish gray.
511
—
Measurements. Sexes of equal size. Total length, about
36 inches; tail vertebree, .5 inch; hind foot, 8 inches; weight,
45 to 50 pounds.
Geographical Distribution.— Southwestern Texas, south-
eastern New Mexico, and southern i\rizona.
Fig, 1 10. Peccary
—
Food. Practically omnivorous; nuts, roots, fruits, insects,
worms, reptiles, toads, etc.
—
Enemies. Jaguar, Cougar, and Wolf.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Pecari

Texas Peccary. —Pecari angulatus angulatus (Cope).
As described. Found in southwestern Texas and south-
eastern New Mexico.
—
Sonoran Peccary; Yaqui Peccary. Pecari angulatus sonorien-
sis (Mearns).
Differing from the Texas Peccary "in being larger, with
relatively larger ears and feet, and paler colors. The
peccary of the Lower Rio Grande is blackish, while that of
Sonora and Arizona is grayish, with a sharply-contrasting,
black dorsal stripe." (Mearns) Total length, 37 inches;
tail vertebrae, 1.5 inches; hind foot, 8 inches; height at
ward.
*******
shoulder, 24 inches.
The Peccary
Found from southern Arizona south-
is the only native North American mammal
which has any claim to the title "Wild Pig. " The Peccaries
do resemble Pigs in appearance, but belong to a separate and
512
Plate XLI
Collared Pecca
:ary
a^
'.''
%,
Prondhom Antelope
WAPITI
distinct family, so thateven their claim is a weak one. In

some sections domestic swine have become feral and may go
by the name of Wild Pig.
The Peccary is found in a very limited area along the Mexi-
can border where it reaches the northern limit of its distribu-
tion. The group is a widely ranging and important one to the
south and goes far down into South America.
In the United States this animal frequents the valleys and
plains where dense thickets of cactus and mesquite afford it
shelter. It may also work up the mountain slopes into the
timber, but they do not roam the open plains. Peccaries
usually travel in small bands and have the reputation of being
dangerous if molested. There are authentic cases known
where the Collared Peccary has "treed" man, but under most
circumstances these animals are shy and anxious to escape
from man. The larger White-lipped Peccary of the south is,
perhaps, more deserving of this reputation.
The Collared Peccary feeds mostly in the morning and along
toward evening and during midday seeks a retreat in the
brush. When alarmed the bands dash off at a rapid pace.
This animal squeals and grunts in a pig-like fashion and has
such a strong, peculiar odor, because of the dorsal gland, that
it may be detected at some little distance by even such a poor
organ as the human nose. I once discovered a band in

Panama by scent some time before the animals themselves,
came close enough to be seen.
The Peccary has but two young at a birth and they are
reddish in color, quite different from their parents in appear-
ance.
Family Cervidae. Deer

Males with deciduous, solid antlers (females also, in some
cases) which grow from permanent bases or pedicles on the
frontal bones; upper incisors wanting; upper canines may or
may not be present; second and fifth toes small but usually
present.
Subfamily Cervinae
Genus Cervus
Premolars, §; Molars, f =34..
513
Wapiti. —Cervus canadensis

and related forms
Names. —Wapiti; Elk; American Wapiti; American Elk;
American Stag, Plate XLII.
—
General Description. A very large Deer of typical struc-
ture, the males with large, widely- branching antlers having
well-developed brow and bez-tines; muzzle naked and moist;
Fig. III. Wapiti
anteorbital facial gland prominent; neck maned; tail short;
metatarsal glands present; canine teeth present in upper

jaw, much larger in males than in females; large, light-colored
rump patch present; young spotted with white.
Color.—Sexes slightly different in color.
Males. — Head and neck dark chestnut-brown; sides and
back yellowish gray to brownish gray; a large patch on rump
straw-colored; tail like rump patch; legs dark brown; under-
parts blackish; white patch between hind legs.
514
Plate XLII
X
1
r
WAPITI
Females. — Less strongly marked than males.

—
Immature. Yellowish spotted with white.
Winter pelage longer and colors a trifle lighter than in
summer.
—
Measurements. Males much larger than females. Males,
total length, about 115 inches; tail vertebree, 6-8 inches; hind
foot, 26 inches; height at shoulder, 60 inches; weight 700-1000
pounds maximum. Females, total length, about 88 inches;
tail vertebrae, 4.5 inches; hind foot, 25 inches; height at shoul-
der, 56 inches; weight about 500-600 pounds.

Antlers of male in prime carry from five to seven, rarely
more, points and measure up to 66 inches along the beam,
following curves, and a spread of 60 inches, for a record head.
—
Geographical Distribution. ^Western North America, chiefly
in the Rocky Mountain district and far western states; form-
erly over most of the United States and part of southern
Canada.
—
Food. Grasses, twigs, leaves, green plants, etc.
—
Enemies. Cougar, Bear, Wolf, and Coyote.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Cervus
American Wapiti. — Cervus

canadensis canadensis (Erxleben).
As described. Found Rocky Mountain region from
in the
northern New Mexico and Colorado north into Alberta.
—
Manitoba Wapiti. Cervus canadensis manitobe?isis Millais.
Darker in color than typical canadensis and with smaller
antlers. Found in Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
Western Wapiti; Roosevelt Wapiti; Olympic Wapiti. — Cervus
canadensis occidentalis (Hamilton Smith).
Large in size and very dark in color. Found on Vancouver
Island, in the Olympic Mountains of Washington, and parts
of western Oregon and California.
—
Arizona Wapiti. Cervus merriami Nelson.
Darker on nose and with more reddish on head and legs
than canadensis, but paler than occidentalis; antlers with
straighter tip than canadensis. Formerly found in the
White Mountains of Arizona and the Mogollon Mountains
of western New Mexico, but now probably extinct.
California Wapiti; Dwarf Elk. —Cervus nannodes Merriam.
Much smaller than other American Wapiti, shorter-legged
paler in color and with more white on ears. "Size small
legs short; coloration pale; fur of ears soft, almost woolly
white rump patch small and narrow; front of legs and feet
bright golden fulvous; back and flanks varying from buffy
515
ish."
******
gray slightly washed with fulvous, to grizzled buffy whit-
(Merriam) Found only in Kern County, California.
The Wapiti is
*
the largest of the North American Deer, ex-
cept for the Moose. It is closely akin to the Red Deer of
Europe, the Stag, and there are Wapiti to be found in Asia.
It is unfortunate that the early settlers applied the name of
Elk to the American Wapiti which in no way resembles the
Old World Elk, a true Moose. "Wapiti" is said to be the
name used for our animal by the Shawnee Indians.
The original range of the Wapiti included the greater part
of North America between the parallels of 35° and 50° and
almost to 60° along the eastern slopes of the Rockies. From
the earliest times, this animal is mentioned in the accounts of
the explorers and pioneers to whom it was naturally a note-
worthy beast, because of its size and also its importance as a
food supply. With the settlement of North America, this
large Deer has rapidly disappeared, especially in the eastern
section of the continent. Today there are no descendants of
the original eastern Wapiti east of about 105°; animals from
the West have been brought East to restock certain areas.
The principal stronghold of the Wapiti at this time is the
Yellowstone National Park where the herds are estimated at
40,000. Other regions where wild Wapiti occur in fair num-
bers are in Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Manitoba,
Wapiti feed up into the mountains during summer and
scatter out over a wide range. In the winter they come down
from such regions of heavy snowfall and seek more sheltered
feeding grounds on the lowlands. The restriction of open
range, the erection of fences, the competition of domestic
stock,and the hunting of the bull Elk for the canine teeth,
formerly used as the emblem of a fraternal order, have all
operated to limit the numbers of Wapiti.
Today this animal is well protected by law in most places.
Open seasons when it may be shot are short and the National
Government is doing much to conserve this great game
mammal.
In behavior the Wapiti is typically deer-like. The bulls
are polygamous and, during the fall, call or "bugle" a chal-
lenge to one another. The velvet has been rubbed from the
antlers by this time and the hard, polished prongs are fomiid-
516
WHITE-TAILED DEER
able weapons of offense. In these fights of the bulls for the

cows, the vanquished one usuallyknows when he has had
enough and takes the first chance to leave the field, but some-
times the combat has a fatal ending; and, on rare occasions,
the horns of the fighting pair become so firmly interlocked
that the tired animals can not break them apart, and both die.
The young are bom in May or early June and while but
one is the usual number, there may be two or, rarely, three
to a mother. They are spotted like the other North American
Deer and keep this dappled coat until the new autumn pelage
comes in.
Genus Odocoileus
Dentition Incisors,
:
f ; Canines, § Premolars, f Molars, f =32.
; ;
Virginia Deer. — Odocoileus virginianus

and related forms
Names. —Virginia Deer; White-tailed Deer; White-tail.
General Description. —A gracefully-formed Deerj the
large,
male with antlers which are shed in the spring, the female
hornless. somewhat bushy, con-
Tail rather long for a Deer,
spicuously white on the underside; antlers of full-grown male
of good size, no brow- tines, the branches directed forward;
hair long and slightly brittle in character. Plate XLIII.
Color. —Sexes alike in color; noticeable seasonal variation.
—
Summer. Upperparts reddish brown to ochraceous buff,
band across nose, ring about eye, and inside of ear whitish;
spot on each side of nose blackish, tail dusky. Underparts:
belly, throat, and inside of legs whitish; tail conspicuously
white.
Winter. —Like summer but grayish to grayish brown in-
stead of reddish above; hair longer and pelage heavier than in
summer.
Young.—Reddish brown or rufous, with white spots, the
spots persisting until the end of the fourth or fifth month.
Measurements. — Males: Total length, 70-77 inches; tail
vertebras, 7-1 1 inches; hind foot, 20 inches; height at shoulder,
36-40 inches; weight, 150-300 pounds, occasionally heavier;
antlers of prime adult normally 5 or 6 points.
Females some-
517
;
what smaller than males; weight of average doe, 100-150

pounds, depending on the locality.
—
Geographical Description. Found from the Atlantic sea-
board to the Great Plains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to
about 43° north latitude.
—
Food. Many species of grasses, leaves of shrubs, trees, and
aquatic plants, sometimes acorns.
—
Enemies. Cougar; Wolf; Lynx; Wolverine.
Species and Subspecies of the Subgenus Odocoileus
Virginia Deer. —
Odocoileus virginianus virginianus (Boddaert).
As described above. Found in the eastern United States
north to southern New York (?) and south to Florida;
limits of range uncertain.
—
Northern White-tailed Deer. Odocoileus virginianus borealis
(Miller).
Resembling typical virginianus but averaging larger in size
antlers more widely spreading; redder in summer pelage;
usually a conspicuous fringe of white hairs between toes.
Found in New England, northern New York and west to
Ontario, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota; limits of
range unknown.
—
Key Deer. Odocoileus virgijtianus clavium Barbour and
Allen.
"Smallest of the eastern races of Virginia Deer, colors paler,
teeth smaller than in the mainland races." (Barbour and
Allen) Found on Keys from Big Pine Key to Boca Chica,
Florida.
—
Louisiana White-tailed Deer. Odocoileus virginianus louisi-
ance (G. M. Allen).
Differing from typical virginianus in paler color; skull long
and slender; antlers heavy. Found in Louisiana and the
Gulf States.
Plains White-tailed Deer; Western White-tailed Deer. —
Odocoileus virginianus macrourus (Rafinesque).
Resembling typical virginianus but paler. Reddish brown
above, in summer; yellowish gray mixed with black, in
winter. Total length, 90 inches; tail vertebrae, 12 inches.
Found from the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Kansas west to
the Rocky Mountains; from Alberta in the north to north
New Mexico in the south.
—
Texan White-tailed Deer. Odocoileus texanus (Meams).
Smaller in size than virginianus, pale in color, short of leg;
horns small and strongly incurved. Summer pelage red-
dish; winter pelage pepper-and-salt (mixed black, yellowish
white and gray), with blackish area from crown to root of
tail. Total length, 63 inches; tail vertebrae, 10.5 inches;
Plate XLIII
White -tailed Deer
Doe i^Fawn
WHITE-TAILED DEER
hind foot, 17.2 inches; height at shoulder, 35 inches. Found

in the Rio Grande section of Texas.
Florida White-tailed Deer. —
Odocoileus osceola (Bangs).
About the size of the Texan White-tail but much darker;
considerably smaller than virginianus. Considered by
Barbour and Allen to be a subspecies of virginianus. Found
in Florida.
Sonora White-tailed Deer; Arizona White-tailed Deer. —
Odocoileus couesi (Coues and Yarrow).
Much paler and smaller than typical virginianus; pelage
rather fine for a Deer. Winter pelage pale brownish gray,
with darker vertebral area sides pale drab gray yellowish
;
;
brown about axillse and thighs; pale brownish on chest;

underparts white. Summer pelage brownish fawn color.
Weight of fat buck about 80 pounds. Total length, 60
inches; tail vertebrce, 9.5 inches; hind foot, 16.6 inches.
Found in southwestern New Mexico and southern Arizona.
Oregon White-tailed Deer; Douglas White-tailed Deer. —
Odocoileus leucurus (Douglas).
Resembling macrourus, with black markings greatly re-
duced and much white. By some authors considered to be
indistinguishable from macrourus. Found along the lower
Columbia River, Oregon.
* * * * * * *
The Virginia or White-tailed Deer, often called simply

"White-tail," is without doubt the best known of the Ameri-
can large game mammals. Not only is it well known to the
sportsman, but it is a familiar sight to the camper or any one
who has passed any length of time in the undeveloped sections
of the eastern United States. Indeed, this Deer adapts itself
so well to the ways of civilization that it is common or even
abundant at no great distance from some of our most thickly
settled regions.
The sight of a White-tailed Deer bounding away, with the
snowy white tail or "flag" flashing, is one of the most stirring
spectacles one can imagine and quickens even the most indif-
ferent pulse. This animal has played probably the most im-
portant mammal role in the history of this continent. It was
this Deer that furnished the principal food supply of early
settlers and pioneers and their garments were made of buck-
skin. The hunting of the Virginia Deer taught the early
Americans woodcraft, and the continental riflemen learned
their marksmanship at the cost of the Virginia Deer and the
Squirrel.
Instead of decreasing in numbers with the inroads of civil-
519
ization along our Atlantic seaboard, the Virginia Deer in

many places not only has held its own but has even increased.
Today it is not exaggerating conditions to state that the total
White-tailed Deer population of the United States is probably
as great as it ever was. In spite of the great number killed
annually by sportsmen, many thousands, this species shows
no immediate prospect of extermination. This state of affairs
is due to two factors, the wise policy of conservation adopted
by most states in their game laws and to the adaptability of

the Deer itself.
The down of vast primeval forests, and the subse-

cutting
quent springing up of second growth vegetation, has added
much territory to the natural range of the Virginia Deer.
This Deer does not prefer dense stands of primeval forest, but
delights in openings and glades interspersed with enough tim-
ber and shrubbery to give it adequate cover. The abandon-
ment of worked-out New England farms has provided this
animal with very acceptable homes and feeding grounds.
The doe has from one to three fawns at a birth, but as a
general rule she has twins. They are bom from late May to
early July.
The bucks shed their antlers any time from late December
to March. The new antlers appear from two to six weeks
after shedding, and grow rapidly as the spring feed improves.
By late summer they have
attained their full size, but are
still In September the bucks begin to rub the
in the velvet.
velvet from the antlers which are now hard and insensitive.
Mating takes place in late October, November and early
December.
Subgenus Eucervus
Black-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus hemionus

and related forms
Names.— Mule Deer; Black-tailed Deer. Plate XLIV.
—
General Description. Rather heavier in build and more
robust than the White-tailed Deer; ears larger and tip of tail
black instead of white; antlers with tines pronged in contrast
to the single, undivided tines of the White-tailed Deer; meta-
tarsal gland unusually large; gait high and bounding.
520
BLACK-TAILED DEER
—
Summer. Upperparts: From tawny to yellowish brown,
with a large patch of white on rump and about tail; a dark
patch on forehead; inner ear grayish white tail white except
;
for tip which is black.

—
Underparts. Darker than above, blackish;
inner side of legs and throat white; tail naked on underside.
Fig. 112. Black-tailed Deer
Winter.— Pattern of coloration about as in summer pelage,

but dark gray instead of brownish.
—
Young. General pattern brownish yellow, irregularly
spotted with dull white.
Measurements.— Males: Total length, 68 inches; tail verte-
br£e, 7 to 8 inches; hind foot, 19.5 inches; height at shoulder,
42 inches; height of ear above crown, 9.5 inches; weight of

average buck, 150 to 200 pounds, with unusual weights ex-
ceeding 400 pounds. Females: Smaller than bucks, length
about 48 inches.
521
—
Geographical Distribution. In the plains, foothills, and
mountains from central Alberta, central Manitoba, and east-
em British Columbia to Mexico, and from about 95° longitude
southwest to California.
—
Food. Grass, twigs, foliage of trees and shrubs, fruits,
plants,and acorns.
—
Enemies. Cougar; Wolf; and for young Deer — Bobcat,
Coyote, and Golden Eagle.
Species and Subspecies of the Subgenus Eucervus
Mule Deer; Rocky Mountain Mule Deer; Black-tailed Deer. —

Odocoileus hemionus hemionus (Rafinesque) Plate XLIV. .
As described above. Found from the Dakotas through

Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma west to eastern British
Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.
—
Desert Mule Deer; Burro Deer. Odocoileus hemionus eremi-
cus (Mearns).
Large, very much paler than typical hemionus, horns heavy.
Upperparts pale drab gray. Found in the western desert
tract of the United States, on both side of the Colorado
River and about the head of the Gulf of California.
California Mule Deer. —
Odocoileus hemionus californicus
(Caton).
Noticeably smaller than the typical form. Upperparts
cinnamon in color, with a dark stripe running down the back
onto upper surface of tail. Total length, 56 inches; tail ver-
tebrae, 7 inches hind foot, 1 8 inches.
; Found from southern
California into northern Lower California.
—
Mexican Mule Deer. Odocoileus hemionus canus Merriam.
Smaller, paler, and grayer than typical hemionus. Total
inches. Found in southwest Texas, New Mexico, Arizona,
and northern Mexico, from Sonoran to Boreal Zone.
Minnesota Black-tailed Deer; Brush Deer. Odocoileus vir- —
gultus (Hallock).
Resembling typical hemionus but with much black on under-
parts, and antlers comparatively small; smaller in size.
Found in northwestern Minnesota, southeastern Keewatin,
and Manitoba.
—
Crook Black-tailed Deer. Odocoileus crooki (Mearns).
Only two specimens of this Deer have ever been taken and
they are suspected of being hybrids between the Black-
tailed and White-tailed Deer. These specimens come from
the Dog Mountains, New Mexico, and Bill Williams Moun-
tain, Arizona. The type specimen is about the size of the
Columbian Black-tail (total length, 57 inches) and resembles
it in characters of antlers, tail, and metatarsal gland, but
is like the Mule Deer in having large ears, black mark on
522
'
Plate XLIV
BlacK-tailed Deer
^^
f^%S
T^
>*jj If
Mule Deer
BLACK-TAILED DEER
forehead, and white buttocks. The underside of the tail

is white like that of a White-tailed Deer.
—
Columbian Black-tailed Deer; Coast Deer.^ Odocoileus colum-
bianus columbj anus (Richardson), tiate XLIV. (Read
Columbian Black-tailed Deer for upper figure).
Somewhat smaller than hemionus, with shorter ears and
shorter metatarsal gland; antlers like those of hemionus;
tail black above. Summer pelage reddish to reddish yellow
above; in winter brownish gray mottled with black, with
dark dorsal line, and blackish area on top of head; white
on chin, upper throat, underside of tail, and inguinal region;
dusky or sooty on chest and anterior underparts upperside
;
of tail black. Total length, 66 inches; tail vertebras, 9

inches; hind foot, 19 inches. Found in the Pacific North-
west from northern California to British Columbia and
from the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains to the
Pacific Ocean.
—
Southern Black-tailed Deer. Odocoileus columhianus scaphio-
tus Merriam.
Resembling typical columhianus but ears much larger and
broader, and color paler. Upperparts (winter) grizzled
gray. Total length, males, 58 inches; tail vertebrae, 5.5
inches; hind foot, 18 inches. Found in the coast region of
California from San Francisco Bay southward.
—
Sitka Black-tailed Deer. Odocoileus columhianus sitkensis
Merriam.
Smaller than typical columhianus, with shorter ears and
black on upperside of tail restricted to terminal half.
Total length, 60 inches; tail vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot,
17.5 inches. Found in southeastern Alaska and islands in
the Sitka region.
The Black-tailed Deer may be distinguished from the White-

tailed Deer, or Virginia Deer, not only by the difference in
color of the but also by the much larger ears of the former,
tail,
as well as by larger metatarsal gland, high, bounding gait,

its
and dichotomous antlers. The ranges of these two types of

Deer overlap to a considerable extent, but usually the two
prefer different environments and thus keep to themselves.
The Black-tail is at home in broken country, open plains,
or brushy, partly wooded terrain and does not care for heavy-
forest or swampy regions. It moves about with the season,
feeding during the summer well up into the hills and moun-
tains and spending the winter in the more sheltered lowlands,
often traveling a hundred miles or more to do this. During
the winter the Deer congregate in good-sized bands, but when
523
the snow melts in the spring and the animals are free to move
about, they scatter and are usually seen as individuals or as
small parties of two or three. In the summer the bucks and
does do not mingle, but the sexes keep by themselves. The
bucks may be found in small bands up to ten in number.
The Black -tailed Deer when alarmed or pressed for speed
runs with a peculiar high-bounding gait, taking off from all
four feet and landing on all fours. Although spectacular,
this gait does not cover ground as rapidly as the rush of the
White-tailed Deer. Thereal value in such a gait is correlated
with the broken country in which these bounding Deer live,
where such a method of progression carries them safely away
from enemies much fleeter on the plains but incapable of great
leaps over rough country. The Black-tail does not show an
extensively white tail as it runs, it does not carry it aloft as
does the Virginia Deer, but lets it hang.
The Black-tailed Fawns are bom in late May or June. The
number varies from one to three, but the usual number is
two. The young spend the summer, winter, and spring with
the mother and she is a devoted parent. While they are very
young and helpless the mother hides them and goes away to
feed, returning at long intervals to nurse them. The mating
season is usually November and December.
Genus Alces
Dentition: Incisors, 2; Canines, g; Premolars, f; Molars, §=32.
Moose. —Alces americana

and related forms
General Description. —The largest of the American Deer
or antlered ungulates, heavy and ungainly in appearance,
almost grotesque in comparison with the Virginia Deer.
Males have exceedingly broad, heavy, palmate antlers; females
without antlers. Muzzle broad, pendulous and inflated;
nasal pad hairy except on extreme lower portion; ears large;
throat with a hanging growth of skin and long hair called the
"bell"; height at shoulders greater than at rump; tail short;
hoofs long and pointed; lateral hoofs well developed; color
very dark. Plate XLII.
Color. —Sexes colored alike.
524
MOOSE
Winter. —^General tone of upperparts from blackish brown

to black; some gray on muzzle and face. Underparts much
the same color as upperparts, but lower belly and lower legs
paler in color, brownish gray.
—
Summer. Very similar in pattern to winter pelage but
somewhat lighter in color and legs washed with tawny gray.
—
Young, Not spotted like fawn of the Virginia Deer; red-
dish brown in color.
Fig. 113. Moose

Measurements. — Males: total length, 102-108 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2.5 inches; hind foot, 31 inches; height at shoulder,
66-78 inches; average spread of antlers, prime adults, 52-58
inches; maximum or record antlers, 65-78 inches in spread;
weight from 900 to 1400 pounds. Females: much smaller,
about three-quarters the size of males.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found more or less commonly
throughout British America and the northern United States
from Maine to North Dakota and south in the Rocky Moun-
tains to Yellowstone Park. In former years the Moose was
known as far north in New England as Massachusetts.
525
— Particularly fond of aquatic plants, but feeding also

Food.
on foliage and twigs of shrubs and trees.
—
Enemies. Wolves; Bears; and Cougars.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Alces
Common Moose; American Moose. —Alces americana ameri-
cana (Clinton).
As described above; thetypical form of the group. Found
from the northern United States (east of the RocVy Moun-
tains) north to Hudson Bay and northwest beyond the
Arctic Circle.
—
Shiras Moose. Alces americana shirasi Nelson.
Smaller than typical americana with pale brown along
the back, pale ears, and small hoofs. Found in the Yellow-
stone National Park region of Wyoming, in Montana and
Idaho; limits of range unknown.
—
Lydekker Moose. Alces columhce Lydekker.
The original description is based upon two mounted heads
which are said to differ from other Moose in having a peculi-
arly shaped bare patch on muzzle which sends off an arm
onto each nostril (this patch is triangular in americana and
T-shaped in columbce). Some doubt exists as to whether
these heads came from British Columbia or Ontario.
Probably columbcB is indistinguishable from americana.
—
Alaska Moose. Alces gigas Miller.
Much larger and blacker than the Common Moose. This
species is much the finest of the genus and reaches superb
*******
dimensions. Total length up to 122 inches; height at
withers, 81-92 inches; weight up to 1700 or 1800 pounds.
Found on the Kenai Peninsula.
The Moose the grandest of all the North American Deer.

is
Although it isalmost a caricature of the graceful forms of the

smaller Deer, and the heavy muzzle, the clumsy body-shape
(high at the shoulders), and the somber coloration without
relieving touch of contrasting white, certainly are not calcu-
lated to win a prize for beauty, there is a suggestion of mas-
sive strength and irresistable vigor about a Moose that is
certain to arouse a feeling of admiration, A bull Moose crash-
ing through brush and fallen timber, splashing thunder-
ously through the shallows of a northern lake, seems to be
moving as if nothing could stop him.
The Moose is the largest of all the Deer and is found in
both the Old and New Worlds. In Europe it is known as the
Elk and this fact is a good reason for using the name Wapiti
for our large Deer, Cervus canadensis, which so many North
American sportsman call Elk.
526
Plate XLV
MuskOX
«
k-'W"
Hii ^
Bison
MOOSE
Moose prefer regions where lakes and streams furnish them

with the aquatic plant which forms such an important part
life
of their summer diet and where forests and shrubbery insure a

winter food supply. In the United States they are found
only in a few states along the Canadian border and in a narrow
strip down the Rockies; the greatest part of their range lies
north of 50° north latitude.

Like other Deer, the Moose may be active at any hour but
usually the best times for observation are early in the morn-
ing or from late afternoon on into evening. The large size of
the animal makes it conspicuous when moving, and during the
fall, the mating season, it is very noisy and attracts attention
by calling and breaking of brush. The call of the bull Moose

is a hoarse bellow or deep grunt to which the cow Moose re-
sponds by a longer call, which is difficult of description but

might be characterized as an expressive blatting bellow in a
base register. Seton describes it as "Moo-waugh-yuh" on three
notes, the second one being prolonged. When the bull re-
ceives an answer, either from a cow, or another bull challeng-
ing to combat, he often smashes his way through brush or dead
timber, with a fine disregard for whoever may hear him, and
may stop often to thrash the shrubbery with his antlers. At
other times he may move so quietly that no sound of approach
is heard. Hunters can call a bull Moose by imitating the
bellow of the cow and decoy the animal within easy rifle shot.
During most of the year Moose do not call, the season of vocal
activity being only two or three weeks, and usually from the
middle of September into October. Rarely a Moose call may
be heard as late as December.
Moose browse on twigs and shrubbery and also spend much
time in the water searching for the water plants which grow in
the shallow northern lakes. Sometimes they get these plants
by submerging only the head and part of the neck, but if the
water is deeper they may dive and be completely under water.
The cow Moose has one calf her first season and thereafter
two, rarely three. The young are bom in late May and re-
main with the mother until the next spring.
Genus Rangifer
Dentition: Incisors, 2 ; Canines, ^; Premolars, f Molars, f =34.
;
527
Caribou. —Rangifer caribou

and related forms
Names. —Caribou; Reindeer. Plate XLVI.

—
General Description. A large Deer with slightly palmated
antlers on both sexes; muzzle hairy; anteorbital facial gland
fairly prominent; neck maned on underside; ears short; tail
short; tarsal glands but no metatarsal glands; hoofs broad,
ôwxrv
Fig. 114. Caribou
flat,deeply cleft; accessory hoofs long; upper canines some-

times absent; pelage full, hairs of pith-like structure; young
not spotted with white; habitat northern.
Color. —
Sexes colored very much alike, marked seasonal
variation may or may not occur.
General color warm brown, with yellowish white on neck,
belly, small patch including tail and buttocks, and band
about each foot; face and legs rather darker brown (autumn
pelage).
In winter the general tone is somewhat lighter, grayish
528
CARIBOU
brown, than in summer. Young like adults, with Some faint

indications of pale spotting.
Measurements. — Males larger than females. Males, total
length, about ^^2 inches; tail vertebras, 4 inches; height at
shoulder, 42-48 inches; weight from 200-300 pounds. Females
weight, 150-250 pounds.
—
about 45° (in the east) northward; in the west, south in the
Rockies about to the Canadian boundary.
—
Food. Foliage of small trees, shrubs, and plants, willow,
birch, mosses, lichens, grasses, etc.
Enemies. —Wolves and Bears.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Rangifer
The Caribou fall more or less naturally into several large
groups, the typical numbers of which may be easily distin-
guished from one another, although there are border-land
forms which are disturbing because they combine the charac-
ters of two groups.
Woodland Caribou
Characterized by large size, heavy antlers with five or six
palmations and the beam somewhat flattened, and color
usually dark.
—
Woodland Caribou. Rangifer caribou caribou (Gmelin").
As described. Found in extreme northeastern United
States and southeastern Canada, as far north and west as
Great Slave Lake, and even recorded as far north as 68°,
in forested sections; limits of range unknown.
—
Richardson Caribou. Rangifer caribou sylvestris (Richard-
son).
Very much like typical caribou but darker on head and neck
and very much darker on ears, back and sides of neck, the
hairs brown to the roots. Found along the southwestern
shores of Hudson Bay; limits of range unknown.
—
Newfoundland Caribou. Rangifer terrcenovoe Bangs.
Larger than caribou, much lighter in color and with antlers
low, widely spread and much forked. Color in fall pelage,
drab grayish brown above; nearly pure white below; neck
soiled white. Found in Newfoundland.
Mountain Caribou
Distinguished by very large size, dark or blackish colora-
tion, and great antlers.
529
—
Mountain Caribou.^ Rangifer montaîus Seton-Thompson.
Very much larger than the Woodland Caribou reaching —
weights of 500-600 pounds. Color above, deep, glossy,
blackish brown, nearly black on legs; dull grayish brown on
neck; grayish white on belly, buttocks, and underside of
tail; narrow white band above each hoof. Total length,
95 inches; tail vertebras, 5 inches; hind foot, 26 inches;
height at shoulder, 47 inches. Antlers reach 61 inches in
length along the beam. Found in the Selkirk Range of
British Columbia south in the Rockies to Montana, Idaho,
and Washington, north to meet the range of osborni.
—
Osbom Caribou. Rangifer osborni Allen.
A very large, if not the largest, Caribou, reaching a weight
of 700 pounds and a height at shoulder of nearly 60 inches;
antlers enormous, massive, and flattened. Upperparts
clove-brown, darkest on head and back, and blackish brown
on breast and legs; neck brownish gray, lightest on sides;
underparts grayish white to pure white on belly and inside
of hind legs; a narrow white band above each hoof. Total
length, 90 inches; tail vertebrae, 6 inches; hind foot, 25.5
inches. Found in the Cassiar Mountains of British Colum-
bia north to the Yukon district.
—
Rocky Mountain Caribou. Rangifer for tidens Hollister.
Probably the largest of all the Caribou; antlers thickset and
heavily palmated; main beam nearly straight; color very
dark, from rich seal-brown to black; white on rump, on
edges of tail grayish brown on neck females said to often
;
;
lack antlers. Total length, 95 inches; tail vertebras, 6

inches; hind foot, 27 inches. Found in the Mt. Robson
region of British Columbia and Alberta.
McGuire Caribou. — Rangifer mcguirei Figgins.
_
Resembling osborni and stonei but differing in type of

antlers; general coloration light brown; sides drab; legs
darker, sides of neck and throat whitish. Total length, 100
inches; tail vertebrae, 9 inches; hind foot, 26 inches. Found
in the vicinity of the Alaska- Yukon boundary from the base
of Mt. St. Elias northward.
Barren Ground Caribou
Characterized by smaller body size, light antlers with three

or four palmations, and pale color. The Old World Reindeer
belongs in this group.
Barren Ground Caribou. —

Rangifer arcticus arcticus (Rich-
ardson),
Much smaller than the Woodland Caribou. Total length,
76 inches; tail vertebrae, 6 inches; hind foot, 20.5 inches;
height at shoulder, 42 inches; weight about 300 pounds.
Winter pelage is noticeably paler than summer. Winter:
530
Plate XLVI
RocKy Mountain Goat
Ir- \
.^
M^-
i^0*
'^ f-;^^^
woodland Caiibou
;
CARIBOU
back grayish brown or drab, some brown on muzzle and

on legs; elsewhere white to yellowish white. Summer: _
white or whitish on underparts, patch around tail and but-

tocks, and narrow band above hoofs; elsewhere light brown
to umber brown, darkest along back.
—
Labrador Barren Ground Caribou. Rangifer arcticus cahoti
G. M. Allen.
"Resembles R. arcticus of Arctic America, but the antlers
have, in the adult males, a more sweeping backward curve,
and their tips are carried farther forward. .Both brow
. .
tine and bez tine are greatly developed. . The summer

. .
pelage is of the usual gray above, with a marked white eye

ring. The winter condition I do not know." (Allen)
Found in Labrador.
Ogilvie Barren Ground Caribou.
—Rangifer arcticus ogilvyen-
sis (Millais).
Larger and darker than typical arcticus; smaller^ than
osborni but somewhat like it in appearance. Found in the
Ogilvie Mountains, north of Dawson, Yukon, Canada.
—
Peary Caribou; Ellesmere Land Caribou. Rangifer pearyi
Allen.
Smaller than arcticus; nearly all white except for a small
patch of Hght grayish brown (almost lilac) along back from
shoulders to rump. A flat skin measures 66 inches in
length. Found in Ellesmere Land, 79° north latitude.
—
Greenland Caribou. Rangifer groenlandicus (Gmelin).
Small, pale, and with slender antlers; darker in color than
pearyi, dark slaty brown on back. Found in Greenland.
—
Stone's Caribou. Rangifer stonei Allen.
A large, dark-colored member of the Barren Ground group;
top of head blackish, end of muzzle whitish; top and sides
of neck dark grayish brown; underside of neck with long
white fringe; upperparts, legs, and upperside of tail dark
brown, palest on shoulders; no caudal patch; belly blackish
brown; white band above hoofs; antlers heavy with many,
well-developed tines. Total length, 85 inches; tail verte-
bree, 6 inches; height at shoulder, 52 inches. Found on the
Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.
Grant QaxihoM.— Rangifer granti Allen.
Similar to stonei but smaller. Dark brown on upperparts
rump patch white; sides of neck light gray with creamy
tinge; end of muzzle whitish; top of nose dark brown to
blackish; belly yellowish white; antlers large and fairly
heavy, brow antlers well developed. Total length, 76 _
inches; tail vertebrae, 8 inches; hind foot, 23 inches; height

at shoulder, 50 inches. Found on the treeless western end
of the Alaskan Peninsula.
—
Point Barrow Caribou. Rangifer excelsifrons Holhster.
Known only from a skull which differs from other North
American Caribou in having a very high braincase. Found
a/- Point Barrow, Alaska.
531
Dawson Caribou
Dwarf Caribou; Dawson Caribou; Queen Charlotte Island
—
Caribou. Rangifer dawsoni Seton-Thompson,
Small in size, antlers poorly developed; color pattern dif-
fering from usual Caribou type. General color uniform
drab brown without white or black anywhere. Total
length, 54 inches; tail vertebree, 3 inches; hind foot, 15
inches; height at shoulder, 33 inches. Found only on the
*******
The Caribou is known to
—
Queen Charlotte Islands Graham Island and probably
extinct.
—
most people as the Reindeer. The

Reindeer is an Old World species of Rangifer most like the
Barren Ground Caribou of North America. Althouth we
have many forms of Caribou in the New World and there are
several quite distinct types of this genus (when extreme ex-
amples are selected), the common characters are not ob-
scured and the animals are easily recognized as Caribou. The
members of this genus are the only Deer in North America the
females of which are horned.
Although Caribou range south far enough to overlap the
range of other Deer (Odocoileus) and are found with the Moose
in many places, the greatest numbers of Caribou are found in
the far north where the peculiar adaptability of this animal
allows it to successfully combat an environment which the
other Deer find impossible.
The Woodland Caribou, as its name suggests, lives in the
northern forests of birch, alder, and conifers. These Deer
congregate in bands for the winter but during the summer are
scattered as individuals or small family parties. This species
has not been able to withstand continued hunting, being
rather stupid and slow in escaping danger, and has become
exterminated over the extreme southern part of its range.
Within the United States it will soon become extinct unless a
program of conservation is rigidly adhered to.
The great herds of Caribou are found on the Barren Grounds
and the members of these herds are commonly known as
Barren Ground Caribou. Formerly these herds numbered
high into the thousands, even the hundred thousands, but in
recent years so much extravagant destruction has taken place
that now the bands are much smaller. Against modem fire-
arms, the Caribou has little chance, and great numbers can be
532
PRONGHORN
killed from a single herd. These bands of Barren Ground

Caribou wander about with the seasons in search of food and
this species is more gregarious in habit than the Woodland
species.
The Caribou which are found in the northern Rockies are
the largest of the genus and some of these mountain forms
have enormous antlers which are much prized as trophies by
the sportsman.
Family Antilocapridae. Pronghorn

Horned ungulates of medium size both sexes bearing decidu-
;
ous horns on permanent bony cores; horns branched but cores

simple; orbit just below base of horn; lachrymal pit, tarsal,
and metatarsal glands absent; glands between digits; cutane-
ous glands present under ear, on hip, rump and back of
hock; mammse four; pelage long, coarse and brittle.
Genus Antilocapra
; g; Premolars, f Molars, f =32.
;
Pronghorn. —Antilocapra americana

—
Names. Pronghorn; Pronghorn Antelope; American
Pronghorn American Antelope Antelope. Plate XLI.
; ;
—
General Description. A rather small ungulate, with horns
(worn by both sexes) slightly curved and simple in character,
carrying one lateral prong. Horns deciduous and shed an-
nually, the new horns forming on the permanent bony cores;
hair light and peculiar in structure, the individual hair being
pith-like in texture with large air-content; form of animal
light and graceful, a cursorial, plains type; tail rather short;
color pattern light and with rump patch capable of "flash-
ears large and pointed.
'
ing '
;
Color. —Sexes colored almost alike; seasonal variation not

very conspicuous.
Upperparts.' —Rich reddish brown or tan with darker brown
to blackish onmane which runs along neck; yellowish white
to whitishon rump, lower sides, sides of head, and base of
ear muzzle and a patch under ear dark brown to black.
;
533
Underparts. —Whitish or creamy white along chest, belly,

and inside of legs; underside of neck crossed with two broad
white bars.
Females usually with less dark brown or black than males.
Immature like adults by end of first summer; at first grayish
brown with faint suggestion of adult pattern in paler rump
and darkened head; never spotted like young Deer.
—
males, about 54 inches, females, about 50 inches; tail verte-
brae, males and females, 5.5 inches; hind foot, males, 17
Fig. 115. — Pronghorn

inches, females, 16 inches; height at shoulder about 34 to 36
inches (males) weight, males, 100 to 125 pounds.
;
—
Geographical Distribution. See map on opposite page
—
Food. Grasses, weeds, cactus, sagebrush, greasewood,
wild flowers, etc.
—
Enemies. Wolves, Coyotes, Eagles (young animals).
534
PRONGHORN
Fig, ii6. Distribution of the Pronghorn, after Nelson,

The continuous black line limits the early range and the
shaded area indicates the distribution of the present scattered
bands.
535
Sp ecies and Subspecies of the Genus Antilocapra
American Pronghom.' — Antilocapra americana americana

(Ord).
As described. Found from the Mexican boundary north-
ward, see map,
Mexican Pronghom. —
Antilocapra americana mexicana Mer-
riam.
Paler in color, brown with a tinge of ecru or cinnamon, than
*******
typical americana.
and thence southward.
"The pronghom
Found only along Mexican boundary
is the only antelope in the world with

branched or pronged horns and has the unique characteristic
among all hollow-homed ruminants of shedding the outer
covering of the horns annually. This takes place soon after
the rut in November and December in the Yellowstone
National Park in northern Wyoming, and elsewhere in the
range of the species this time probably varies somewhat with
latitude.
"When the time for shedding arrives the homy sheath
gradually loosens and becomes detached from the skin around
the base and, following this, from the bony core within.
Later the horn falls off, leaving the bony core covered with a
blackish skin more or less overgrown with long, coarse hairs,
which afterward are gradually lost. A new homy nucleus
develops on the tip of the bony core, the homy growth then
extending slowly downward until it reaches the base. Gradu-
ally thickening and hardening, the homy material grows at the
tip until the new horn attains its full development. The horns
continue to grow as the animal increases in age until the full
size is reached.
"Both sexes have horns, those on the does being smaller

and slenderer than on the bucks.
—
''Rump patch. -Another characteristic of these interesting
animals is a conspicuous rump patch composed of white hairs
which are longer than those elsewhere on the animal's back.
Through developments in the skin muscles the pronghom at
times of excitement has the power to erect these white hairs
until they stand out stiffly over the rump, forming a great
dazzlingly white rosette, like a giant chrysanthemum, which,
when the animal is dashing away across the plains in the
bright sunlight, is extraordinarily conspicuous. The writer
536
BISON
has many times discovered bands of antelope running on the

open plains where but for these heliographic patches they
would have been beyond ordinary eyesight. These long
rump hairs lie like other hairs on the skin and give little indi-
cation of their strikingly conspicuous appearance until the
animal suddenly throws them up into action. The antelope
fawns at a very early age begin "flashing" their white rump
patches on being startled or excited.
" Curiosity. — In addition to its physical peculiarities the
pronghorn is very different psychologically from any other of
our large-game animals. Early in their acquaintance with
these animals hunters became familiar with their intense
curiosity, and have employed various methods to toll them
within gunshot. One of these was to lie on the ground and
wave a red flag slowly back and forth on a ramrod. Another
strange performance often said to have the same effect was
for a hunter to lie on his back and kick his heels in the air.
"The natural home of the pronghorn was on the treeless,
grassy, and often desert plains of the continent. The animals
would scatter singly or in small bands in spring and summer,
especially during the period when the does were caring for
their young fawns. As winter approached they began
to
gather in bands, sometimes containing thousands of individu-
als, and to seek favorable feeding grounds for the winter."
(Nelson, E. W., Status of the Pronghorned Antelope, ig22-iQ24,

U. S. Dept. of Agri. Dept. Bull. No. 1346, Aug. 1925.)
The fawns number two as a general rule, but sometimes
there may be three. They are born in May or earl}'- June.
Family Bovidae. Cattle, Sheep, Antelopes, and

Goats
Both sexes (usually) with permanent, hollow horns grown

on bony cores which arise from the frontal bones; canines and
upper incisors absent; second and fifth digits rudimentary or
absent.
Genus Bison

; §; Premolars, |; Molars, §=32,
537
American Bison. —Bison bison

Names. —
American Bison; American Buffalo. Plate XLV.
—
General Description. A very large bovine with long shaggy-
hair; short curved horns; high hump at the shoulder; and long
hair on head and chin, especially heavy on males.
—
Color. Â slight difference in color between sexes. Males
dark brown on head, lower neck, legs and tail, lighter brown
Fig. 117. Bison
on rest of upperparts. Females with less contrast between

shades of brown on head and back, otherwise like males.
—
Immature. ^Yellowish brown or dull reddish yellow at
birth, like female at end of six months, then deep glossy brown
at two year old stage, followed by the lighter colors of adult
pelages.
Measurements. — Males decidedly larger than females.
Bulls, — Total length, about 24 inches;
11 feet; tail vertebr£e,
hind foot, 24 inches; height at shoulder, about 70 inches;
weight 1800 pounds average, reaching more than 2200 for
big, old bulls. —
Cows. Total length, about 7 feet; tail verte-
brae, 18 inches; hind foot, 20 inches; height at shoulder, about
60 inches; weight about 800 to 1200 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Formerly over most of the
Great Plains section from Texas north to about 60° and from
the Rocky Mountains across the Mississippi; existing today
538
BISON
only in game reserves, zoological parks, or as privately owned

herds.
—
Food. Vegetation, principally grasses.
—
Enemies. ^Wolves, Grizzly Bears.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Bison
Plains Bison. —Bison bison bison (Linnûs).

As described. The common and most abundant race, with
an ancient range from about the Rio Grande north into
Alberta and Saskatchewan where it met the range of the
Wood Bison, and from the plains of the Columbia River as
far east as western New York.
Wood Bison. —
Bison bison athabascce Rhoads.
Larger and darker in color than typical bison. Known only
from a section in Alackenzie, Canada, where a herd still
lives under essentially primitive conditions. These Bison
may be considered as the last remnant of the great original
herds.
Eastern Bison. —
Bison bison pennsylvanicus (Shoemaker).
An extinct race apparently of the Wood Bison type, larger
and darker than the Plains Bison; said to be very black,
with short, crisp, curly hair, with some white about nose
and eyes, and stated to lack the hump Found in the forests
!
of Pennsylvania and north to Lakes Erie and Ontario and

the last were killed about 1800.
The Bison is known to call for much comment in a

too well
field book. be encountered today only as a park or
It will
reservation mammal and most of us will see it only through a
fence. The few remaining wild Bison, the Wood Bison, are in
a remote and rather inaccessible part of Canada, A strong
public sentiment for the preservation of the Bison has been
aroused and it is likely that the species will continue to exist
indefinitely as a protected mammal, for it has done well in
recent years, so well, in fact, that the surplus animals are be-
ginning to be a problem.
The cow Bison has usually one calf a year.
^
Genus Ovibos
Dentition: Incisors, f; Canines, -g; Premolars, |; Molars, | =32.
^ For a fullrevision of this genus see J. A. Allen, Memoirs American
Museum of Natural History, New Series, Vol. I, Part IV, 1913.
539
Muskox. — Ovibos moschatus

and related forms
Names. — Muskox; Musk Bison or Musk Buffalo (old
accounts). Plate XLV.
General Characters. —A long-haired, shaggy, wild Ox
rather smaller than a domestic Ox; the males with broad,
downward curving horns which nearly meet over the midline
Fig. 1 1 8. Muskox
of the skull to form a broad frontlet; horns of females not so

broad and expanded; form robust; legs short and stocky; tail
short pelage exceedingly long and concealing the true form of
;
the animal a fine, soft wool or underf ur present.

;
Color. — Sexes colored very much alike; no very marked

seasonal variation except in length of pelage and worn, shed
appearance of summer coat.
—
Upperparts. Nearly black except for brownish black
dorsal region and lighter brown "saddle" mark behind
shoulders; no white on head except for possible scattering of
white hairs on face; nose white; feet white.
—
Underparts. Dark like upperparts.
Females sometimes with more white on head than males.
Immature with more white on head.
540
MUSKOX
Measurements. —Males larger than females. Total length,

males, 96 inches; tail vertebras, 4 inches; hind foot, 20 inches;
height at shoulder, 59 inches.
—
Geographical Distribution. Arctic America.
Food. —
Low-growing vegetation such as mosses, lichens,
grass, willows, etc.
Enemies. —Wolves.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ovibos
Barren Ground Muskox. — Ovibos moschatus moschatus (Zim-

merman).
As described above. Found from about 60° north latitude
north to Coronation Gulf and from Hudson Bay west to the
I20th meridian.
—
Hudson Bay Muskox. Ovibos moschatus niphcecus Elliot.
"The males are similar in coloration to males of O. m.
7noschatus except that they are rather more intensely black,
while the horns are lighter colored; usually there is no or
very little white on the head females and young males have
;
a variable amount of white on the head and face, in some

specimens nearly as much as in average individuals of O. m.
wardi." (Allen) Total length, males, 92.5 inches; tail
vertebrae, 2 inches; height at shoulder, 52 inches; weight,
579 pounds. Found about the head of Wager Inlet west to
Baker Lake and thence westward toward Great Slave Lake.
Limits of range unknown or where niphcecus merges into
typical moschatus.
White-faced Muskox. —Ovibos moschatus wardi Lydekker.
Not as dark- colored as the two preceding forms and with
much more white on face and head. Found "from the
eastern coast of Greenland, in about latitude 70°, north-
ward to North Greenland and thence westward from Grant
Land to Banks Land, or from longitude 20° W. to 125° W.,
*******
and south to Boothia Peninsula and Victoria Land (former-
ly) in latitude 70°." (Allen)
The Muskox, with the exception of the Bison, is the only

American wild Ox and is a unique and characteristic animal of
our Arctic fauna. It is preeminently adapted for an Arctic
existence, not only through its ability to withstand long
exposures to very low temperatures, due to its superb coat of
heavy hair, but because it can scrape away the snow and ice
and feed onlichens and other procumbent vegetation.
Against natural enemies, chief of which is the Wolf, the
541
Muskoxen band together, the old males with their heavy

horns facing the enemy from the outside of the circle, the
females and young within. Unfortunately these wild Cattle
have no adequate defense against man and are faced with
actual extermination everywhere except in the most northern
parts of their range. The Eskimos in some sections depend
largely upon Muskoxen for food and clothing, and make
no effort to conserve the herds. White explorers and hunters
have been guilty of ruthless killings, and those who know the
Arctic best are predicting the doom of the Muskox.
Although fossil Muskoxen have been found in northern
Eurasia, the living forms are to be found only in North
America and Greenland.
Genus Ovis
Dentition: Incisors, ^ ; Canines, S ; Premolars, f; Molars, f =32.
Mountain Sheep. — Ovis canadensis

and related forms
Names. — Mountain Sheep; Rocky Mountain Sheep; Big-
horn Sheep; Bighorn; Rocky IMountain Bighorn. Plate I.
—
General Description. A large, wild Sheep; the males with
massive horns which curl back, out and up, females with small
horns; pelage hairy not woolly; glands in all four feet, four
hoofs on each foot a gland under each eye chin beardless tail
; ; ;
short; mammae two in number; eyes amber to golden yellow;

horns dark brown; hoofs black.
Color. —Ewes rams but usually less strongly
similar to
marked, paler. is from darlêr shades in
Seasonal variation
fall or late summer to much lighter coats in spring when wear
has removed the dark tips of the hairs.

—
Upperparts. Brownish to grayish brown, darkest on back
of neck, throat, legs and dorsal line from rump to end of
tail; sides slightly paler than back; rump patch creamy white.
—
Underparts. Yellowish white with broad encroachment of
brown from sides and heavy wash of sooty brown on chest
and insides of legs.
The above is taken from a specimen in the American
Museum which is dated September 21, and is consequently in
fresh pelage.
542
MOUNTAIN SEEEP
Immature similar to ewes.

—
Measurements. Rams much larger than ewes. Rams,
total length, 60-70 inches; tail vertebrae, 5 inches; hind foot,
15-16 inches; height at shoulder, 38-42 inches; weight, 200-
300 pounds for old animals; horns measure along front curve,
Fig. 119. Mountain Sheep
up to 49 inches {Rowland Ward's Records of Big Game, 1922)

as the largest recorded, but anything over 40 inches is very
good.
Ewes. — Total length, 54-60 inches; tail vertebras, 4.75-5
inches; hind foot, 15.5 inches; weight, 125-175 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution.' Mountainous sections west
of looth meridian from Mexico north to Arctic Circle.
Detailed ranges given under list of species and subspecies.
—
Food. Vegetation such as grass, tender plants and wild
flowers, and some browse.
Enemies. —Cougars, Wolves, Lynx, and Eagles (lambs
only).
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Ovis
The classification of the Mountain Sheep is not in a very

satisfactory condition. Many names exist and much splitting
up of forms has taken place. It is not likely that there are as
543
many distinct sheep as recent lists would indicate, since the

range of individual variation is large and will account for
vsome of the supposed differences.
—
Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Ovis canadensis canadensis^ Shaw.
As described. Found from Alberta south through Colorado
to New Mexico and central Arizona; through eastern
Washington and Oregon. Plates I and XL.
—
Audubon Bighorn. Ovis canadensis auduhoni Merriam.
As large or larger than typical canadensis; dentition much
heavier. Weights as given by Audubon, ram 344, ewe 240
pounds. Found formerly in the Badlands district along the
Missouri, Yellowstone, and Little Missouri Rivers, in
eastern Montana, Wyoming, North and South Dakota, and
western Nebraska. Said by Bailey, 1926, to be probably
extinct.
—
Lava Beds Bighorn. Ovis canadensis californiana (Douglas).
Darker in color than typical canadensis. Found in
"Formerly the Cascade Mountains of southern Washington
and Oregon, and Mount Shasta and the mountainous
country to the eastward in northern California; now prob-
ably extinct." (Allen
— 1912) —
Galliard Bighorn. Ovis canadensis gaillardi Mearns.
Paler than typical canadensis, with shorter pelage and
longer, more pointed ears; rump patch less sharply differ-
entiated. Found in "Mountains of northwestern Sonora
and southwestern Arizona." (Allen)
—
Sierra Nevada Bighorn.' Ovis ca?iadensis sierrce (Grinnell).
Similar to typical canadensis, but "size slightly less, pelage
not quite so heavy, coloration very much paler, and horns
incross-sectionat base not triangular." (Grinnell) Found
in the high Sierras from Mono County south to the vicinity
of Mount Whitney, California.
—
Texas Bighorn. Ovis canadensis texiana Bailey.
Color of- a September specimen: "upperparts, except the
usual large white rump patch, dull buffy brown or soiled
brownish gray; nose v/hitish; rump patch pure white with
median dark line very narrow and not continuous from tail
to dark area of back; belly white posteriorly; whitish lines
down inner side of hind legs to hoofs, and down front legs
usually only to dewclaws (in the type reaching to the
hoofs)." (Bailey) Resembling auduboni in heavy denti-
tion. Found in the Guadelupe Mountains of Texas and
New Mexico.
^ Since the nomenclature of this field book follows that of Miller in
his North American Recent Mammals, no departure from it is made in
this case, but there are very good grounds for using the name cervina
for canadensis, which would make the first seven forms listed all sub-
species of cervina.
544
MOUNTAIN SHEEP
Nelson Bighorn; Desert Bighorn.- — Ovis canadensis nelsoni

(Merriam).
Much paler than typical canadensis, smaller in size and with
smaller molar teeth; resembling stonei in color pattern but
paler. Found in "mountains of southern Nevada, southern
California, and northern border of Lower California."
(Allen)
—
White Sheep; Dall Sheep. Ovis dalli dalli (Nelson).
Very similar to the Rocky Mountain Bighorn in general
appearance except for color which is white to whitish marked
with dusky; smaller size; more slender horns. Color white
except for a variable amount of dusky-tipped hairs along
back and some brownish on tail. Specimens from the
Kenai Peninsula and Alaska Range are practically pure
white. Total length, males, 58 inches; tail vertebras, 4
inches; hind foot, 16.7 inches; weight, about 200 pounds.
Found in "Greater part of Alaska and Yukon, and south-
eastward in the Mackenzie Mountains." (Allen)
So variable is the color pattern of the northern Bighorn
Sheep that there seems to be more or less complete inter-
gradation from the pure white of typical dalli to the very
dark pelage of stonei. Plate I.
—
Kenai Bighorn. Ovis dalli kenaiensis Allen.
Very similar to typical dalli and indistinguishable from it,
according to Osgood. Found on the Kenai Peninsula of
Alaska.
Stone Bighorn; "Black Sheep." — Ovis dalli stonei (Allen).
Closely related to typical dalli, but averaging much darker
in color. Prevailing coloration varying from dark gray to
blackish brown; somewhat resembling typical canadensis,
but darker in general tone, smaller and horns more slender
and outwardly curving. Found in northern British
Columbia, north to about 64° in the Yukon. Plate I.
The type of Ovis cowani Rothschild, described from near
Mt. Logan, British Columbia, is a very dark (said to be
deep black) specimen and probably is referable to stonei.
Ovis canadensis nigra Millais 1
Ovis canadensis samilkameenensis \ =Ovis dalli stonei.

Millais
— J
Fannin Sheep. Ovis dalli fannini (Homaday).

So closely allied to typical dalli as to be indistinguishable
from it, according to Osgood. The type specimen is
intermediate in color between pure white Sheep from the
Kenai Peninsula and the dark, blackish brown Sheep of the
Stikine. Type locality, near Dawson City, Yukon.
Mountain Sheep are not liable to confusion with any other

mammals. The massive, curling horns will at
of our native
545
once identify the males as Mountain Sheep, and even the

smaller horns of the females are diagnostic. Although these
animals are true Sheep, the pelage is hairy and not woolly.
Mountain Sheep are found in both the Old and New Worlds
and some of those which are found in Asia are very similar to
our own Bighorns.
These mammals are mountain climbers, as the name Moun-
tain Sheep implies, and are not found away from steep
slopes or rough, broken country. In the United States they
are usually found in the higher mountains at least that is the
;
case today; formerly they lived in broken country at lower

elevations but they have been so severely hunted that they
now seek the most inaccessible localities. Mountain Sheep
share with the Mountain Goat the claim to mountain climbing
championship. They are sure-footed mountaineers and climb
up and down precipitous slopes where man could not hope to
pass.
In the northern part of the Rocky Mountain chain the
Sheep have become strongly marked, although very variable,
and specimens range from pure white to almost black. The
extreme types of coloration are easily identified but the
intermediate examples will be troublesome. These northern
forms have lighter, less massive horns than the southern
Sheep, but in every other respect are similar.
Mountain Sheep are active throughout the year, moving
about somewhat with the seasons to follow the feed. They
may be seen at any hour of the day, but often lie down to rest
or take the sun, after feeding during the early morning,
and do not resume grazing until late in the day.
The ewes have one or two young which are born early
in the spring. The voice of the Mountain Sheep is a loud
snort for the adult and a shrill blat for the kid. They are not
often heard to make any vocal noise, but will frequently
betray their presence by dislodging loose rock as they walk.
Genus Oreamnos ^
Dentition: Incisors, £; Canines, g ; Premolars, f; Molars, f =32.
" For an account of this genus see Madison Grant, The Rocky Mourt'
tain Goat, Ninth Annual Report of the New York Zool. Soc, 1905.
;
MOUNTAIN GOAT
Mountain Goat. -Oreamnos americanus

and related forms
—
Names. IVIountain Goat; Rocky Mountain Goat; Ameri-
can Chamois; White Goat; Mazama, Plate XLVI.
—
General Description. A large white Mountain Antelope
of about the size and general appearance of a very large Goat
both sexes horned; horns rather small, slender, and slightly
Fig. I2Q. Mountain Goat
curved backward pelage long, shaggy and with woolly under-

;
fur; chin with short beard; tail short.

Color.— Sexes colored alike; no essential change in color
with the seasons.
Everywhere white, with more or less pale yellowish tinge;
horns blackish.
Immature pelage like that of adults.
—
547
males, 66 inches; tail vertebrae, hind foot, 13,5

6.5 inches;
inches; height at shoulder, 41 weight 150 to 300
inches;
pounds, or even more in rare cases; average weight probably
about 200 pounds. Horns of old males reach 10 to 12 inches
in length.
—
Geographical Distribution.^ Rocky Mountains and coast
ranges from Alaska south to Montana and Idaho.
—
Food. Foliage of mountain plants; moss, lichens, grass,
twigs,and brush.
—
Enemies. Cougar and Golden Eagle, and on occasion
Bears and Wolves.
Species and Subspecies of the Genus Oreamnos
Cascade Mountain Goat. — Oreamnos americanus americanus

(Blainville).
As described above. Found in the Cascade Mountains of
Washington, and possibly south into Oregon where formerly
they occurred in some numbers.
—
Columbian Motintain Goat. Oreamnos americanus columhicB
HoUister.
Resembling typical americanus, but larger and with narrow
skull. Height at shoulder, male, 43 inches. Found in
northern British Columbia; type taken in the Shesley
Mountains.
—
Montana Mountain Goat. Oreamnos americanus missoulcB
(Allen).
Like typical americanus in external characters, but smaller
(smallest of the forms) and skull narrow. Found in
Montana and Idaho.
—
Alaska Mountain Goat. Oreamnos kennedyi Elliot.
Probably a race of americanus, but described as a full species
and so listed by Miller in his North American Recent Mam-
mals. Resembling americanus, but horns more flaring and
widespread. Found in the mountains at the mouth of
Copper River, Alaska.
The animal which we know as the Rocky Mountain Goat is
really one of a small group of mountain-frequenting Antelopes

of which the European Chamois is a member. It has been
suggested that our animal be called the American Chamois,
but it is scarcely to be expected that this name will meet with
popular favor, for the beast looks enough like a Goat to give a
sufhcient reason for the currently accepted name, and Moun-
tain Goat he is likely to remain until the end of his days.
548
PLATE XLVII
:*.''4^^:S^.<^
.¥
Photo by Dan McCowan

Rocky Mountain Goat
{Orea?nnos americamis)
MOUNTAIN GOAT
The Rocky Mountain Goat is a conspicuous creature in his

all-white coat,under most circumstances. A dweller upon
the high peaks where snow is a common feature
of the land-
motionless upon a
scape, he may easily escape attention when
his range at
white background but, in the southern part of
least, he often leaves the snow to wander across the broum
conspicuous. The
slopes and then he becomes especially
chief requisites for a successful goat hunter
are a sturdy pair
of legs and goodlungs. The shooting of the game is not

difficultonce the hunter has climbed up into the goat zone and
there is no need of the skill which a deer stalk
demands. Also,
is small when
the head of even the largest of Mountain Goats
considered as a trophy, for the horns are short
and lacking in
worthy of a better pair of
majesty. The great shaggy coat is
horns.
The fact that Oreamnos lives only in the highest, roughest
mountain ranges or in the high latitudes, apparently acts as a
protecting factor for an animal that would
otherwise have
part of its
been exterminated before this. In the southern
range the Rocky Mountain Goat is seldom seen much below
timber-line and the wilder and more precipitous the region
the more abundant the Goats. Plate XLVII.
The kids vary in number from one to two, and are bom in
late April or May.
549
;
Order XENARTHRA. American Edentates

Mammals of primitive type; teeth absent to numerous;
teeth when present exhibit imperfections such as deficiency of
enamel and lack of roots, and are not differentiated.
Family Dasypodidae. Armadillos

Small to medium-sized mammals having the greater part of
the skin ossified; numerous, unrooted, simple, and
teeth
usually undifferentiated; forefeet with strong, curved claws
for digging; hind feet plantigrade; zygomatic arch complete.
Subfamily Dasypodinse
Genus Dasypus
Dentition: Incisors, 2; Canines, J]; Premolars and Molars, | or
I = 32 or 28.
Armadillo. —^Dasypus novemcinctus texanus

(Bailey) Plate II.
Names. —
Texas Nine-banded Armadillo; Texas Armadillo.
—
General Description. A peculiar, shell-covered mammal
about the size of a small House-cat but heavier. Body
completely enclosed, with exception of underparts and limited
areas about legs, neck, and base of tail, in a dense, hard
"shell" which is an ossified dermal growth built up of small
plates. Head small and narrow, with one large, immovable
shield; ears large, naked; entire forepart of body enclosed
in a solid shield; nine movable, transverse bands across
middle of back and down sides rump and hind parts enclosed
;
in solid shield; tail long, tapering, completely enclosed,

above and below by overlapping rings; hair practically absent
on upperparts, sparsely scattered on underparts. Legs short
four claws visible on forefeet, well developed, two middle
claws excessively developed for digging; five well-developed
claws on hind feet.
550
ARMADILLO
Color. — Sexes colored alike, no seasonal variation.

Shell-like structures mottled brownish and yellowish white;
scattering hairs yellowish.
inches; tail vertebra, 15 inches; hind foot, 4 inches.
Fig. 121. Armadillo
—
Geographical Distribution. From the Rio Grande of Texas
south into Mexico; north to about 33° latitude and west to
Devils River.
Food. — Insects.
Enemies.— Probably able to defend itself against the small
carnivores by rolling up in its armor, but defenseless against
:j- *****
Wolves, Coyotes, Bobcats, Cougars,
But the one form of Armadillo is

etc.
found north of the Rio

Grande; southward the group is a fairly large one.
The only personal experiences which I have had with
Armadillos have been in Ecuador, but I imagine that the
behavior of the Nine-banded Armadillo is very much the same
wherever you find it. Those that I saw seemed to have very-
poor sight and were more disturbed by a heavy or incautious
step than by the fact of my visual presence which would have
been very obvious to any other mammal. Even the bright
light I used in night hunting failed to alarm them and the
entire attention of the animals was upon the ground. They
moved in jerky, nervous fashion, poking into every hole and
giving the impression of an energetic busybody. When
finally alarmed they ran full speed, with a great commotion
of brush and foliage. They are active mostly at night.
551
Vernon Bailey, in his Biological Survey of Texas, North

American Fauna No. 25, pp. 54-56, gives a very good account
of the Texas Armadillo.
"They are partial to low, dense cover of coarse grass, thorny
thickets, cactus patches, and scrub oaks, under which they
make numerous burrows and trails, or root about in the leaves
and mold, where they enjoy comparative safety under the
double protection of leafy screen and armor plate. But they
thrive best in a rocky country, especially where limestone
ledges offer numerous caves and crevices of various sizes, from
which they can select strongholds that will admit no larger
animal. Almost every rock-walled gulch along the head-
waters of Guadalupe River has one or more dens with smoothly
worn doorways from which much traveled trails lead away
through the bushes or to little muddy springs, where tiny hoof-
like tracks and the corrugated washboard prints of ridged
armor suggest that the armadillos not only dig and nose about
in the soft ooze for their insect food, but, pig-like, enjoy also
a cooling mud bath. Other trails lead along rocky shelves,
up the sides of gulches, and away from thicket to thicket, and
are easily followed sometimes for half a mile till they branch
and scatter or connect with cattle trails, where the rope-like
prints of dragging, homy tails are visible among the dusty cow
tracks. Late in the afternoon one occasionally meets an
armadillo trotting vigorously along a trail on his stumpy little
feet, his tail dragging after him in a useless sort of way as he
hurries nervously across the open spaces and stops in the
thickets to nose about under the leaves in search of dainties
from the fragrant soil. At such times the long, pointed nose
seems to be the keenest organ of sense. The little eyes, half
the time buried in rustling leaves, rarely detect an object not
close by and in motion. I have followed one of these pre-
occupied little animals for half an hour, often within 20 or 30
feet, moving only when it was rustling in the leaves, and
watching its motions without being discovered or creating
alarm. Hunters say that if you stand still the armadillos will
sometimes bump against your feet without discovering you,
so short sighted are they and so intent on their own business.
But when alarmed, they get over the ground with a rush that
is surprisingly rapid considering their turtle-like build. If the
first rush does not carry them to cover and an enemy over-
552
ARMADILLO
takes them, they curl up in an ironclad ball that is not easily

uncurled. autumn, during the deer hunting months,
In
when the young of the year are full grown, they are especially
numerous and particularly obnoxious to the still hunters, who
repeatedly mistake their rustling in the leaves for the noise of
feet of bigger game. Where a dozen
or twenty armadillos
are met sometimes happens, and possibly
in a day's hunting, as
no deer are seen, the nervous strain and disappointment on the
part of the hunter sometimes result in serious consequences to
the innocent armadillo.
"The excrement of the armadillos found scattered along the
trails in the form of clay marbles and with the texture of baked
mud gives some clue to the food habits of the animals. Care-
fulexamination shows only the remains of insects, mainly ants
and a few small beetles, embedded in a heavy matrix of earthy
matter."
The young, four to eight in number, are bom from February
to April, and at first have soft flexible skins which show the
pattern of the armor that will come with time. As the young
mature the armor hardens until finally it reaches the bony
stage.
553
Order SIRENIA. Manatees, Dugongs, and Sea-
cows
Highly specialized aquatic mammals of large size; body
fusiform; head rounded; muzzle truncate; nostrils separate,
valvular; eyes small; mouth of comparatively small size,
lips set with expanded horizontally;
bristles; tail flat, broad,
no dorsal fin; forelimbs developed as swimming paddles; no
trace of hind limbs; bones dense and massive; habit com-
pletely aquatic; diet herbivorous.
Family Trichechidas. Manatees

Characters as given for the Order Sirenia and under the
genus Trichechus.
Genus Trichechus
Dentition: Incisors, |; Canines, J];
Premolars and Molars,
I to j4 = 32 to 52.
Manatee. —Trichechus latirostris (Harlan)
Names. —Florida Manatee; Florida Seacow; American

Manatee.
General Description. — Â large, heavily-built, aquatic
mammal of psuedo fish-like form. Body robust and rounded;
head grotesque, with thick pendulous lips and blunt, truncate
muzzle; upper lip cleft medially; forelimbs modified into broad
flappers; no traces of hind limbs; tail broad, fiat, horizontal;
eyes minute; nostrils valve-like; external ear very small, a mere
orifice. Skin practically naked but muzzle set with stiff
bristles.
Color. —
Everywhere dull grayish.
—
Measurements. A large male which was in the New York
Aquarium measured 7 feet, 6 inches in length and weighed
432 pounds. Bangs records a female 11 feet, 4 inches long
and two others, sex not given, as 12 feet and 13 feet, 7 inches
554
MANATEE
long respectively. The estimated weight of the 12 foot

specimen was 2000 pounds.
—
Geographical Distribution. Found along the east coast of
Florida as far north as Daytona, and sporadically along the
Gulf coast; has been reported from Corpus Christi, Texas.
—
*******
Food. Vegetation found in shallow estuaries and lagoons.
—
Enemies. None, with the possible exception of sharks..
Only the one species of Trichechus is found on the conti-

nental shores of North America. A related species, T.
manatus, is found in the West Indies.
The Manatee is a harmless, rather sluggish creature which
Fig. 122. Manatee
has become so specialized for an aquatic life that it is almost

helpless upon the land. It has been said to come out upon
the shore sometimes, to feed upon some particularly tempting
stretch of grass, but it is difficult to see how such a clumsy
creature could progress upon land. The heavy-bodied Mana-
tee has lost even the transient relationship with the land which
the Seals possess and spends its entire existence in a restricted
area of shallow water.
555
The bones of this mammalare very dense and heavy and

are an aid in keeping submerged. The mobile lips are cleft
it
along the mid-line above, and each half is capable of motion

independent of the other side. The upper lip thus becomes a
useful grasping member and the Manatee gathers in tufts of
marine vegetation at the bottom of the lagoons.
The one Manatee which I have seen came to the surface of
the water in Old Harbor Bay, Jamaica, fairly close to my
rowboat. The head of the animal looked more like a small
keg bobbing on the waves than anything alive. After a
moment for respiration the Manatee quietly sank out of sight.
Fishermen occasionally catch the Manatee in their nets,
and it has been noted that unusually severe winters, such as
that of 1894-95, lower the temperature of the shallow waters
sufficiently to kill numbers of Manatee.
The Manatee is said to have one young a year.
Order CETACEA. ' Whales and Porpoises
Mammals greatly modified for an aquatic habitat ; external
form fish-like ; body more or less rounded and tapering without
neck region tail developed into paired
distinct constriction in ;
organs or "flukes" which form a horizontal

lateral propelling
mass of tissue terminating in a notch in the midline; head
large; lips immobile; forelimbs modified into swimming
paddles with no differentiation into arm, forearm, or digits,
and enclosed in a continuous integument no external trace of
;
hind limbs; skin usually hairless, smooth, shining; just under

skin a thick mass of fatty areolar tissue, the "blubber";
median dorsal fin usually present; nostrils opening through
paired or single valve-like aperture near crown of head; eyes
small; no external ear, the meatus opening into a minute
orifice in the skin.
Whales and Porpoises will be so seldom seen by most of the
users of this field book, at least under circumstances which
permit the observation of identifying characteristics, that it is
inadvisable to go into details as to specific characterization.
For the sake of completeness, however, all of the forms liable
to be encountered on our shores are given at least a passing
mention, and most of the more common "Whales and Porpoises
are described and figured.
After all, there are great gaps in our knowledge of the
Cetacea. The very
fact that these animals live in a medium
which man
can only skirt on the surface, and spend such a
great part of their existence under the surface of the water,
precludes the intimacy of contact which we may hope to
enjoy with the land mammals. We know that many species
are great wanderers and that their ranges cover an enormous
area. Many are confined by the more or less invisible and
unknown barriers of food supply, ocean temperatures, depths
and currents, and we have each ocean or sea with its own
peculiar cetaceans. There is a great scarcity of recorded
^ See Miller, Smithsonian Miscl. Coll., Vol. 76, No. S, 1923, for a
classification of the subgeneric groups of this order.
557
data and, although these animals have served as the basis of a

great industry, few of the whalers troubled to write down their
observations, and not many competent observers have spent
the time necessary to learn much of cetacean life-histories.
One of the classical accounts from which a large part of our
knowledge is derived is Scammon's Marine Mammalia and
American Whale Fishery.
Suborder MYSTICETI. Baleen Whales ^
Toothless Whales (no teeth present after birth) having

plates of baleen or whalebone along upper jaw; lower jaws not
united at symphysis by a bony suture but connected by fibrous
tissue; nostrils opening as paired "blow-holes"; olfactory lobe
developed.
Family Balaenidse. Whalebone Whales
Mandible deep; rostrum high and arched; cleft of mouth

a curvedline; lumbar vertebrae ten or more.
Genus Eubalaena
North Atlantic Right Whale. —Eubalaena glacialis

(Bonaterre)
—
General Description. A large Whale, length about fifty
feet, with large head; long, narrow baleen, black in color;
short, broad pectoral fin, enclosing the bones of all five fingers;
no dorsal fin; no furrows on skin of throat.
Color. —Generally black, but sometimes mottled or pied
with white.
Measurements. — Sexes about equal in size; True gives
lengths of American specimens varying from 30 feet to 53
feet.
—
Geographical Distribution. North Atlantic; has been
taken from shores of wSouth Carolina northward.
^ See True, The Whalebone Whales of the Western North Atlantic, Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 33, 1904, and G. M. Allen,

The Whalebone Whales of New England, Memoirs, Boston Society of
Natural History, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1916.
55»
WHALES
Pacific Right —
Whale. Euhalcena sieholdii (Gray).
Resembling EtihalcBna glacialis, but with a large, rough
protuberance at end of upper jaw, and wart-iike bunches on
lips and head superior outline of Viead not so convex as in
;
the Bowhead; baleen coarse; length 60-70 feet. Found in

the North Pacific from California to the Aleutian Islands.
Fig. 123. Right Whale
Genus Balaena
Bowhead; Greenland Right Whale. —Balaena mys-
ticetus Linnaeus
—
General Description. A large Whale, 50 to 65 feet long,
with very large head and highly arched upper jaw; head more
than one-third of total length; baleen very long, finely fringed.
Geographical Distribution. — Circumpolar seas.
Fig. 124. Bowhead Whale
Family Rhachianectidae. Gray Whale
Mandible heavy and slightly bowed outward; rostrum deep

rather than broad; supraorbital process of frontal depressed;
nasals greatly enlarged.
559
Genus Rhachianectes
Gray Whale. —Rhachianectes glaucus (Cope)

Names. —
Gray Whale; California Gray Whale.
—
General Description. A medium-sized Whale females —
about forty feet in length, males somewhat smaller, about
thirty-five feet —
varying in color from light mottled gray to
almost black; two longitudinal folds under throat, about fif-
teen inches apart and six feet in length eye slightly above and
;
Fig. 125. California Gray Whale
behind angle of mouth; external ear a small slit in skin about

two and a half inches long; no dorsal fin; pectoral fin narrow;
blubber six to ten inches thick; baleen fourteen to sixteen
inches long not often passing far out to sea, but following the
;
shore and spending much time in shoal bays and lagoons spout ;
quick and low; social in habit and congregating in large num-

bers when undisturbed; now very greatly reduced in numbers
and threatened with extinction.
—
Geographical Distribution. In North America along Paci-
fic coast.
Family Balaenopteridae. Finback Whales,

Rorquals, Humpback Whales.
Mandible conspicuously bowed outward ; rostrum broad
rather than deep.
560
WHALES
Subfamily Balaenopterinae
Genus Balaenoptera
Common Finback Whale. —Balaenoptera physalus
(Linnaeus)
General Description.—A large Whale reaching a length of

65 feet or more; head flat; body slender; small, curved dorsal
fm present; pectoral fin small and narrow; longitudinal furrows
Fig. 126. Finback Whale
on throat and breast baleen short and coarse black to black-

; ;
ish brown above and on sides, belly white; spout quick and
energetic, high and columnar; inspiration accompanied by a
peculiar and characteristic sound audible for a considerable
distance; active in habit and sometimes plays about ships;
when "sounding" it may heave its flukes out of water and
assume a nearly vertical position; seen singly or in small
numbers.
—
Geographical Distribution. Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
vSpecies of the Genus Balaenoptera
Common —
Finback. BalcBnoptera physalus (Linnaeus).
As described above.
—
Pollack Whale; Rudolphi's Rorqual. Balcsnoptera borealis
Lesson.
More robust in body than physalus; dorsal fin large and
falcate. Rare in American waters; recorded from coasts of
Florida and Virginia.
—
Pike Whale ; Little Piked Whale Least Rorqual. Balcenop-
;
Lacepede.
tera acutorostrata
Body more robust than in physalus; pectoral fins small,
dorsal fin quite high, with strongly curved tip; upper jaw
acutely narrowed anteriorly. Total length, 20-30 feet.
Found in North Atlantic; south to coast of New England;
New York and New Jersey.
561
Genus Sibbaldus
Sulphur-bottom Whale. — Sibbaldus musculus

(Linnaeus)
—
Names. Sulphur-bottom Whale; Blue Whale; Sibbald
Whale.
—
General Description. Largest of all the Whales, reaching
a known length of 103 feet (average length 60-80 feet); head
long; baleen short, black to bluish in color; dorsal fin small
and curved; pectoral fin small; small, longitudinal furrows on
Fig, 127. Sulphur-bottom Whale
throat; body comparatively slender; "weight of whole animal,

by from Scammon a 95 foot
calculation, 147 tons" (taken —
specimen); a 76 foot Whale from Newfoundland was said to
weigh 63 tons; spout tall and vertical; very active in habit,
swiftest of the Whales, speed when alarmed estimated at 12
miles per hour.
Color. — Slaty gray to mottled bluish gray above; under-
parts varying from white to yellowish or grayish marked with
irregular white areas.
Geographical Distribution. —Found on both Pacific and
Atlantic shores.
Subfamily Megapterinae
Genus Megaptera
Humpback Whale. —Megaptera nodosa (Bonaterre)

—
General Description. A proportionally short and thick-
bodied Whale, reaching a maximum length of about 50 feet;
dorsal fin present as a low "hump"; pectoral fin very long
and narrow, knobbed along anterior margin flukes large, pos-
;
562
WHALES
terior margin crenulated; color black with variable white

mottling below; longitudinal furrows along throat and belly,
about 26 in number; lower jaw extending well beyond upper;
baleen short; spout issuing from a pair of spiracles as twin
Fig. 128. Humpback Whale

columns which unite and expand; blowing from one to fifteen
or twenty times to a "rising"; spout may reach 20 feet or
more in height; animals may be encountered singly or in
numbers.
—
Geographical Distribution. In North America, on Atlantic
and Pacific coasts.
Suborder ODONTOCETI. Toothed Cetaceans

Teeth always present after birth, usually numerous, but in
some species only a few are functional (none functional in
some instances) no baleen; upper surface of skull more or less
;
asymmetrical, nostrils opening as a single spiracle; lower jaws

united by a symphysis olfactory organ rudimentary or absent.
;
Family Physeteridae. Sperm Whales

Head veiry large; mandible slender and toothed; upper jaw
large and toothless.
Genus Physeter
Sperm Whale. —Physeter catodon Linnaeus

—
Names. Sperm Whale; Cachelot; Pottfish (German).
—
General Description. A large, toothed Whale; length
reaching 70 to 85 feet for the largest males, females only about
563
a third of head huge, deep and square, with large, oil-

this;
filled reservoir overlying rostrumand cranium; spiracle or
blow-hole single, not paired as in the baleen Whales, external
opening somewhat S-shaped; dorsal fin absent; pectoral fin
Fig. 129. Sperm Whale
broad and short; teeth in lower jaws only, 22 to 24 on each

side; throat large, capable of swallowing large masses; color
blackish above, lighter below; spout slow and prolonged,
diagonally forward in direction; social in habit, congregating
in schools of fifteen or more (in times of former abundance in
schools of hundreds). Food; squid, octopus, and some species
of fish.
—
Geographical Distribution. Formerly found in nearly all
seas from 56° north latitude to 50° south, now scarce over
much of this range.
Ambergris comes from Sperm Whales and is an intestinal

secretion, taken either from the dead animal or found float-
ing or cast up on the beach. It varies in color from yellowish
to dark brownish, is rather firm and hard after exposure to the
air, and is often confused with various other oily or greasy
substances such as mineral waxes or waste products from

steamers. Ambergris is used as a base for perfumes and is
quite valuable. It is a difficult substance for the layman to
identify or analyze and a sample of the suspected substance
should be sent to a chemical laboratory before spending any
of the anticipated receipts from a sale of the find!
Family Kogiidae. Pigmy Sperm Whales

"Facial depression moderately developed, brain rela- . . .
tively large, .zygoma incomplete; ..." (Miller)

. .
564
.
WHALES
Fig. 130. Figmy Sperm Whale
Genus Kogia
Pigmy Sperm Whale. — Kogia hreviceps (Blainville).
Size small (9-13 feet long); snout short; mouth in inferior
position; blow-hole placed far back on head; dorsal fin low
but well developed, falcate. Has been taken at scattered
along the Atlantic seaboard, but is apparently a
localities
rare animal. It has almost a cosmopolitan distribution
and ma3^ turn up anywhere.
Fig. 131. School of Dolphins
Family Delphinidae. Porpoises, Dolphins, etc.

Small to medium-sized cetaceans having teeth, usually
numerous, in both jaws; rostral portion of skull elongated.
Subfamily Delphininae
Genus Prodelphinus
"Color black or gray above, light below, with spots or
longitudinal bands." (True)
—
Spotted Dolphin. Prodelphinus plagiodon (Cope)
Total length about 84 inches. Found along the Atlantic
coast of United States; Cape Hatteras; Gulf of Mexico.
565
— .
Fig. 132. Spotted Dolphin
North Atlantic Dolphin. —Prodelphinus euphrosyne (Gray).

Total length about 84 inches. Found in Atlantic Ocean
from South Greenland to Jamaica and east to Europe.
Genus Steno
"Color black above, white below, with or without dark
'
longitudinal bands. ' (True)
Fig. 133. Long-beaked Dolphin
Long-beaked Dolphin. Steno rostratus Gray.

Total length about 100 inches. Found in the Atlantic
Ocean to Indian Ocean; American record from Tampa,
Florida.
Genus Delphinus
Color markings variable; black to dark gray on upperparts,
tailand fins; white to greenish white on underparts.
Common —
Dolphin. Delphinus delphis Linnaeus.
Total length about 89 inches. Found on both coasts.
Fig. 134. Common Dolphin

566
PORPOISES, DOLPHINS
Genus Tursiops
"Color gray or greenish, lighter below, sometimes with
spots." (True)
—
Bottlenosed Dolphin. Tursiops truncatus (Montague).
Total length about 114 inches. Found on Atlantic coast
from Maine to Florida; in Gulf of Mexico to Texas.
^
Fig. 135. Bottlenosed Dolphin
Pacific Bottlenosed Dolphin; Cowfish. —Tursiops gillii Dall.

Found in the North Pacific Ocean: Monterey, California and
Lower California.
Andrews Bottlenosed Dolphin. —
Tursiops nuuanu Andrews.
Recorded from the Pacific Ocean from Santa Catalina
Island and southward.
Fig. 136. Pacific Bottlenosed Dolphin
Genus Lissodelphis
Color everywhere black except for white on extremity of
lower jaw and a large area between pectoral fins which ex-
tends as a line to flukes.
567
Pacific Right —
Whale Porpoise. Lissodelphis horealis (Peale).
Total length about 97 inches. Found in the North Pacific
Ocean: California.
Fig. 137. Pacific Right Whale Porpoise
Genus Lagenorhynchus
"Sides with two areas of light color separated by irregular,
oblique dark bands." (True)
Striped Dolphin; Striped Porpoise; White-sided Dolphin. —
Lagenorhynchus aciitus (Gray).
Total length about 99 inches. Found in the North Atlantic
Ocean, south to the coast of the United States; Cape Cod.
Fig. 138. Striped Dolphin
White-beaked Dolphin. —
Lagenorhynchus alhirostris Gray.
Like but forehead more swollen, larger pectoral fins
acutiis,
and more strongly reclined dorsal fin. Base of forehead,
beak, and mandible white, more or less tinged with gray.
Found in North Atlantic Ocean; Greenland; Davis Strait.
Pacific Striped Dolphin. —
Lagenorhynchus ohliquidens Gill.
Aluch like acutus. Total length about 87 inches. Found
in the North Pacific Ocean: California; Puget Sound.
Gentts Orcinus
"Color black, with a large and sharply contrasted ventral
area of white, forming a trident posteriorly, the lateral tines
of which extend up on the sides." (True).
Atlantic Killer. —
Orcinus orca (Linneeus).
Total length 20 feet or more. Found in all seas.
568
—
PORPOISES, DOLPHINS
Pacific Killer.—Orcinus rectipinna (Cope).

No large white spot back of eye. Total length of male
about 20 feet. Found in the North Pacific Ocean, south to
the Coast of California.
Fig. 139. Atlantic Killer
Genus Grampus
"Color slate-gray, mottled, and very irregularly streaked."
(True).
Grampus. Grampus griseus (Cuvier).

Total length about 126 inches. Found in the North
Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans; south along coasts of
United States as far as New Jersey and California.
Fig. 140. Grampus
Genus Pseudorca
Color uniform black." (True)
Fig. 141. False Killer
569
;
—
False Killer. Pseudorca crassidens (Owen).
Total length about i6 feet. Found in all seas; recorded
from Florida.
Genus Globicephala
Color black.
Blackfish; Pilot Whale; Ca'ing Whale. —Globicephala melcena
(Traill).
Total length about 15 to 19 feet. Found along the Atlantic
coast of North America to New Jersey.
Fig. 142. Blackfish
Short-finned Blackish.— Globicephala brachyptera (Cope).

Total length about 15 feet. Pectoral fins shorter than in
melcena, about one-sixth the total length of the body, or less.
Found on the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to the Gulf of
Mexico. Plate XLVIII.
Scammon Blackfish; North Pacific Blackfish. Globicephala —
scammonii (Cope).
Much like brachyptera; pectoral fins a trifle longer propor-
tionally. Total length about 15 feet. Found in the North
Pacific Ocean.
[43. Scammon Blackfish
Genus Phocasna
Color above slaty black, below lighter (females white below)
color never in spots.
570
PLATE XLVIII
f^^^^K|>.
1
PORPOISES, DOLPHINS
Harbor Porpoise; Bay Porpoise; Herring Hog. —Plwccena

phoccpna (Linnaeus).
Total length about 68 inches. Found on both coasts,
ascends rivers.
Fig. 144. Harbor Porpoise
Genus Phocoenoides
—
Dall Porpoise. Phoccenoides dalli (True).
Dorsal and ventral margins of the body near the flukes
raised into prominent, thin ridges; head without beak.
Color black, with large whitish area on belly and lower side
as far forward as plane of dorsal fin. Total length about
72 inches. Found on the coast of Alaska.
Subfamily Delphinapterinae
Genus Delphinapterus
Color everywhere white.
White Whale; Beluga. —
Delphinapterus leucas (Pallas).
Total length about 11 to 12 feet. Found in Arctic and sub-
arctic seas; recorded from as far south as Atlantic City, New
Jersey.
Fig. 145. White Whale

571
Subfamily Monodontinae
Genus Monodon
Males with a long tusk; females usually not showing tusks
externally. Color above dark gray, below white, sides and
back mottled with gray.
Narwhal. — Monodon monoceros Linnaeus.
Total length about 12 feet. Found in Arctic Seas.
Fig. 146. Narwhal
Family Ziphiidae/ Beaked Whales

"Teeth of adult reduced to one or two in lower jaw, absent
"
in upper jaw; rostrum deepened and solidified; . . .
(Miller)
Fig. 147. Baird Whale
Genus Berardius
—
Baird Whale. Berardius hairdii Stejneger.
Color black, except for grayish or whitish area on lower
belly. Total length about 40 feet. Found in the North
Pacific Ocean from Bering Sea south to California.
Genus Mesoplodon
Sowerby Whale. — Mesoplodon hidens (Sowerby).
Snout elongated into a beak; a single pair of teeth placed
well back on the lower jaw. Total length about 16 feet.
^ See F. W. True: An Account of the Beaked Whales of the Family
Ziphiidce in the Collection of the United States National Museum. U. S.

N. M. Bull. 73, 1910.
.
BEAKED WHALES
Found in the North Atlantic Ocean; recorded from Nan-

tucket Island, Massachusetts.
Fig, 148. Sowerby Whale

Blainville Whale. — Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville)
Total length about 12 feet. Found in the Indian Ocean and
about Australia, but recorded from Massachusetts and New
Jersey.
—
Gervais Whale. Mesoplodon europcBus (Gervais).
Larger than hidens and with shorter and narrower pectoral
fins. Color above very dark slate-gray, lighter on sides and
whitish on belly. Total length up to 22 feet. Found in the
North Atlantic Ocean recorded from New Jersey.
— ;
Stejneger Whale. Mesoplodon stejnegeri True.

Teeth more than twice as broad and longer than those of
hidens; end of beak blunt, lower jaw longer than upper.
Total length about 16 feet. Found in the North Pacific
Ocean from Bering Island to Oregon,
—
True's Beaked Whale. Mesoplodon mirum True,
Mandibular teeth at extremity of jaw; in female, very small
and concealed in the integument. "Back, slate-black;
lower side, yellow-purple, flecked with black; median line of
belly somewhat darker, a grayish area in front of vent fins ;
the color of the back." (True) Total length about 16

feet. Found along the southeastern coast of the United
States; North Carolina.
Genus Ziphius
Cuvier Whale. —Ziphius G, Cuvier,
cavirostris
A single pair of good-sized teeth at
end of lower jaw. Color
variable, from black to gray above, sometimes white on
Fig, 149. Cuvier Whale
head and back as far as dorsal fin; underparts lighter than

upperparts. Total length about 18 to 20 feet. Found in
all seas.
573
Genus Hyperoodon
—
Bottlenose Whale. Hyperoodon ampuUatus (Forster).
Teeth confined to a single pair, hidden in the gum at the end
of the lower jaw; beak well developed. _
Color above, vary-
ing from black to light brown, sometimes almost yellow,
Fig, 150. Bottlenosed Whale
with whitish about head; below grayish white. Total

length, about 24 feet for females, 30 feet for males. Found
in Arctic and North Atlantic oceans; recorded from New
York Bay, Newport, Rhode Island, and Cape Cod, Massa-
chusetts
574
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list of titles will be found useful if the reader
wishes to go beyond the hand book stage. Throughout the
text important references have been cited as they have been
quoted or used as the basis for the treatment of a genus or
other group. These publications are not repeated in the bibli-
ography. No attempt has been made to include every book
and paper on mammals, for obvious reasons, but rather to call
attention to those publications which will be most serviceable
in carrying on where this field book leaves off. The most
important serial publication dealing solely with the study of
mammals is the Journal of Mammalogy, published quarterly
by the American Society of Mammalogists. A file of this
Journal will be a great asset to the mammal student. Most
of the mammal publications of the other scientific societies
and of the various museums appear at irregular intervals and
are parts of publication series which deal with many fields of
biology.
ANCESTRY OF RECENT MAMMALS

The Age of Mammals. H. F. Osborn. Macmillan Co., 1910.
History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere.
Wm. B. Scott. Macmillan Co., 1913.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Life-Histories of Northern Animals. E. T. Seton. Chas.
Scribner's Sons, Vols. 1-2, 1909.
Lives of Game Animals. E. T. Seton. Doubleday, Page &
Co., Vols. 1-4, 1925-1928.
Wild Animals of North America. E. W. Nelson. Nat.
Geog. Soc, Wash., D. C, 1918.
American Animals. vStone and Cram. Doubleday, Page
& Co., 1902.
Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America.
G. S. Miller Jr. Bull, N. Y. State Mus., Vol. 8, No. 38,
1900.
575
BIBLIOGRAPHY
List of North American Recent Mammals, 1923. G. S.

Miller, Jr. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 128, 1924.
A Synopsis of the Mammals of North America and the
Adjacent Seas. D. G. Elliot. Field Columbian Mus.,
Zool. Ser., Vol. 2, 1901.
Mammals of America. Nature Lovers Library, University
Soc, Inc., 1917.
Our Wild Animals. E. L. Moseley. D. Appleton & Co.,
1927.
Fauna Boreali-Americana. J. Richardson. Publ, by John
Murray, London, 1829. —
The Quadrupeds of North America. Audubon and
Bachman. Vols. 1-3, 1849-1854. Publ. by V. G.
Audubon.
The Wilderness of the North Pacific Coast Islands. Chas.
Sheldon*Chas. Scribner's Sons, 19 12.
The Wilderness Hunter. Theo. Roosevelt. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1893.
Watched by Wild Animals. Enos A. Mills. Doubleday,
Page & Co., 1922,
"REFERENCES BY LOCALITIES
Alabama
A Biological Survey of Alabama. A. H. Howell. N. A.
Fauna No. 45, 192 1.
f
Alaska
A Biological Reconnaissance of the Base of the Alaska
Peninsula. W. H. Osgood. N. A. Fauna No. 24, 1904.
Biological Investigations in Alaska and Yukon Territory.
W. H. Osgood. N. A. Fauna No. 30, 1909.
A Biological Survey of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska.
E. A. Preble. N. A. Fauna No. 46, 1923.
Notes on the Mammals of Interior Alaska. L. R. Dice.
Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. 2, No. i, 192 1.
The Land Vertebrate Associations of Interior Alaska.
L. R. Dice. Occasional Papers, Mus. Zool., Univ.
Mich., No. 85, 1920.
Birds and Mammals of the 1907 Alexander Expedition to
Southeastern Alaska. The Mammals. E. Heller,
Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 5, No. 2, 1909.
576
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mammals of the 1908 Alexander Alaska Exp. E. Heller.

Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 5, No. 11, 1910.
Birds and Mammals of the 1909 Alexander Alaska Exp.
H. S. Swarth. Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 7,
No. 2, 1911.
Birds and Mammals of the Stikine River Region of
Northern British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska.
H. S. Swarth. Univ. of CaHf. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 24,
No. 2, 1922.
Natural History of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British
Columbia; and Natural History of the Cook Inlet Re-
gion, Alaska. W. H. Osgood. N. A. Fauna No. 21, 1901.
Arizona
Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco
Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado,
Arizona. C. H. Merriam. N. A. Fauna No. 3, 1890.
California
California Mammals. F. Stephens. West Coast Publ.
Co., San Diego, 1906.
A Distributional List of the Mammals of California. J.
Grinnell. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., S. 4, Vol. 3, 1913.
A Systematic List of the Mammals of California. J.
Grinnell. Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool,, Vol. 21, No. 10,
1923.
Life-Zone Indicators in California. H. M. Hall and J.
Grinnell. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol.9, No. 2, 19 19.
Results of a Biological Survey of Mount Shasta, Cali-
fornia. C. H. Merriam.N. A. Fauna No. 16, 1899.
The Mammals of Mammoth, Mono County, Calif. A. B.
Howell. Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. 5,, No. i, 1924.
A Synopsis of the Bats of California. H. W. Grinnell.
Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 17, No. 12, 19 18.
A Study of the California Jumping Mice of the Genus
Zapus. A. B. Howell. Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool.,
Vol. 21, No. 5, 1920.
Canada
Birds and Mammals of the Stikine River Region of
Northern British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska.
H. S. Swarth. Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 24,
No. 2, 1922.
577
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Birds and Mammals of the Skeena River Region in

Northern British Columbia. H. S. Swarth. Univ.
Calif. Publ. in ZooL, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1924.
Report on a Collection of Birds and Mammals from the
Atlin Region, Northern British Columbia. H. S.
Swarth. Univ. Calif. Publ. in ZooL, Vol. 30, No. 4,
1926.
Natural History of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British
Columbia; and Natural History of the Cook Inlet
Region, Alaska. W.H.Osgood. N. A. Fauna No. 21,
1901.
A Biological Investigation of the Hudson Bay Region.
E. A. Preble. N. A. Fauna No. 22, 1902.
A Athabaska-Mackenzie
Biological Investigation of the
Region. E. A. Preble. N. A. Fauna No. 27, 1908.
Notes on the Mammals and Birds of Northern Canada.
R. MacFarlane in "Through the Mackenzie Basin,"
by Chas. Mair. Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton,
Kent & Co., Ltd., London, 1908.
Game Trails in British Columbia. A. B. Williams.
Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1925.
Camp-fires in the Canadian Rockies. W. T. HoiTiaday.
Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1906.
Notes on Mammals collected and observed in the northern
Mackenzie River District, Northwest Territories of
Canada, with remarks on Explorers and Explorations
of the Far North. R. MacFarlane. Proc. U. S. Nat.
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Mammals of the Alpine Club Expedition to the Mt.
Robson Region. N. Hollister. Canadian Alpine
Joum., Special No., 19 12.
A List of the Mammals of Labrador. O. Bangs. Amer.
NaturaHst, Vol. 32, No. 379, 1898.
List of Mammalia of the Labrador Peninsula. A. P.
Low. Annual Report, Geol. Survey Canada, Vol. 8,
1895. Ottawa, 1897.
Report on the Natural History Collections of the Ex-
pedition. R. M. Anderson in "My Life with the
Eskimo," by V, Stefansson. Macmillan Co., 19 13.
Notes on the Mammals of Ontario. G. S. Miller, Jr.,
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578
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Results of a Biological Reconnoissance of the Yukon

River Region, W. H. Osgood. N. A. Fauna No. 19,
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The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon. Chas. Sheldon.
Chas. Scribner's Sons, 191 1.
Colorado
A Biological Survey of Colorado. M. Cary. N. A.
Fauna No. 32,, 191 1.
The Mammals of Colorado. E. R. Warren. G. P.
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Georgia
The Mammals of Okefinokee Swamp Region of Georgia.
F. Harper. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 38,
No. 7, 1927.
Idaho
Results of a Biological Reconnoissance of South-central
Idaho. C. H. Merriam. N. A. Fauna No. 5, 1891.
Illinois
The Mammals of Illinois and Wisconsin. C. B. Cory.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser., Vol. 11, 1912.
Field
The Quadrupeds of Illinois, Injurious and Beneficial to
the Farmer. R. Kennicott. Ex. Doc. 32, 35th
Congress. House of Rep. for the year 1857.
Kansas
Notes on some Mammals of Riley County, Kansas.
L. R. Dice. Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1923.
Massachusetts
Pocket List of Alammals of Eastern Massachusetts.
C. E. Brown. Peabody Acad. Sci., Salem, Mass., 1913.
Mexican Boundary
Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States.
E. A. Meams. Gov. Ptg. Office, Wash., 1907.
Michigan
An Annotated Check-list of Michigan Mammals. N. A.
Wood. Occasional Papers, Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich.,
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A Manual of the Recent Wild Mammals of Michigan.
L. R. Dice. Michigan Handbook Ser. No. 2, Univ.
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579
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The Mammals of Warren Woods, Berrien County,

Michigan. L. R. Dice, Occasional Papers, Mus.
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Notes on the Mammals of Gogebic and Ontonagon
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Sherman. Occasional Papers, Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich.,
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A Survey of the Mammals of Charlevoix County,
Michigan, and vicinity. L. R. Dice. Occasional
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Minnesota
The Mammals of Minnesota. C. L. Herrick. Geol. &
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The Mammals of Itasca County, Minnesota. A. R.
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Notes on the Mammals of Northern Lake County,
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Montana
Wild Animals of Glacier National Park. The Mammals.
V. Bailey. Dept. Interior, Nat. Park Service, 19 18.
Nevada
Mammals of the Alexander Nevada Expedition of 1909.
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Newfoundland
The Land Mammals of Newfoundland. O. Bangs.
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New Hampshire
Notes on New Hampshire Mammals. C. F. Jackson.
Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. 3, No. i, 1922.
New Jersey
The Mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. S N.
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New Mexico
Life Zones and Crop Zones of New Mexico. V. Bailey.
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580
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New York
The Mammals of the Adirondack Region, C. H,
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Notes on the Mammals of the Catskill Mountains, New
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North Dakota
A Biological Survey of North Dakota. V. Bailey. N. A.
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Oregon
Mammals of Northern Malheur County, Oregon. H. E.
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Pennsylvania
The Mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. S. N.
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Texas
Biological Survey of Texas. V. Bailey. N. A. Fauna
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Utah
Utah Mammals. C. T. Barnes. Bull. Univ. Utah,
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Washington
Mammals and Birds of Mount Rainier National Park.
W. P. Taylor. U. S. Dept. Interior, Nat. Park
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The Mammals of Southeastern Washington. L. R. Dice.
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The King of the Olympics. The Roosevelt Elk and other
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Wisconsin
A Preliminary List of Wisconsin Mammals. H. H. T.
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581
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Wyoming
LifeZone Investigations in Wyoming. M. Cary. N. A.
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Yellowstone Park
Predatory and Fur-bearing Animals of Yellowstone Park.
M. P. Skinner. Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 4,
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REFERENCES TO SPECIAL GROUPS

Insectivora
Habits of the Short-tailed Shrew, Blarina brevicauda
(Say). A. F. Shull. Amer. Naturalist, Vol. 41, 1907.
American Moles as Agricultural Pests and as Fur
Producers Theo. H. Scheffer. U. S. Dept. Agri.,
Farmers' Bull. 1247, 1922
The Common Mole of the Eastern United States. Theo.
H. Scheffer. U. S. Dept. Agri., Farmers' Bull. 583,
1914.
Chiroptera
Contribution to the Life-history of the California Mastiff
Bat. A. B. Howell. Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. i,
No. 3, 1920.
Some Calif ornian Experiences with Bat Roosts, A. B.
Howell. Journ. Mammalogy, Vol. i, No. 4, 1920,
Carnivora
The Grizzly. Enos. A. Mills. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
1919.
The Grizzly Bear. Wm. H. Wright. Chas. Scribner's
Sons, 1909.
Bears in the Yellowstone. M. P. Skinner. A. C.
McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1925.
The Weasels of Southern Manitoba. N. and S. Griddle.
Canadian Field- NaturaHst, Vol. 39, No. 6, 1925.
Mink Raising. F. G. Ashbrook. Bureau Biol. Survey,
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Economic Value of North American Skunks. D. E.
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Destruction of Wolves and Coyotes. V. Bailey. Bureau
Biol. Survey, Circ. 63, 1908.
582
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'
Wolves in Relation to Stock, Game, and the National
Forest Reserves. V. Bailey. U. S. Dept. Agri.,
Forest Service, Bull. 72, 1907.
The Puma, or American Lion. F. W. True. Report
U. S. Nat. Mus., 1889.
Revision of the Genus Lynx in California. J. Grinnell
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No. 13, 1924.
RODENTIA
Monographs North American Rodentia. See Report
of
of the U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories.
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Squirrelsand other Fur-bearers. John Burroughs.
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1900.
Geography and Evolution in the Pocket Gophers of
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1926, Publ. 2894, pp. 343-355. 1927.
Life History of the Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys spectabilis
spectabilis Merriam. C. T. Vorhies and W. P. Taylor.
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The American Beaver and His Works. L. H. Morgan.
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Castorologia or the History and Traditions of the Cana-
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The Status of the Beavers of Western North America.
W. P. Taylor, Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool., Vol. 12,
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An Investigation of the Beaver in Herkimer and Hamilton
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Beaver Habits, Beaver Control and Possibilities in Beaver
Farming. V. Bailey. U. S. Dept. Agri. Bull. 1078,
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583
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Study Beaver in the Yancey Region of Yellow-

of the
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Wild Life Annals, Vol. i, Nos. 1-2, 1926.
How Beavers Build Their Houses. V. Bailey. Smith-
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Office,
The Beaver in the Adirondacks: Its Economics and
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Beaver Habits and Experiments in Beaver Culture. V.
Bailey. U. S. Dept. Agri., Technical Bull. No. 21,
1927.
The Beaver, Its Work and Its Ways. E. R. Warren.
Monograph of Amer. Soc. Mammalogists, No. 2, 1927.
Williams & Wilkins Co.
Anatomy of the Wood Rat. A. B. Howell. Monograph,
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Wilkins Co.
The Genera and Subgenera of Voles and Lemmings.
G. S. Miller, Jr. N. A. Fauna No. 12, 1896.
The Muskrat in New York: Its Natural History and
Economics. C. E. Johnson. Roosevelt Wild Life
Bull., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1925.
Artiodactyla
The White-Tailed Deer of the Eastern United States.
T. Barbour and G. M. Allen. Joum. Mammalogy,
Vol. 3, No. 2, 1922.
Whitetailed Deer. Wm. M. Newsom. Chas. Scribner's
Sons, 1926.
The Antelope and Deer of America. J. D. Caton.
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&
Raising Deer and other Large Game Animals in the
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The Deer of California. E. R. Hall. Calif. Fish &
Game, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1927-
The Moose Book. S. Merrill. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1916.
Report on Condition of Elk in Jackson Hole, Wyoming,
in 191 1. E. A. Preble. U. S. Biol. Survey, Bull. 40,
1911.
584
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Romance of the Newfoundland Caribou. A. A. R.

Dugmore. J. B. Lippincott Co., 1913.
Our National Elk Herds. H. S. Graves and E. W.
Nelson. U. S. Dept. Agri., Dept. Circular 51, 19 19
Status of the Pronghomed Antelope, 1922-1924. E. W.
Nelson. U. S. Dept. Agri., Bull. No. 1346, 1925.
A Pennsylvania Bison Hunt. H. W. Shoemaker.
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Marine Mammals
The Marine Mammals of the Northwest Coast of North
America. Chas. M. Scammon. G. P. Putnam's Sons,
1874.
Habits and Hunting of the Sea Otter. Chase Littlejohn.
Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 2, No. 2, 19 16.
Fur-Seal Fisheries of Alaska. H. W. Elliott. Document
175, 54th Congress, House of Rep., 1896.
The Fur Seals and Fur-seal Islands of the North Pacific
Ocean. David Starr Jordan. Part 3. Gov. Ptg.
Office, 1899.
The Fur Seals and other Life of the Pribilof Islands,

Alaska, in 19 14. W. H. Osgood, E. A. Preble and
G. H. Parker. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Bull., Vol.
34, 1914-
Newfoundland R. A. Bartlett. Joum. Mam-
Seals.
malogy, Vol. No. 3, 1927.
8,
The Hair Seals (Family Phocidae) of the North Pacific

Ocean and Bering Sea. J. A. Allen. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 16, 1902.
The Present Standing of the Florida Manatee, Trichechus
latirostris (Harlan) in the Indian River Waters. O.
Bangs. Amer. Naturalist, Vol. 29, 1895.
The Art of Catching the Manatee. A. W. Dimock.
Century Mag., April, 1907.
A Book of Whales. F. E. Beddard. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1900.
Whale Hunting with Gun and Camera. R. C. Andrews.
D. Appleton & Co., 1916.
The Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis). R. C. Andrews.
Memoirs, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. S., Vol. i, 1916.
585
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The California Gray Whale (Rhachianectes glaucus

Cope). R. C. Andrews. Memoirs, Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., N. S., Vol. I, Part 5, 1914.
Life Zones
Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco
Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado,
Arizona. C. H. Merriam. N, A. Fauna No. 3, 1890.
The Geographical Distribution of North American
Mammals. J. A. Allen. Bull. Amer, Mus. Nat.
No. I, 1892.
Hist., Vol. 4,
Laws ofTemperature Control of the Geographic Dis-
tribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants, C. H.
Merriam. Nat, Geog. Mag., Vol. 6, 1894.
Life Zones and Crop Zones in the United States. C. H.
Merriam. U. S. Biol. Survey, Bull. No, 10, 1898,
Life Zones and Crop Zones of New Mexico. V, Bailey.
N. A, Fauna No, 35, 1913,
Life Zone Investigations in Wyoming, M. Cary. N. A.
Fauna No. 42, 19 17.
Life Zone Indicators in California. H, M. Hall and J.
Grinnell. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol, 9, No. 2, 1919,
Life Zonesand Mammalian Distribution. L. R. Dice.
Joum. Mammalogy, Vol. 4, No. i, 1923.
586
IND AMES
Alces, 524 „i:6mys, 347
americana, 524, 526 subater, 348
columbaj, 526 taylori, 347
gigas, 526 Balsena, 559
shirasi, 526 mysticetus, 559
Alopex, 147 Balaenidaj, 558
beringensis, 148 Balaenoptera, 561
groenlandicus, 148 acutorostrata, 561
hallensis, 148 borealis, 561
innuitus, 148 physalus, 561
lagopus, 147, 148 Balaenopterida?., 560
pribilofensis, 148 Balaenopterinaj, 561
imgava, 148 Bassariscidai, 90
Ammospermophilus, 215, 216 Bassariscus, 90, 91
amplus, 217 flavus, 90, 91
cinnamomeus, 216 nevadensis, 91
harrisii, 217 oregonus, 91
interpres, 216 raptor, 91
leucurus, 215, 216 Berardius, 572
nelsoni, 216 bairdii, 572
saxicola, 217 Bison, 537, 539
vinnulus, 216 athabascas, 539
Antilocapra, 533, 536 bison, 538, 539
americana, 533, 536 pennsylvanicus, 539
mexicana, 536 Blarina, 42, 43
Antilocapridae, 533 aloga, 43
Antrozous, 68, 69 brevicauda, 42, 43
pacificus, 69 carolinensis, 43
pallidus, 68, 69 compacta, 43
Aplodontia, 452, 454 hulophaga, 44
califomica, 456 peninsulas,- 43
Columbiana, 454 talpoides, 43
humboldtiana, 456 telmalestes, 44
nigra, 456 Boreolepus, 487
olympica, 454 Bovidae, 537
pacifica, 454 Brachylagus, 508, 509
phaea, 456 idahoensis, 508
rainieri,454
rufa, 452, 454 Callorhinus, 172
Aplodontiidae, 452 alascanus, 172
Artiodactyla, 511 Callospermophilus, 196, 198
Atophyrax, 37 bernardinus, 200
Aulacomys, 431 caryi, 198
587
—
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES
Callospermophilus Cont'd Cervinas, 513

castanurus, 199 Cervus, 513, 515
certus, 198 canadensis, 514, 515
chrysodeirus, 199 manitobensis, 515
cinerascens, 198 merriami, 515
lateralis, 197, 198 nannodes, 515
perpallidus, 200 occidentalis, 515
saturatus, 199 Cetacea, 557
tescorum, 199 Chaetodipus, 307
trepidus, 198 Chilotus, 432
trinitatis, 200 Chiroptera, 46
wortmani, 198 Citellus, 201, 202
Canidae, 137 ablusus, 204
Caninae, 137 albertac, 202
Canis, 149, 150, 153, I5-| alleni, 212
estor, 152 annectens, 208
florid anus, 155 arens, 207
frustror, 155 arizonas, 210
gigas, 155 armatus, 205
latrans, 149, 151 artemisiae, 206
lestes, 151 badius, 212
lycaon,_i55 barrowensis, 203
meamsi, 151 beldingi, 205
microdon, 151 beringensis, 204
nebracensis, 151 canus, 206
nubilus, 153, 154 chlorus, 210
occidentalis, 155 columbianus, 201, 202
ochropus, 152 cryptospilotus, 209
pallidus, 151 elegans, 205
pambasileus, 155 eremonomus, 210
rufus, 155 erythrogluteius, 202
texensis, 151 franklini, 213
tundrarum, 155 hoUisteri, 212
Camivora, 74 idahoensis, 207
Castor, 328, 329 kennicottii, 203
belugae, 330 kodiacensis, 203
caecator, 331 leurodon, 207
canadensis, 328, 329 macrospilotus, 208
carolinensis, 330 major, 208
frondator, 330 marginatus, 209
leucodonta, 329 mohavensis, 210
mexicanus, 330 mollis, 206
michiganensis, 331 nebulicola, 204
missouriensis, 331 neglectus, 211
pacificus, 329 obsidianus, 209
phaeus, 329 obsoletus, 209
shastensis, 331 olivaceus, 212
subauratus, 331 oregonus, 205
texensis, 331 osgoodi, 203
Castoridas, 327 pallidus, 212
Cervidae, 513 parryii, 203
588
—
Citellus Continued floridanus, 64

parvidens, 211 intermedins, 63, 64
parvus, 212 Dasypus, 550
pessimus, 206 texanus, 550
phaeognathus, 203 Delphinapterinas, 571
plesius, 203 Delphinapterus, 571
pratensis, 209 leucas, 571
richardsonii, 204 Delphinidas, 565
Stephens!, 207 Delphininac, 565
stonei, 204 Delphinus, 566
tereticaudus, 210 delphis, 566
texensis, 213 Dicrostonyx, 401, 403
townsendi, 205 exsul, 404
tridecemlineatus, 211 groenlandicus, 404
vigilis, 206 hudsonins, 402, 403
washoensis, 207 richardsoni, 403
yakimensis, 207 rubricatus, 403
Condylura, 21, 23 unalascensis, 403
cristata, 21, 23 Didelphiidae, 4
Condylurinas, 21 Didelphis, 4, 5
Conepatus, 132, 133 pigra, 5
meamsi, 132, 133 texensis, 5
telmalestes, 133 virginiana, 4, 5
texensis, 133 Dipodomys, 312, 314
venaticus, 133 agilis, 312, 314
Corynorhinus, 66, 67 ambiguus, 320
macrotis, 67 320
baileyi,
pallescens, 67 berkeleyensis, 317
rafinesquii, 66, 67 brevinasus, 321
townsendii, 67 cabezonae, 314
Cratogeomys, 296 califomicus, 316
castanops, 296 chapmani, 322
Cricetidas, 332 columbianus, 322
Cricetinae, 332 compactus, 323
Cryptotis, 41 deserti, 316
berlandieri, 42 dixoni, 317
floridana, 41 elator, 320
parva, 41 elephantinus, 315
Cynomys, 218, 220 321
exilis,
arizonensis, 222 eximius, 317
gunnisoni, 222 goldmani, 318
leucurus, 222 heermanni, 317
ludovicianus, 218, 220 ingens, 319
parvidens, 222 jolonensis, 318
zuniensis, 223 leucogenys, 319
Cystophora, 178 levipes, 316
cristata, 178 longipes, 322
luteolus, 323
Dasypodidffi, 550 merriami, 320
Dasypodinae, 550 microps, 315
Dasypterus, 63 mohavensis, 319
589
—
Dipodomys Continued emmonsii, 76

monoensis, 322 floridanus, 76
montanus, 322 kermodei, 76
morroensis, 318 luteolus, 76
nitratoides, 321 pemiger, 76
ordii, 322 pugnax, 76
panamintinus, 319 Eubalaena, 558
parvus, 321 glaciaUs, 558
perplexus, 315 sieboldii, 559
preblei, 316 Eucervus, 520, 522
richardsoni, 323 Euderma, 65
sanctiluciae, 315 maculata, 65
sennetti, 323 Eumetopias, 172
simiolus, 321 jubata, 172
simulans, 314 Eumops, 73
spectabilis, 320 calif ornicus, 73
Stephens!, 319 Eutamias, 225, 226
swart hi, 318 ad situs, 227
tularensis, 317 afifinis, 233
utahensis, 322 alleni, 231

venustus, 315 alpinus, 237
amoenus, 232
Enhydra, 118, 119 arizonensis, 236
lutris, 118, 119 atristriatus, 236
nereis, 119 borealis, 236
Enhydrinae, 118 cacodemus, 235
Epimys, 451 callipeplus, 228
Eptesicus, 58, 59 canicaudus, 233
bernardinus, 59 caniceps, 237
fuscus, 58, 59 canipes, 228
melanopterus, 59 caryi, 235
osceola, 60 caurinus, 234
pallidas, 60 cinereicollis, 228
Erethizon, 465, 467 cinereus, 228
bruneri, 467 confinis, 235
couesi, 467 consobrinus, 235
dorsatum, 465, 467 cooperi, 229
epixanthum, 467 dorsalis, 232
myops, 467 felix, 234
nigrescens, 467 frater, 229
picinum, 467 grisescens, 235
Erethizontidae, 464 hopiensis, 227
Erignathus, 177 inyoensis, 229
barbatus, 177 jacksoni, 237
nauticus, 178 kernensis, 232
Euarctos, 74, 75 ludibundus, 233
altifrontalis,76 luteiventris, 233
amblyceps, 76 merriami, 231
americanus, 74, 75 minimus, 234
carlottae, 76 monoensis, 233
cinnamomum, 76 neglectus, 237
590
—
Eutamias -Continued Felis, 157

ochraceus, 233 arundivaga, 159
ochrogenys, 230 azteca, 159
operarius, 236 browni, 159
oreocetes, 236 cacomitli, 163
pallidus, 235 calif omica, 159
palmeri, 229 coryi, 158
panamintinus, 234 couguar, 157, 158
pictus, 234 griffithii, 162
pricei,231 hemandesii, 161
quadrimaculatus, 231 hippolestes, 159
quadrivittatus, 225, 227 oregonensis, 159
ruficaudus, 227 Fiber, 442
senex, 230
sequoiensis, 228 Geomyidae, 269
simulans, 227 Geomyinae, 269
Siskiyou, 230 Geomys, 292, 293
sonomas, 230 arenarius, 295
speciosus, 228 attwateri, 295
townsendii, 229 austrinus, 293
umbrinus, 227 breviceps, 294
utahensis, 232 bursarius, 294
vallicola, 233 colonus, 293
Eutheria, 3 cumberlandius, 294
Evotomys, 410, 411 fallax, 296
athabascae, 411 floridanus, 293
brevicaudus, 412 llanensis, 295
calif omicus, 413 lutescens, 294
carolinensis, 412 mobilensis, 293
caurinus, 414 personatus, 296
dawsoni, 414 sagittalis, 295
galei,411 texensis, 295
gapperi, 410, 411 tuza, 292, 293
idahoensis, 412 Glaucomys, 260, 261
insularis, 414 alpinus, 264
limitis, 412 bangsi, 264
loringi, 411 bullatus, 266
mazama, 412 californicus, 267
nivarius, 413 canescens, 264
obscurus, 413 columbiensis, 265
occidentalis, 413 flaviventris, 267
ochraceus, 411 fuliginosus, 265
orca, 414 klamathensis, 267
phaeus, 414 lascivus, 267
proteus, 413 latipes, 265
rhoadsi, 411 macrotis, 264
saturatus, 411 makkovikensis, 264
ungava, 412 olympicus, 265
wrangeli, 414 oregonensis, 265
querceti, 261
Felidae, 157 sabrinus, 262
591
Glaucomy s — Continued Lasionycteris, 56

saturatus, 261 noctivagans, 56
Stephens!, 267 Lemmiscus, 436
texensis, 262 Lemmus, 398, 400
volans, 260, 261 alascensis, 400
yukonensis, 264 helvolus, 400
zaphaeus, 265 minusculus, 400
Globicephala, 570 nigripes, 400
brachyptera, 570 trimucronatus, 398, 400
melasna, 570 yukonensis, 400
scammonii, 570 Leporidae, 477
Grampus, 569 Lepus, 478, 480
griseus, 569 alleni,488
Guerlinguetus, 257 americanus, 478, 480
Gulo, III, 113 arcticus, 485
auduboni, 113 bairdi, 482
bairdi, 113 bangsi, 486
hylasus, 113 bennetti, 490
katschemakensis, 113 bishopi, 481
luscus. III, 113 californicus,488
luteus, 113 campanius, 484
niediecki, 113 canus, 486
Guloninae, iii cascadensis, 482
columbiensis, 481
Halichoerus, 178 dalli, 481
grypus, 178 deserticola, 490
Haplomylomys, 368 ereniicus 490
Heteromyidas, 297 gaillardi, 488
Histriophoca, 175 groenlandicus, 487
Homodontomys, 387 klamathensis, 482
Hyperoodon, 574 macfarlani, 481
ampullatus, 574 melanotis, 492
merriami, 492
othus, 486
Insectivora, 8
pha?onotus, 481
poadromus, 487
Kogia, 565 richardsoni, 490
breviceps, 565 sierrae, 485
Kogiidae, 564 struthopus, 480
texianus, 492
Lagenorhynchus, 568 townsendii, 484
acutus, 568 virginianus, 480
albirostris, 568 wallawalla, 489
obliquidens, 568 washingtoni, 481
Lagomorpha, 470 iêucocrossuromys, 222
Lagurus, 436 Leucomitra, 129
artemisiee, 436 Liomys, 297
curtatus, 436 texensis, 297
intermedius, 437 Lissodelphis, 567
pallidus, 437 borealis. 568
pauperrimus, 437 Lutra, 114, H5
592
—
Lutra Continued ochracea, 186

brevipilosus, ii6 okanagana, 190
canadensis, 114, 115 olympus, 190
degener, 117 oxytona, 190
interior, 115 parvula, 188
lataxina, 116 petrensis, 186
pacifica, 116 preblorum, 185
periclyzomae, 117 rufescens, 185
sonora, 117 sheldoni, 190
vaga, 116 sierrae, 188
Lutreola, 107, 109 vancouverensis, 190
Lutrinae, 114 vigilis, 190
Lynx, 164, 166 warreni, 189
bailey i, 168 Marsupialia, 3
californicus, 167 Martes, 92, 94
canadensis, 165, 166 abieticola, 94
eremicus, 167 abietinoides, 94
fasciatus, 168 actuosa, 94
floridanus, 167 americana, 93, 94
gigas, 168 atrata, 95
mollipilosus, 166 brumalis, 95
oculeus, 167 caurina, 95
pallescens, 168 kenaiensis, 95
rufus, 166 nesophila, 96
subsolanus, 166 origenes, 95
texensis, 167 pacifica, 97
uinta, 167 pennanti, 97
sierrae, 95
Macrotolagus, 488 Megaptera, 562
Macrotus, 48 nodosa, 562
californicus, 48 Megapterinae, 562
Mammalia, 3 Megascapheus, 288
Marmosa, 7 Mephitinse, 120
isthmica, 7 Mephitis, 125, 127
zeledoni, 7 avia, 128
Marmota, 183, 185 elongata, 127
avara, 188 estor, 127
caligata, 189 holzneri, 129
campioni, 189 hudsonica, 127
canadensis, 185 major, 129
cascadensis, 190 mephitis, 125, 127
dacota, 189 mesomelas, 128
engelhardti, 188 milleri, 129
flaviventris, 188 minnesotae, 127
fortirostris, 188 nigra, 127
ignava, 185 notata, 129
luteola, 189 occidentalis, 128
monax, 183, 185 platyrhina, 129
nivaria, 190 spissigrada, 128
nosophora, 188 varians, 128
obscura, 189 Mesoplodon, 572
593
—
Mesoplodon Continued eximius, 423

bidens, 572 fisheri, 427
densirostris, 573 fontigenus, 418
europasus, 573 guadalupensis, 429
mirum, 573 haydeni, 432
stejnegeri, 573 innuitus, 426
Michrochiroptera, 46 kadiacensis, 425
Microdipodops, 325 kemensis, 424
califomicus, 326 labradorius, 418
megacephalus, 325 leucopheeus, 429
oregonus, 326 longicaudus, 427
pallidus, 326 ludovicianus, 432
polionotus, 326 macfarlani, 425
Microsorex, 39 macropus, 431
alnorum, 40 macrurus, 429
eximius, 40 mariposae, 423
hoyi, 39 minor, 432
intervectus, 40 miurus, 427
thompsoni, 39 modestus, 418
washingtoni, 40 mogoUonensis, 430
winnemana, 40 mohavensis, 424
Microtinae, 394 montanus, 420
Microtus, 415, 417 mordax, 428
abbreviatus, 426 nanus, 421
abditus, 428 nesophilus, 420
acadicus, 418 nevadensis, 422
admiraltiae, 419 nigrans, 417
adocetus, 433 ochrogaster, 431
aestuarinus, 423 operarius, 425
alticola, 429 oreas, 427
angusticeps, 429 oregoni, 432
aphorodemus, 419 pennsylvanicus, 415, 417
arizonensis, 421 popofensis, 426
arvicoloides, 431 provectus, 418
aztecus, 419 ravus, 430
bairdi, 433 richardsoni, 431
bernardinus, 428 rivularis, 421
breweri, 420 sanctidiegi, 424
californicus,422 scirpensis, 424
canescens, 421 serpens, 433
canicaudus, 422 sierras,428
cantwelli, 433 sitkensis, 426
caryi, 421 terraenovae, 420
chrotorrhinus, 430 tetramerus, 427
constrictus, 423 townsendii, 427
coronarius, 429 unalascensis, 426
drummondi, 419 vallicola, 424
dutcheri, 422 wahema, 418
elymocetes, 426 xanthognathus, 430
endoecus, 425 yakutatensis, 425
enixus, 419 yosemite, 420
594
Mictomys, 396 primulina, 104

Mirounga, 179 richardsoni, 100
angustirostris, 179 rixosa, loi
Misothermus, 403 saturata, 104
Molossidae, 69 spadix, 104
Monodon, 572 streatori, loi
monoceros, 572 vison, 107, 109
Monodontinae, 572 vulgivaga, 109
Muridae, 448 washingtoni, 103
Murinae, 448 xanthogenys, 104
Mus, 448, 449 Mustelidae, 92
musculus, 448 Mustelinas, 92
norvegicus, 450 Myotis, 50
Mustela, 98, 100 alascensis, 51
aestuarina, no albicinctus, 51
alascensis, 100 altifrons, 51
allegheniensis, loi altipetens, 51
alleni, 104 baileyi, 54
arctica, 102 califomicus, 52
arizonensis, 104 carissima, 51
audax, 102 caurinus, 52
campestris, 102 ciliolabrum, 53
cicognani, 99, 100 evotis, 54
energumenos, 109 grisescens, 54
eskimo, loi incautus, 54
frenata, 105 interior, 52
haidarum, 102 keenii, 54
ingens, no longicrus, 52
kadiacensis, 102 lucifugus, 50
lacustris, 109 occultus, 55
leptus, 1 01 orinomus, 53
letifera, 109 pallidus, 52
longicauda, 103 pernox, 51
lutensis, 109 quercinus, 52
melampeplus, no saturatus, 53
microtis, loi sociabilis, 53
mink, 109 subulatus, 54
mortigena, 100 thysanodes, 55
munda, 105 velifer, 54
muricus, loi winnemana, 51
neomexicana, 105 yumanensis, 53
nesolestes, no Mysticeti, 558
nigripes, 105
notia, 103 Napaeozapus, 463
noveboracensis, 102 abietorum, 463
occisor, 103 frutectanus, 464
olivacea, 103 insignis, 463
oregonensis, 105 roanensis, 463
oribasus, 104 Neofiber, 439, 440
peninsulae, 103 alleni, 439, 440
polaris, 102 nigrescens, 440
595
Neosorex, 35, 36 hyacinthinns, 24

alaskanus, 37 Notiosorex, 45
albibarbis, 37 crawfordi, 45
albi venter, 38 Nycteris, 60, 61
bendirii, 37 borealis, 60, 61
gloveralleni, 36 cinerea, 61
hydrobadistes, 37 seminola, 61
hydrodromus, 37 teliotis, 61
navigator, t^"] Nycticeius, 64
palmeri, 38 humeralis, 64
palustris, 35, 36 Nyctophilinse, 68
Neotoma, 379, 380
albigula, 382 Ochotona, 470, 472
annectens, 387 albata, 476
arizoncE, 390 brook si, 474
attwateri, 382 brunnescens, 474
bailey i, 381 cinnamomea, 476
bullata, 385 collaris, 475
campestris, 382 cuppes, 474
canescens, 382 fenisex, 474
cinerea, 388 figginsi, 472
desertorum, 385 fumosa, 475
drummondi, 389 fuscipes, 476
fallax, 384 goldmani, 475
floridana, 379, 380 incana, 474
fusca, 390 jewetti, 475
fuscipes, 387 lemhi, 472
gilva, 384 levis, 472
illinoensis, 380 lutescens, 472
intermedia, 383 muiri, 475
lepida, 385 nevadensis, 472
lucida, 388 nigrescens, 474
macrotis, 388 princeps, 470, 472
meamsi, 383 saxatilis, 474
mexicana, 384 schisticeps, 475
micropus, 382 sheltoni, 476
mohavensis, 387 taylori, 475
occidentalis, 390 uinta, 472
orolestes, 390 ventorum, 472
pennsylvanica, 386 OchotonidcE, 470
pinetorum, 384 Ochrotomys, 366
rubida, 380 Odobenidas, 180
rupicola, 392 Odobenus, 180, 181
saxamans, 389 divergens, 182
simplex, 387 rosmarus, 181
stephensi, 385 Odocoileus, 517, 518
streatori, 387 borealis, 518
venusta, 383 californicus, 522
warreni, 383 canus, 522
Neiirotrichus, 23, 24 clavium, 518
gibbsii, 23, 24 columbianus, 523
596
—
Odocoileus Continued rectipinna, 569

couesi, 519 Oreamnos, 546, 548
crooki, 522 americanus, 547, 548
eremicus, 522 columbias, 548
hemionus, 520, 522 kennedyi, 548
leucurus, 519 missoulae, 548
louisiance, 518 Oryctogale, 133
macrourus, 518 Oryzomys, 372, 373
osceola, 519 aquaticus, 375
scaphiotus, 523 coloratus, 374
sitkensis, 523 natator, 374
texanus, 518 palustris, 373
virginianus, 517, 518 texensis, 374
virgultus, 522 Otariidai, 170
Odontoceti, 563 Otospermophilus, 193, 194
Ondatra, 442, 443 beecheyi, 195
alba, 444 buckleyi, 194
aquilonia, 444 couchii, 194
cinnamomina, 446 douglasii, 195
macrodon, 443 fisheri, 195
mergens, 444 grammurus, 193, 194
obscura, 446 juglans, 195
occipitalis, 444 nesioticus, 195
osoyoosensis, 444 Utah, 194
pallida, 444 Ovibos, 539, 541
ripensis, 446 moschatus, 540, 541
rivalicia, 446 niphoecus, 541
spatulata, 444 wardi, 541
zalopha, 444 Ovis, 542, 543
zibethica, 442, 443 auduboni, 544
Onychomys, 333, 334 californiana, 544
arcticeps, 334 canadensis, 542, 544
breviauritus, 338 dalli, 545
brevicaudus, 336 fannini, 545
capitulatus, 337 gaillardi, 544
clarus, 339 kenaiensis, 545
fuliginosus, 337 nelsoni, 545
fuscogriseus, 336 nigra, 545
leucogaster, 333, 334 samilkameenensis, 545
longicaudus, 339 sierras, 544
longipes, 337 stonei, 545
melanophrys, 336 texiana, 544
missouriensis, 334
perpallidus, 338 Pagophilus, 176
pulcher, 339 Parascalops, 20
ramona, 340 breweri, 20
ruidosae, 337 Pecari, 511, 512
torridus, 338 angulatus, 511, 512
tularensis, 339 sonoriensis, 512
Orcinus, 568 Pedomys, 431
orca, 568 Pekania, 96
597
Perognathus, 298, 299 pericalles, 303

alticola, 306 perniger, 301
amplus, 304 phasma, 309
angustirostris, 308 302
piperi,
apache, 302 308
pricei,
arenicola, 303 spinatus, 310
baileyi, 307 stephensi, 308
bangsi, 303 xanthonotus, 306
bimaculatus, 302 Peromyscus, 348, 350
bombycinus, 304 abietorum, 350
brevinasus, 303 albifrons, 358
calif omicus, 310 algidus, 352
callistus, 303 ammodytes, 360
caryi, 302 anastasse, 362
clarus, 305 anthonyi, 371
cleomophila, 302 argentatus, 351
columbianus, 306 aridulus, 360
copei, 300 arizonae, 361
dispar, 310 artemisiae, 352
eremicus, 308 attwateri, 364
fallax, 309 aureolus, 367
fasciatus, 299, 300 auripectus, 369
femoralis, 309 austerus, 353
flavescens, 300 bairdi, 354
flavus, 301 blandus, 355
formosus, 306 borealis, 351
fuliginosus, 302 boylii, 361, 363
gilvus, 301 californicus, 369
hispidus, 307 catalinse, 356
idahoensis, 305 dementis, 356
infraluteus, 300 crinitus, 368
inornatus, 304 eremicoides, 364
intermedius, 308 eremicus, 370
litus, 300 eremus, 351
longimembris, 303 floridanus, 368
lordi, 306 fraterculus, 370
magruderensis, 306 fusus, 360
maximus, 307 gambeli, 353
merriami, 301 gilberti, 366
mesembrinus, 307 gossypinus, 361
mollipilosus, 305 gracilis, 350
neglectus, 304 hoUisteri, 353
nevadensis, 304 hylaeus, 352
ochrus, 310 insignis, 370
olivaceus, 305 keeni, 352
pacificus, 304 laceianus, 364
pallidus, 309 leucocephalus, 358
panamintinus, 303 leucopus, 358
paradoxus, 307 macrorhinus, 352
parvus, 305 maniculatus, 348, 350
penicillatus, 308 martirensis, 366
598
—
Peromyscus Continued phocsena, 571

megacephalus, 361 Phocidas, 173
nasutus, 366 Phocoenoides, 571
nebrascensis, 354 dalli, 571
niveiventris, 357 Phyllostomidas, 47
noveboracensis, 358 Phyllostominag, 48
nubiterras, 351 Physeter, 563
nuttalli, 367 catodon, 563
ochraceus, 360 Physeteridae, 563
oreas, 351 Pika, 472
osgoodi, 354 Pinnipedia, 170
pallescens, 355 Pipistrellus, 57
palmarius, 362 hesperus, 58
phasma, 357 merriami, 58
polionotus, 357 obscurus, 57
prevostensis, 356 subflavus, 57
rhoadsi, 357 Pitymys, 437
rowleyi, 364 auricularis, 438
rubidus, 353 nemoralis, 438
rufinus, 354 parvulus, 438
saturatus, 353 pinetorum, 437
sitkensis, 356 scalopsoides, 438
sonoriensis, 355 Podomys, 368
Stephens!, 369 Procyon, 86, 88
texanus, 361 californicus, 88
tornillo, 360 elucus, 88
truei, 365 fuscipes, 88
Phenacomys, 405, 406 lotor, 86, 88
albipes, 408 pacifica, 88
celsus, 406 pallidus, 88
constablei, 406 psora, 88
crassus, 408 Procyonidae, 86
intermedius, 405, 406 Prodelphinus, 565
latimanus, 408 euphrosyne, 566
levis, 406 plagiodon, 565
longicaudus, 408 Pseudorca, 569
mackenzii, 408 crassidens, 570
olympicus, 406 Pteromyinas, 260
orophilus, 406 Pusa, 176
preblei, 406 Putorius, 105
silvicola, 409
ungava, 407 Rangifer, 527, 528
Phoca, 174, 175 arcticus, 530
concolor, 174, 175 caboti, 531
fasciata, 175 caribou, 528, 529
geronimensis, 175 dawsoni, 532
groenlandica, 176 excelsifrons, 531
hispida, 176 fortidens, 530
pribilofensis, 175 granti, 531
richardii, 175 groenlandicus, 53]
Phocaena, 570 mcguirei, 530
599
—
Rangifer Continued campi, 14

montanus, 530 dilatus, 17
ogilvyensis, 531 grinnelli, 17
osborni, 530 latimanus, 14
pearyi, 531 minusculus, 17
stonei, 531 monoensis, 17
sylvestris, 529 occultus, 16
terraenova?, 529 orarius, 14
Rattus, 450, 451 schefferi, 14
alexandriniis, 451 sericatus, 17
norvegicus, 450, 451 townsendi, 13, 14
rattus, 451 Sciuridge, 183
Reithrodontomys, 340, 342 wSciurinas,183
albescens, 342 Sciurus, 244, 251, 252
arizonensis, 346 aberti, 255
aurantius, 347 albolimbatus, 248
aztecus, 344 anthonyi, 254
catalinae, 346 apache, 258
dychei, 344 arizonensis, 258
griseus, 343 avicennia, 257
halicoetes, 346 baileyi, 246
humulis, 341, 342 bryanti, 258
impiger, 342 carolinensis, 251, 252
intermedius, 346 cascadensis, 248
longicaudus, 344 dakotensis, 245
megalotis, 344 douglasii, 247
merriami, 342 extimus, 252
montanus, 343 ferreus, 256
nigrescens, 344 fremonti, 249
raviventris, 346 fuliginosus, 252
Rhachianectes, 560 grahamensis, 249
glaucus, 560 griseus, 254
Rhachianectida}, 559 gymnicus, 245
Rodentia, 183 huachuca, 259
hudsonicus, 244, 245
Scalopinae, 8 hypophasus, 253
Scalopus, 8, II kaibabensis, 256
aereus, 12 leucotis, 253
anastasas, 11 limitis, 258
aquaticus, 8, 11 loquax, 245
australis, 11 lychnuchus, 249
caryi, 12 mimus, 256
howelli, II minnesota, 245
intermedius, 12 mogollonensis, 249
machrinoides, 11 mollipilosus, 248
machrinus, 11 neglectus, 257
parvus, II neomexicanus, 249
pulcher, 12 niger, 257
texanus, 12 nigripes, 254
Scapanus, 12, 14 petulans, 247
alpinus, 17 picatus, 247
600
—
Sciurns •Continued montereyensis, 31

richardsoni, 246 monticola, 28
rufiventer, 258 myops, 32
streatori, 247 nanus, 32
texianus, 258 neomexicanus, 29
vancouverensis, 247 nevadensis, 29
ventorum, 246 obscurus, 29
Sibbaldus, 562 omatus, 31
musculus, 562 pacificus, 33
Sigmodon, 375, 377 parvidens, 30
arizonae, 378 permiliensis, 30
berlandieri, 377 personatus, 25, 26
cienegas, 378 preblei, 27
confinis, 378 prevostensis, 30
eremicus, 378 pribilofensis, 33
exsputuSj 377 richardsoni, 27
goldmani, 378 setosus, 28
hispidus, 376, 377 shastensis, 32
jacksoni, 378 shumaginensis, 30
littoralis, 377 sinuosus, 32
minimus, 378 sonomse, 33
ochrognathus, 378 sphagnicola, 27
spadicipygus, 377 streatori, 26
texianus, 377 tenellus, 32
vSirenia, 554 trigonirostris, 32
Sorex, 25, 26 trowbridgii, 31
alascensis, 30 tundrensis, 27
amoenus, 29 umbrosus, 28
arcticus, 26 vagrans, 28
bairdi, 31 vancouverensis, 29
califomicus, 32 yaquinag, 33
dispar, 27 vSoricidae, 25
dobsoni, 28 Soricinae, 25
elassodon, 30 Spilogale, 120, 122
fisheri, 33 ambarvalis, 122
fontinalis, 27 ambigua, 124
fumeus, 27 arizonae, 124
gaspensis, 27 gracilis, 123
glacialis, 30 indianola, 123
halicoetes, 28 interrupta, 123
haydeni, 26 latifrons, 124
humboldtensis, 31 leucoparia, 123
isolatus, 29 olympica, 124
leucogenys, 34 phenax, 124
longicauda, 30 putorius, 120, 122
longirostris, 33 saxatilis, 123
lyelli, 32 tenuis, 123
malitiosus, 29 vSteno, 566
mariposae, 31 rostratus, 566
merriami, 33 Sylvilagus, 493, 495
miscix, 26 alacer, 497
601
Sylvilagus — Continued mexicana, 72

aquaticus, 506 Talpidas, 8
arizonse, 502 Tamias, 240, 242
auduboni, 500 fisheri, 243
bachmani, 503 griseus, 242
bailey i, 503 lysteri, 242
cedrophilus, 502 striatus, 241, 242
chapmani, 497 venustus, 242
cinerascens, 504 Tamiasciurus, 244, 245
cognatus, 497 Tapeti, 504
floridanus, 494, 495 Taxidea, 134, 135
granger!, 498 berlandieri, 135
hitchensi, 495 neglecta, 135
holzneri, 497 phippsi, 135
littoralis, 506 taxus, 134, 135
mallurus, 495 Taxidiinae, 134
mearnsi, 495 Tayassuidas, 511
minor, 502 Teonoma, 388
neomexicanus, 503 Thalarctos, 84, 85
nuttalli, 498 eogroenlandicus, 86
paludicola, 505 labradorensis, 86
palustris, 505 maritimus, 84, 86
parvulus, 503 ungavensis, 86
pinetis, 499 Thomomys, 269, 270
robustus, 497 agrestis, 281
sanctidiegi, 500 albatus, 274
similis, 496 alpinus, 273
transitionalis, 498 273
altivallis,
ubericolor, 504 amargosee, 275
vallicola, 500 angularis, 272
warreni, 502 apache, 276
Synaptomys, 394, 395 aureus, 276
andersoni, 396 awahnee, 273
borealis, 396 baileyi, 279
chapmani, 396 bottae, 269, 270
cooperi, 394, 395 bridgeri, 282
dalli, 396 bulbivorus, 288
fatuus, 395 bullatus, 280
gossii, 395 cabezonas, 276
helaletes, 395 canus, 275
innuitus, 397 caryi, 280
medioximus, 397 cervinus, 277
sphagnicola, 397 chrysonotus, 274
stonei, 395 clusius, 280
truei, 396 columbianus, 281
wrangeli, 396 desertorum, 278
diaboli, 271
Tadarida, 71 douglasii, 283
cynocephala, 71, 72 fisheri,283
depressa, 72 fossor, 282
femorosacca, 72 fulvus, 277
602
—
Thomomys Continued townsendii, 287

fuscus, 286 uinta, 282
helleri, 286 yelmensis, 284
hesperus, 287 Thos, 150
idahoensis, 281 Trichechidae, 554
infrapallidus, 272 Trichechus, 554
intermedius, 278 latirostris, 554
jacinteus, 274 Tursiops, 567
lachuguilla, 279 gillii, 567
laticeps, 270 nuuanu, 567
latirostris, 277 truncatus, 567
leucodon, 271
limosus, 284 Urocyon, 143, 144
loringi, 286 borealis, 144
mazama, 285 calif ornicus, 145
meamsi, 278 catalinae, 146
melanops, 284 cinereoargenteus, 143, 144
melanotis, 276 clementae, 145
mewa, 271 floridanus, 144
minor, 271 inyoensis, 145
mohavensis, 275 littoralis, 145
monticola, 285 ocythous, 144
myops, 287 santacruzae, 145
nasicus, 286 scotti, 145
navus, 271 sequoiensis, 145
nebulosus, 280 texensis, 145
neglectus, 273 townsendi, 145
nevadensis, 287 Uropsilinas, 23
niger, 285 Ursidae, 74
nigricans, 272 Ursus, 77, 78
ocius, 281 alascensis, 82
operarius, 276 alexandras, 82
oregonus, 283 bairdi, 80
pallescens, 272 bisonophagus, 81
pascalis, 272 dalli, 83
perditus, 279 gyas, 83
perpallidus, 274 horriaeus, 81
perpes, 275 horribilis," 77, 80
pervagus, 277 inopinatus, 84
pinetorum, 285 kenaiensis, 83
pryori, 281 kidderi, 82
puertce, 273 magister, 81
pygmaeus, 282 middendorffi, 83
quadratus, 283 nortoni, 81
rufescens, 280 phaeonyx, 82
saturatus, 286 richardsoni, 82
shawi, 284 shirasi, 83
tacomensis, 284 sitkensis, 83
talpoides, 279
texensis, 278 Vespertilionidae, 49
toltecus, 278 VespertilionincB, 50
603
Vulpes, 137, 139 Zapodinae, 458

abietorum, 140 Zapus, 458, 459
alascensis, 140 alascensis, 460
arsipus, 141 alleni, 461
bangsi, 140 americanus, 460
cascadensis, 139 australis, 462
deletrix, 140 campestris, 460
fulva, 137, 139 eureka, 462
harrimani, 140 hudsonius, 458, 459
hebes, 141 ladas, 459
kenaiensis, 140 luteus, 462
macrotis, 141 major, 461
macroura, 139 minor, 461
mutica, 141 montanus, 462
necator, 139 nevadensis, 461
neomexicana, 142 orarius, 462
regalis, 140 oregonus, 461
rubricosa, 140 pacificus, 462
velox, 141 princeps, 460
saltator, 462
Xenarthra, 550 tenellus, 460
trinotatus, 461
Zalophus, 170, 171 Ziphiidag, 572
calif omianus, 170, [71 Ziphius, 573
Zapodidce, 458 cavirostris, 573
604
INDEX OF COMMON NAMES
Alaska Fur Seal, 172 Fringed, 55
Antelope, 533 Georgian, 57
American, 533 Great Northern, 61
Pronghorn, 533 High Sierra, 51
Antelopes, 537 Hoary, 61
Antelope Ground Squirrel, HoUister, 55
215 House, 58
Arctic Fox, 147, 148 Interior Long-legged, 52
Continental, 148 Jackass, 65
Greenland, 148 Keen, 54
Labrador, 148 Little California, 52
Arctic Hares, 480 Little Gray, 54
Armadillo, 550 Little Long-eared, 54
Texas, 550 Little Pallid, 52
Texas Nine-banded, 550 Lump-nosed, 66
Merriam, 58
Badgers, 92 Miller, 53
Badger, American, 134 Northwestern Long-legged,
California, 135 52
Colorado, 136 Oak Foliage, 52
Common, 134, 135 Pacific Pale, 69
Mexican, 135 Pale, 68, 69
Texas, 135 Pocketed, 72
Western, 135 Rafinesque, 64
Baiomys, Dark, 348 Red, 60
Taylor, 347 Say, 54
Baleen Whales, 558 Silver-haired, 56
Bassarisk, 90 Silvery-haired, 56
Bats, 46 Spotted, 65
Bat, Big-eared, 66, 68 Tejon, 53
Black, 56 Texas Yellow, 64
Bonnet, 73 Western, 58
Brown, 58 White-edged, 51
California Leaf-nosed, 48 Yellow, 63
California Mastiff, 73 Yellowstone, 51
Canyon, 58 Yuma, 53
Cave, 54 Bats, American Leaf -nosed, 47
Desert Pallid, 68, 69 Beaked Whales, 572
Evening, 64 Bears, 74: see also Black
Florida Y.ellow, 64 Bear, Brown Bear, Griz-
Free-tailed, 71 zly, Polar Bear
605
Bear, American, 74 Eastern, 539

Barren Ground, 82 Musk, 540
Blue, 76 Plains, 539
Cinnamon, 74 Wood, 539
Emmons, 76 Black Bear, 74
Everglade, 76 American, 538
Glacier, 76 Common, 74
Grizzly, 77 Dall Island, 76
Ice, 84 Florida, 76
Kadiak, 83 Kenai, 76
Kenai Giant, 83 Louisiana, 76
Kermode, 76 New Mexico, 76
Kidder, 82 Olympic, 76
Patriarchal, 84 Queen Charlotte, 76
Peninsula Giant, 83 Blackcat, 97
Water, 84 Blackfish, 570
White, 84 North Pacific, 570
Bearded Seal, 177 Scammon, 570
Beavers, 327 Short-finned, 570
Beavers, Mountain: see Black Sheep, 545
Mountain Beaver Black-tailed Deer, 520
Beaver, 328 Blaireau, 134
Admiralty, 329 Blarina, Short-tailed, 42
American, 328 Bobcat, 165, 166
Broad-tailed, 330 Bailey, 168
Canadian, 329 Barred, 168
Carolina, 330 California, 167
Cook Inlet, 330 Desert, 167
Golden, 331 Florida, 167
Missouri River, 331 Mountain, 167
Newfoundland, 331 Nova Scotia, 168
Pacific, 329 Pallid Barred, 168
Rio Grande, 330 Plateau, 168
vSea,118 Texas, 167
Shasta, 331 Bowhead, 559
Texas, 331 Brown Bat, 58
Vancouver Island, 329 Alaska Little, 51
Woods, 331 Alberta Little, 51
Beluga, 571 Bailey Little, 54
Bighorn, 542 Big, 58, 59
Audubon, 544 Colorado, 60
Desert, 545 Common, 59
Gaillard, 544 Florida Big, 60
Kenai, 545 La GruUa, 53
Lava Beds, 544 Least, 51
Nelson, 545 Little, 50
Rocky Mountain, 542, 544 Northern Little, 51
Sierra Nevada, 544 Northwestern Little, 52
Stone, 545 Pale, 60
Texas, 544 Prairie Little, 53
Bison, American, 538 San Antonio Little, 54
606
1
Brown Bear, 74 Cascades, 248

Alaska, 83 Douglas, 247
Dall, 83 Fremont, 249
Shiras, 83 Mount Graham, 249
Sitka, 83 Redwood, 248
Buffalo, American, 538 Taos, 249
Musk, 540 White Mountains, 249
Chipmunk, 225
Cachelot, 563 Allen, 230
Cacomistles, 90 Alpine, 237
Cacomistle, Nevada, 91 Antelope, 215
Texan, 91 Arizona, 236
Western, 91 Bad Lands, 235
Cacomitl, 90 Bangs, 242
Cacomitl Cat, 163 Beaver Mountain, 227
California Sea-lion, 170 Big, 197
Canyon Mouse, 368 Bighorn, 235
Buff -breasted, 369 Big Striped, 197
Stephens, 369 Bitterroot Valley, 233
Carcajou, iii Buff-bellied, 235
Caribou, 528 Gary, 235
Barren Ground, 530 Cliff, 232
Dawson, 532 Coeur d'Alene, 227
Dwarf, 532 Colorado, 227, 236
Ellesmere Land, 531 Columbian, 233
Grant, 531 Common, 241
Greenland, 531 Cooper, 229
Labrador Barren Ground, Coulee, 235
531 Eastern, 241, 242
McGuire, 530 Fisher, 243
Mountain, 530 Gila, 232
Newfoundland, 529 Golden, 197, 199
Ogilvie Barren Ground, 53 Golden-mantled, 197
Osborn, 530 Gray, 228
Peary, 531 Gray Eastern, 242
Point Barrow, 531 Gray-footed, 228
Queen Charlotte Island, Gray-headed, 237
532 Gray-necked, 228
Richardson, 529 Gray-tailed, 233
Rocky Mountain, 530 Hollister, 235
vStone's, 531 Hopi, 227
Woodland, 529 Inyo, 229
Cat, Oregon Ring-tailed, 90 Kern Basin, 232
Ring-tailed, 90 Lake Superior, 237
Cats, 157 Least, 234
Cattle, 537 Long-eared, 231
Cetaceans, Toothed, 563 Los Banos Antelope, 217
Chamois, American, 547 Lyster, 242
Chickaree, 244 Marin, 231
Arizona, 249 Merriam, 231
California, 248 Mono, 233
607
Chipmunk — Continued Least, 378

Mt. Baker, 234 Northern, 377
Mt. Pinos, 228 Pine Key, 377
Northern, 236 Texas, 377
Ochraceous, 233 Western, 378
Olympic, 234 Yellow-jawed, 378
Painted, 234 Cottontail, 494
Pale, 235 Arizona, 502
Palmer, 229 Black Hills, 498
Panamint, 234 Cedar Belt, 502
Redwood, 230 Colorado, 502
Rufous- tailed, 227 Davis Mountains, 497
Sacramento Mountain, 236 Eastern, 495
Sagebrush, 234 Florida, 495
San Bernardino, 228 Kitchens, 495
Santa Cruz, 231 Holzner, 497
Say, 227 Little, 502
Sequoia, 228 Manzano Mountain, 497
Siskiyou, 230 Meams, 495
Sonoma, 230 Mexican Desert, 503
Tahoe, 229 Nebraska, 496
Timber-line, 236 New England, 498
Townsend, 229 New Mexico, 503
Uinta, 227 Oklahoma, 497
Utah Cliff, 232 Rocky Mountain, 499
Wasatch, 235 Sacramento Valley, 500
Western, 225 San Diego, 500
White-tailed, 215 San Joaquin, 500
Civet Cat, 90 Texas, 497
Colishe, 143 Washington, 498
Collared Lemming, 402 Wyoming, 500
Common Seal, 174 Cottontails, Eastern, 495
Conies, 470 Rocky Mountain, 498
Cony, Rocky Mountain, 470 Western, 500
Coon, 86 Cougars, 158
Coon-cat, 90 Cougar, 157
Cotton Mouse, 361 Adirondack, 158
Anastasia Island, 362 California, 159
Florida, 362 Florida, 158
Rhoads, 361 Louisiana, 159
Sea Island, 362 Mexican, 159
Cotton Rat, 376 Northwestern, 159
Arizona, 378 Rocky Mountain, 159
Berlandier, 377 Yuma, 159
Cape Sable, 377 Cowfish, 567
Cienega, 378 Coyotes, 137
Eastern, 377 Coyote, 149
Florida, 377 Desert, 152
Gila, 378 Great Basin, 151
Goldman, 378 Meams, 151
Jackson, 378 Nebraska, 151
608
—
Coyote Continued Digger, 193, 201

Northern, 151 Dolphins, 565
Prairie, 151 Dolphin, Andrews Bottle-
San Joaquin Valley, 152 nosed, 567
Say, 151 Bottlenosed, 567
Small-toothed, 151 Common, 566
Texas, 151 Lx)ng-beaked, 566
North Atlantic, 566
Deer, 513 Pacific Bottlenosed, 567
Arizona White- tailed, 519 Pacific Striped, 568
Black-tailed, 520, 522 Spotted, 565
Brush, 522 Striped, 568
Burro, 522 White-beaked, 568
California Mule, 522 White-sided, 568
Coast, 523 Dugongs, 554
Columbian Black-tailed,
523 Eared Seals, 170
Crook Black-tailed, 522 Earless Seals, 173
Desert Mule, 522 _
Edentates, American, 550
Douglas White- tailed, 519 Elephant Seal, 179
Florida White-tailed, 519 Elk, 514
Key, 518 American, 514
Louisiana White-tailed, Dwarf, 515
518 Ermine, 99
Mexican Mule, 522 Eyra, 163
Minnesota Black-tailed,
522 Ferret, 99
Mule, 522 Black-footed, 105
Northern White-tailed, 518 Finback, Common, 561
Oregon White- tailed, 519 Finback Whales, 560
Plains White- tailed, 518 Fisher, 97
Rocky Mountain Mule, Pacific, 97
522 Flickertail, 204
Sitka Black-tailed, 523 Flying Squirrel, 260
Sonora White-tailed, 519 Alaska Coast, 265
Southern Black-tailed, 523 Bachman, 265
Texan White- tailed, 518 Bangs, 264
Virginia, 517, 518 Broad-footed, 265
Western White- tailed, 518 California Coast, 267
White-tailed, 517 Cascade, 265
Deer Mouse, 348 Florida, 261
Arctic, 351 Hudson Bay, 262
Black-eared, 354 Klamath, 267
Boyle, 363 Labrador, 264
Nebraska, 354 Meams, 264
Desert Mouse, 370 Okanagan, 265
Anthony, 371 Olympic, 265
Apache, 371 Pale, 264
Palm, 369 Richardson, 264
San Diego, 370 San Bernardino, 267
Western, 370 Sawtooth Mountains, 266
609
— 1
Flying Squirrel Continued Gopher, 20

Sierra, 267 Gray, 213
Small Eastern, 261 Picket-pin, 205
Southeastern, 261 Pocket, see Pocket Gopher
Texas, 262 Striped, 211
Yellow-bellied, 267 Grampus, 569
Yukon, 264 Grasshopper Mouse, 333
Foxes, 137 Arizona, 357
Fox, Arctic, 147 Audubon, 334
Bering Island, 148 Brown, 336
Black, 97, 137 Coues, 338
Blue, 147 Dark-browed, 336
Cross, 137 Desert, 339
Gray, 143 Great Plains, 334
Hall Island, 148 Long-footed, 337
Kit, 141 Long-tailed, 339
New Mexico Desert, 142 Maximilian, 334
Polar, 147 New Mexico, 337
Prairie, 141 Owens Lake, 339
Pribilof, 148 Pallid, 338
Red, see Red Fox Ramona, 340
San Clemente Island, 145 San Joaquin, 339
San Miguel Island, 145 Short-eared, 338
Santa Catalina Island, 146 Short-tailed, 336
Santa Cruz Island, 145 Sooty, 337
Silver, 137 Tulare, 339
Silver-gray, 137 Gray Fox, 143
Tree, 143 Arizona, 145
White, 147 California, 145
Fox Squirrels, 257 Eastern, 144
Fox Squirrel, Bachman, 258 Florida, 144
Bryant, 258 Northern, 144
Mangrove, 257 Redwood, 145
Northern, 257 Townsend, 145
Southern, 257 Wisconsin, 144
Texas, 258 Gray Squirrel, 193, 251
Western, 258 Anthony, 254
Free- tailed Bat, 71 Arizona, 258
Le Conte, 72 Bayou, 252
Mexican, 72 Black-footed, 254
Tacubaya, 72 California,
254
Fur Seals, 170 Columbia, 254
Fur Seal, Alaska, 172 Eastern, 251, 252
Northern, 172 Everglade, 252
Huachuca, 259
Glutton, III Louisiana, 252
Greenland Hare, 487 Merriam, 253
Greenland Seal, 176 Northern, 253
Goats, 537 see also Mountain
: Southern, 252
Goats Western, 254
Goat, White, 547 Gray Whale, 560
610
Grizzly, Alaska, 82 Little Gray, 206

Alexander, 82 Lost River, 206
Baird, 80 Mackenzie, 203
Big Plains, 80 Malheur Soft-haired, 206
Black Hills, 81 Missouri Thirteen-striped,
New Mexico, 81 212
Southern California, 81 Mohave, 210
Tanana, 82 Montana Mantled, 198
Yakutat, 81 Nelson, 216
Ground-hog, 183, 452 Nevada Mantled, 198
Ground Squirrel, 193, 201 Northern Spotted, 209
Alberta, 202 Nushagak, 204
Allen Striped, 212 Oregon, 205
Antelope, 215, 216 Owyhee, 207
Apache, 208 Padre Island, 208
Arizona Round-tailed, 210 Pale Striped, 212
Beechey, 195 Palm Springs Round-tailed,
B elding, 205 210
Bennett, 203 Park, 209
Black Hills, 212 Payette, 207
Brown, 209 Richardson, 204
California, 195 Rio Grand, 211
Cape Lisburne, 204 Sagebrush, 206
Carson Valley, 207 San Bernardino Mantled,
Gary Mantled, 198 200
Catalina Island, 195 Say, 197, 198
Charleston Mountain, 198 Say Mantled, 198
Chestnut-tailed, 199 Shumagin Island, 204
Cinnamon, 216 Sierra Mantled, 199
Columbian, 202 Small Striped, 212
Death Valley Round-tailed, Soft-haired, 206
210 Stephens, 207
Desert, 209 Stone, 204
Dolans Spring, 211 Texas Striped, 213
Douglas, 195 Thirteen-lined, 211
Dusky Spotted, 209 Thirteen-striped, 211
El Paso, 216 Townsend, 205
El Paso Spotted, 207 Uinta, 205
Fisher, 195 Washington Mantled, 199
Franklin, 213 Wortman Mantled, 198
Gilded, 199 Wyoming, 205
Golden-mantled, 197 Yakima, 207
Gray Soft-haired, 206 Yukon, 203
Harris, 217 Yuma Round-tailed, 210
HoUister Mantled, 199
Hollister Striped, 212 Hackee, 241
Hudson Bay, 203 Hair Seals, 173
Inyo Mantled, 200 Harbor Seal, 174
Kennicott, 209 Hares, 470, 477
Kodiak Island, 203 Hare, Alaska Peninsula, 487
Large Spotted, 208 Alaska Tundra, 486
611
—
Hare Continued California, 488

Alaska Varying, 481 Colorado Desert, 490
American Arctic, 485 Gaillard, 488
Greenland, 487 Gray-sided, 488
Hudson Bay Arctic, 486 Great Plains, 492
Little Chief, 470 Merriam, 492
Mackenzie Varying, 481 San Diego, 490
Minnesota Varying, 481 San Joaquin Valley, 490
Newfoundland, 486 Sierra White-tailed, 485
Nova Scotia Varying, 480 Texas, 492
Snowshoe, 478 Washington, 489
Varying, 478, 480 Western White-tailed, 484
Virginia Varying, 480 White-tailed, 484
Washington Varying, 481 Jack Rabbits, White-sided,
Hares, Arctic, 480, 485 488
Varying, 480 White-tailed, 480, 483
Harp Seal, 176 Jaguar, 161
Harvest Mouse, 341 Jaguarundi, 163
Aztec, 344 Javeline, 511
California, 344 Jumping Mice, 458
Catalina, 346 Jumping Mouse, 458
Chiricahua, 346 Alaska, 460
Desert, 344 Allen, 461
Dusky, 344 Blue Mountains, 461
Eastern, 342 Carolinian, 460
Golden, 347 Coast, 462
Little Gray, 343 Hudson Bay, 459
Merriam, 342 Humboldt, 462
Pallid, 342 Jackson, 464
Petaluma Marsh, 346 Kamloops, 460
Prairie, 344 Labrador, 459
Red-bellied, 346 Mountain, 462
Rio Grande, 346 Nevada, 461
San Luis Valley, 343 Northern Woodland, 463
Small-eared, 342 Northwest, 461
Hedgehog, 465 Pacific, 462
Herring Hog, 571 Prairie, 460
Hog-nosed Skunk, 132 Roan Mountain, 463
Arizona, 133 Rocky Mountain, 460
Meams, 133 Saskatchewan, 461
Swamp, 133 Southern, 462
Texas, 133 Stickeen, 463
Hooded Seal, 178 Warner Mountain, 461
Humpback Whales, 560 Woodland, 463
Yellow, 462
Introduced Rats and Mice,
448 Kalan, 118
Kangaroo Mouse, 325, 458
Jack Rabbit, Antelope, 488 Kangaroo Rat, 312
Arizona, 490 Allied, 321
Black-tailed, 488 Bailey, 320
612
—
Kangaroo Rat Continued Long-eared, 141

Berkeley, 317 San Joaquin, 141
Big Desert, 316
Cabezon, 314 Lemmings, 394
Carrizo Plain, 318 Lemming, 398
Chapman, 322 Alaskan Collared, 403
Columbian, 322 American, 400
Dulzura, 314 Back, 398, 400
Elephant-eared, 315 Black-footed, 400
El Paso, 320 Big, 394
Fresno, 321 Brown, 398
Gambel, 314 Collared, 402
Giant, 319 Greenland Collared, 404
Heermann, 317 Labrador Collared, 403
Jolon, 318 Osgood, 400
Large, 320 Pied, 402
Lesser California, 317 Point Barrow, 400
Light-footed, 316 Richardson Collared, 403
Loring, 320 Snow, 402
Merced, 317 St. Lawrence Island, 404
Merriam, 320 Tawny, 400
Mohave, 319 Unalaska Collared, 403
Mono, 322 Yukon, 400
Morro Bay, 318 Lemming Mouse, 394, 405
Mountain, 322 Chapman, 396
Northern California, 316 Cooper, 395
Ord, 322 Dall, 396
Padre Island, 323 Goss, 395
Painted Desert, 322 Labrador, 397
Pale-faced, 319 Preble, 397
Panamint, 319 Richardson, 396
Preble, 316 Stone, 395
Richardson, 323 Ungava, 397
Salinas, 318 Virginia, 395
San Bernardino, 321 Wrangell, 396
Santa Cruz, 315 Leopard, American, 161
Santa Lucia Mountain, 315 Leopard-cat, 162
Sennett, 323 Leopard Seal, 174
Short-nosed, 321 Lion, Mountain, 157
Small-faced, 315 Little Chief Hare, 470
Stephens, 319 Loafer, 153
Tipton, 321 Lobo, 153
Tulare, 317 Loup-cervier, 165
Utah, 322 Lump-nosed Bat, 66
Walker Basin, 315 Le Conte, 67
Wyoming, 323 Pallid, 67
Killer, Atlantic, 568 Rafinesque, 67
False, 570 Townsend, 67
Pacific, 569 Lynx, 165
Kit Foxes, 141 Arctic, 166
Kit Fqx, Desert, 141 , Bay, 166
613
—
Lynx Continued Aztec, 419

Canada, i66 Badland, 418
Newfoundland, i66 Baird, 433
Barren Ground, 419
Manatees, 554 Beach, 420
Manatee, American, 554 Big-footed, 431
Florida, 554 Block Island, 418
Marmot, 183 Cantankerous, 428
Black Hills, 189 Cape Mendocino, 423
Campion, 189 Cary, 421
Cascade Hoary, 190 Cascade, 431
Dusky, 189 Coast, 429
Engleharit, 188 Coronation Island, 429
Glacier, 190 Creeping, 433
Golden-mantled, 188 Drummond, 419
Montague Island, 190 Dutcher, 422
Montana Hoary, 190 Dwarf, 421
Nevada, 188 Eastern, 417
Northern Hoary, 189 Forest, 418
Okanagan Hoary, 190 Graham Mountain, 429
Olympic, 190 Gray, 421
Pallid Yellow-bellied, il Gray-tailed, 422
Park, 189 Guadalupe, 429
Robson Hoary, 190 Gull Island, 420
Southern Sierra, 188 Hall Island, 426
Vancouver Island, 190 Hayden, 432
Warren, 189 Innuit, 426
White Mountains, 188 Interior, 425
Yellow-bellied, 188 Intermediate, 437
Marsupials, 3 Kadiak, 425
Martens, 92 Kern River, 424
Marten, 93 Large Labrador, 419
Alaska, 94 Least, 432
American, 93, 94 Little Labrador, 418
British Columbia, 94 Long-tailed, 427
Hudson Bay, 94 Louisiana, 432
Kenai, 95 Macfarlane, 425
Newfoundland, 95 Mariposa, 423
North Labrador, 95 Mogollon Mountain, 430
Pacific, 95 Mohave River, 424
Pennant, 97 Montague Island, 426
Pine, 93 Mountain, 429
Queen Charlotte, 96 Nevada, 422
Rocky Mountain, 95 Newfoundland, 420
Sierra, 95 Olympic, 429
Mazama, 547 Ord, 417
Meadow Mouse, 415 Oregon, 432
Admiralty Island, 419 Owens Valley, 424
Albermarle, 417 Pallid, 437
Amargosa, 424 Peale, 420
Arizona, 421 Pennsylvania, 417
614
— 1
Meadow Mouse Continued Moles, 8

Pigmy, 437 Mole, Anastasia Island, 1
Popof Island, 426 Arkansas, 12
Prairie, 431 Brewer, 20
Rainier, 433 California, 14
Rice, 373 Coast, 14
Richardson, 431 Common, 8
Sagebrush, 436 Coppery, 12
San Bernardino, 428 Eastern, ^,11
Sanhedrin, 423 Florida, n
Sawatch, 418 Grinnell, 17
Short-tailed, 436 Hairy-tailed, 20
Sierra Nevada, 428 Howell, II
Sitka, 426 Klamath, 17
Southern California, 424 Little, II
St. Matthew Island, 427 Missouri Valley, ir
Tillamook, 428 Mono, 17
Townsend, 427 Mount Mazama, 17
Tule, 423 Northern Plains, 12
Tundra, 425 Oregon, 14
Unalaska, 426 Prairie, n
Utah, 421 San Joaquin, 14
Vancouver, 427 Scheffer, 14
West-central Calif ornia, 42^ Shrew, 42
Yakutat, 425 Sierra, 17
Yellow-cheeked, 430 Southern California, 16
Yolla Bohy, 433 Southern Plains, 12
Yosemite, 420 Star-nosed, 21, 23
Mice, Introduced, 448 Texas, 12
Jumping, 458 Townsend, 14
Native, 332 Western, 13
Old World, 448 Yosemite, 17
Pocket, 297 Mole, Shrew sec Shrew Mole
:
Tree, 405 Moose, 524

Minks, 92 Alaska, 526
Mink, 107 American, 526
Alaska, no Common, 526
American, 107 Lydekker,- 526
Big, no Shiras, 526
California Lowland, no Morse, 181
Common, 109 JVIountain Beavers, 452
Eastern, 109 Mountain Beaver, Brown,
Florida, 109 454
Hudson Bay, 109 Humboldt, 456
Island, no Mount Rainier, 454
Kenai, no Northern, 454
Little Black, 109 Olympic, 454
Mississippi Valley, 109 Pacific, 454
Pacific, 109 Point Arena, 456
Southern, 109 Point Reyes, 456
Western, 109 Sierra, 456
615
Mountain Boomer, 452 White-footed see White-

:
Mountain Goat, 547 footed Mouse

Alaska, 548 White-fronted Beach, 358
Cascade, 548 White-headed Beach, 358
Columbian, 548 Wood : see Wood Mouse
Montana, 548 Mule Deer, 522
Rocky, 547 Musk-hog, 511
Mountain Lion, 157 Muskox, 540
Mountain Sheep, 542 Barren Ground, 541
Mouse, Acadian, 418 Hudson Bay, 541
Attwater Brush, 364 White-faced, 541
Beach, 357 Muskrat, 442
Bean, 418 Alaska Peninsula, 444
Bog, 394 Arizona, 444
California Brush, 363 Common, 443
Canyon : see Can}' on Great Plains, 446
Mouse Hudson Bay, 444
Chihuahua Plains, 355 Labrador, 444
Common, 448 Louisiana, 446
Cotton: see Cotton Mouse Nevada, 444
Deer: see Deer Mouse Newfoundland, 446
Desert: see Desert Mouse Northwestern, 444
Domestic, 448 Oregon Coast, 444
Field, 415 Pecos, 446
Forest Tree, 409 Rocky Mountain, 444
Grasshopper: ^ê Grasshop- Round-tailed, 439
per Mouse Virginia, 443
Harvest: see Harvest Musquash, 442
Mouse
House, 448 Narwhal, 572
Jumping : see Jum.ping Native Rats and Mice, 332
Mouse New York Pipistrelle, 57
Kangaroo, 458 Northern Fur Seal, 172
Lemming, 394 Northern Sea-lion, 172
Little Upland, 432
Meadow: see Meadow Ocelot, 162
Mouse Old World Rats and Mice,
Northern Golden, 367 448
Old-fidd, 357 Opossums, 4
Parasitic, 369 Opossum, Common, 4
Pine: see Pine Mouse Eastern, 4
Red-backed -.seeded backed Florida, 5
Mouse Mouse, 7
Red Tree, 408 Murine, 7
Scorpion, 333 Texas, 5
Southern Golden, 367 Virginia, 4, 5
Southern Parasitic, 370 Otters, 92, 114
Texas Spiny, 297 Otter, California, 116
Tomillo, 360 Canada, 115
Vesper, 348 Carolina, 116
Western Upland, 432 Common, 114
616
— 7
Otter Continued Dusky, 475

Florida, ii6 Figgins, 472
Interior, 115 Gray-headed, 475
Island, 117 Hollister, 472
Land, 114 Jemez Mountains, 474
Newfoundland, 117 Lava-bed, 475
Northern Sea, 119 Lemhi, 472
Pacific, 116 Mount Whitney, 476
Queen Charlotte, 1 1 New Mexico, 474
River, 114 Parawan Mountains, 476
Sea, 118 Rocky Mountain, 470, 472
Sonora, 117 Ruby Mountains, 472
Southern Sea, 119 Shuswap, 474
Taylor, 475
Painter, 157 Uinta, 472
Panther, 157 White Mountains, 476
Peccaries, 511 Wyoming, 472
Peccary, 511 Yosemite, 475
Collared, 511 Pine Mouse, 437
Sonoran, 512 Blue Grass, 438
Texas, 512 Florida, 438
Yaqui, 512 Mole, 438
Pekan, 97 Woodland, 438
Petit Chien, 218 Pipistrelle, 57
Phenacomys, 405 New York, 57
Alberta, 406 Pocket Gophers, 269
Coast, 408 Pocket Gopher, Alabama, 293
Labrador, 408 Alberta, 286
Mackenzie, 408 Amargosa, 275
Olympic, 406 Attwater, 295
Rocky Mountain, 406 Bighorn, 280
Sierran, 406 Black, 285
Ungava, 407 Black-headed, 284
Pig, Wild, 511 Black Hills, 280
Pigmy Shrew, 39 Brown, 286
Cook Inlet, 40 Cabezon, 276
Hoy, 39 California, 270
Intermediate, 40 California Mountain, 285
Keewatin, 40 Camas, 288
Thompson, 39 Carrizo Plain, 272
Virginia, 40 Chestnut-faced, 296
Washington, 40 Coeur d'Alene, 286
Pikas, 470 Colorado, 282
Pika, Alberta, 472 Columbia, 281
Ashnola, 474 Coues, 280
Bangs, 474 Cumberland Island, 294
Beaver Mountains, 476 Dakota, 280
Blue Mountains, 475 Dalles, 283
Cascade, 474 Davis Mountain, 278
Collared, 475 Deschutes, 286
Colorado, 474 Desert, 278
617
—
Pocket Gopher Continued Sand, 295

Diablo, 271 San Gabriel, 273
Digger Pine, 271 San Jacinto, 274
Douglas, 283 San Luis, 281
Eastern, 292 Saskatchewan, 279
Espanola, 277 Shaw, 294
Fawn-colored, 277 Sierra Blanca, 279
Fisher, 283 Southern, 293
Florida, 293 Stephens, 272
Fort Bridger, 282 St. Mary's, 293
Fresno, 272 Tacoma, 284
Fulvous, 277 Texas, 295
Georgia, 293 Toltec, 278
Grapeland, 272 Townsend, 287
Gray, 275 Uinta, 282
Green River, 281 West Coast, 287
Heller, 286 Western, 269
Humboldt Bay, 270 White, 274
Idaho, 281 White Mountains, 276
Jicarilla, 276 White Salmon, 284
Lachuguilla, 276 White-throated, 295
La Puerta, 273 White-toothed, 271
Little Gray, 279 Yellow, 276, 294
Little-headed, 287 Yellow-backed, 274
Lone Pine, 275 Yellow Pine, 285
Los Banos, 272 Yelm, 284
Louisiana, 294 Yosemite, 273
Mazama, 285 Pocket Mouse, 299
Meams, 278 Allen, 310
Mendocino, 271 Apache, 302
Mesquite Plains, 295 Bailey, 307
Mississippi Valley, 294 Baird, 301
Mohave River, 275 Bangs, 303
Mountain-top, 278 Beautiful, 303
Mt. Whitney, 273 Buff-bellied, 300
Nevada, 287 California, 310
Nueces, 296 California Desert, 308
Oregon, 283 Cheyenne, 302
Owens Lake, 276 Colorado, 302
Padre Island, 296 Columbian, 306
Painted Desert, 277 Cope, 300
Palm Springs, 274 Coues, 305
Phoenix, 277 Desert, 308
Prairie, 280 Dusky, 301
Pryor Mountain, 281 Dutcher, 301
Pygmy, 282 Eastern Desert, 308
Rainier, 284 Gila, 309
Red, 271 Great Basin, 305
Sagebrush, 280 Great California, 309
San Bernardino Mountain, Hispid, 307
273 Idaho, 305
618
—
Pocket Mouse Continued Porcupine, 465

Intermediate, 308 Alaska, 467
Kansas, 307 Arizona, 467
Kern, 310 Canada, 467
Long-tailed, 306 Dusky, 467
Loring, 304 Labrador, 467
Maximilian, 300 Nebraska Yellow-haired,
McKittrick, 304 467
Merriam, 301 Yellow-haired, 467
Mount Magruder, 306 Porcupines, American, 464
Nevada, 304 Porpoises, 557, 565
Northwest, 306 Porpoise, Bay, 571
Oklahoma, 307 Ball, 571
Oregon, 305 Harbor, 571
Pacific, 304 Pacific Right Whale, 568
Pallid, 309 Striped, 568
Pallid Short-eared, 309 Pottfish, 563
Panamint, 303 Prairie-dog, 218
Plains, 300 Arizona, 222
Plateau, 302 Black-tailed, 220
Price, 308 Gunnison, 222
San Felipe, 303 Utah, 222
San Joaquin, 304 White-tailed, 222
Short-eared, California, 309 Zuni, 223
Short-nosed, 303 Prairie Wolf, 149
Sooty, 302 Pronghorn, 533
Spiny, 310 American, 533, 536
Stephens, 308 Mexican, 536
Sweetwater, 300 Puma, 157
Tejon, 303
Uinta, 305 Quill-pig, 465
Walker Pass, 306
White- eared, 306
Yavapai, 302 Rabbits, 470, 477
Yuma, 304 Rabbit, British Columbia
Pocket Mice, 297 Snowshoe, 481
Pocket Rats, 297 California Brush, 503, 504
Pocket Rat, 312 Carolina Marsh, 505
California Dwarf, 326 Cascade Mountain Snow-
Dwarf, 325 shoe, 482
Mono Dwarf, 326 Coast Swamp, 506
Nevada Dwarf, 325 Cottontail: see Cottontail
Oregon Dwarf, 326 Florida Marsh, 505
Pale Dwarf, 326 Idaho Pigmy, 508
Pigmy, 325 jack: see Jack Rabbit
Texas Spiny, 297 Marsh, 505
Polar Bear, 84, 86 Oregon Snowshoe, 482
East Greenland, 86 Redwood Brush, 504
Labrador, 86 Rocky Mountain Snow-
Ungava, 86 shoe, 482
Polecat, 120 Snowshoe, 478
619
Rabbit — Continued Native, 332

Swamp, 506 Old World, 448
Turtle Mountain Snow- Red and Gray Cat, 163
shoe, 481 Red-backed Mouse, 410
White, 480 Athabasca, 411
Wood, 494 British Columbia, 411
Rabbits, Pacific Coast Brush, California, 413
503 Carolina, 412
Swamp, 506 Cascade, 412
Raccoons, 86 Dark-colored, 414
Raccoon, Brown-footed, 88 Dawson, 414
California, 88 Dusky, 413
Desert, 88 Gale, 411
Eastern, 88 Gapper, 411
Florida, 88 Idaho, 412
Pacific, 88 Island, 414
Pallid, 88 Labrador, 413
San Diego, 88 Loring, 411
Southwestern, 88 Mogollon, 412
Texas, 88 Northwestern, 414
Rat, Alexandrine, 451 Olympic, 413
Bam, 450 Orca, 414
Black, 451 Rhoads, 411
Brown, 450 Short-tailed, 412
Brush, 379 Ungava, 412
Camas, 288 Western, 413
Central Florida Rice, 374 White Mountain, 411
Columbia Sand, 283 Wrangell Island, 414
Common, 450 Red Bat, 60
Cotton: see Cotton Rat Northern, 61
Domestic, 450 Seminole, 61
Everglade Water, 440 Western, 61
Everglades Rice, 374 Red Fox, 137
Florida Water, 439, 440 Alaska, 140
Gray, 450 British Columbia, 140
House, 450 Cascade, 139
Kangaroo : see Kangaroo Eastern, 139
Rat High Sierra, 139
Mountain, 379 Kenia, 140
Norway, 450, 451 Kodiak, 1 40
Pack, 379 Labrador, 140
Pocket: see Pocket Rat Long-tailed, 139
Rice, 373 Newfoundland, 140
Rio Grande Rice, 375 Northern Plains, 140
Roof, 451 Nova Scotia, 140
Swamp Rice, 373 Red Squirrel, 244
Texas Rice, 374 Alaska, 247
Trade, 379 Bailey, 246
Wharf, 450 Bangs, 245
Wood: see Wood Rat Black Hills, 245
Rats, Introduced, 448 Kaibab, 256
620
—
Red Squirrel Continued Harbor, 174

Kupreanof, 247 Harp, 176
Minnesota, 245 Hooded, 178
Northern, 245 Leopard, 174
Richardson, 246 Northern Elephant, 179
Southern, 245 Pacific Bearded, 178
Streator, 247 Pacific Harbor, 175
Vancouver, 247 Pribilof Harbor, 175
Wind River JMountains, Ribbon, 175
246 Ringed, 176
Reindeer, 528 Saddle-back, 176
Ribbon Seal, 175 Seals, Eared, 170
Rice Rat, 373 Earless, 173
Ringed Seal, 176 Fur, 170
Ringtail, 90 Hair, 174
Rock-rabbit, Rocky Moun- Sea Otters, 118
tain, 470 Sewellel, 452
Rock Squirrel, 193, 217 Sheep, 537
Colorado, 194 Bighorn: see Bighorn
Couch, 194 Black, 545
Texas, 194 Ball, 545
Utah, 194 Fannin, 545
Walnut, 195 Mountain, 542
Rodents, 183 Rocky Mountain, 542
Rorquals, 560 White, 545
Rorqual, Least, 561 Short-tailed Shrew, 42
Rudolphi's, 561 Carolina, 43
Dismal Swamp, 44
Sable, American, 93 Everglade, 43
Hudson Bay, 93 Florida, 41
Saddle-back Seal, 176 Large, 43
Salamander, 293 Little, 41
Sea-bear, 172 Martha's Vineyard, 43
Seacows, 554 Nantucket, 43
Seacow, Florida, 554 Rio Grande, 42
Sea-elephant, 179 Sylvan, 44
Sea-horse, 181 vShowtl, 452
Sea-lions, 170, 171 Shrews, 25
Sea-lion, California, 170 Shrew, Adorned, 31
Northern, 172 Arctic, 26
Steller, 172 Arizona Mountain, 28
Seals, 170 Ashland, 32
Seal, Atlantic Bearded, 177 Baird, 31
Atlantic Harbor, 175 Big-tailed, 27
Bearded, 177 Black and White, 35
California Harbor, 175 California, 32
Common, 174 Carolina, 33
Elephant, 179 Cascade, 30
Gray, 178 Crawford, 45
Greenland, 176 Dobson, 28
Hair, 174 Dusky, 29
621
— 1
Shrew Continued Yakutat, 30

Dwarf, 32 Yaquina, 33
Fisher, 33 Yosemite, 31
Gaspe, 27 Shrew Mole, 23
Glacier Bay, 30 Gibbs, 24
Gray, 45 Hyacinthine, 24
Hayden, 26 Southern, 24
Humboldt, 31 Siffleur, 183
Inyo, 32 Silvertip, 77, 80
Labrador, 26 Skunks, 92, 120
Least, 39 Skunk, Arizona, 128
Little, 41 Big, 125
Long- tailed, 30 Broad-nosed, 129
Marsh, 35 California, 128
Maryland, 27 Canada, 127
Masked, 26 Cascade, 129
Merriam, 33 Common, 125
Mole, 42 Eastern, 127
Montere}^ 31 Florida, 127
Mount Lyell, 32 Great Basin, 129
Nevada, 29 Hog-nosed: see Hog-nosed
New Mexico, 29 Skunk
Northern Smoky, 28 Illinois, 128
Olympic, 28 Large Striped, 125
Pacific, 33 Line-backed, 125
Pigmy: see Pigmy Shrew Little Striped, 120
Preble, 27 Long-tailed Texas, 128
Prevost Island, 30 Louisiana, 128
Pribilof, 33 Northern Hooded, 129
Queen Charlotte, 30 Northern Plains, 127
Richardson, 27 Puget Sound, 128
Salt Marsh, 28 Southern California, 129
San Bernardino, 30 Spotted see Spotted Skunk
:
Shasta, 32 White-backed, 132, 133

Short-tailed: see Short- Skunk-bear, 11
tailed Shrew Skunks, Hooded, 129
Shumagin Islands, 30 Snowshoe Rabbits: see
SierraNevada, 29 Rabbits
Smoky, 27 Spermophile, 201
Sonoma, 33 Sperm Whales, 563
Streator, 26 Spotted Skunk, 120
Suisun, 32 Alleghenian, 122
Trowbridge, 31 Arizona, 124
Tundra, 27 California, 124
Vancouver, 29 Canyon, 123
Wandering, 28 Chihuahua, 124
Warren Island, 29 Florida, 122
Water: see Water Shrew Great Basin, 123
Wetmore, 29 Gulf, 123
White-chinned, 34 Little, 120
White-mountain, 32 Oregon, 124
622
—
Spotted Skunk Continued Walruses, 170, 180

Prairie, 123 Walrus, 181
Puget Sound, 124 Atlantic, 181
Rio Grande, 123 Pacific, 182
Rocky Mountain, 123 Wapiti, 514
Squirrels, 183 Anierican, 514, 515
Squirrel, Abert, 255 Arizona, 515
Antelope, 215 California, 515
Apache, 258 Manitoba, 515
Barking, 218 Olympic, 515
Burrowing, 218 Roosevelt, 515
Canyon, 193 Western, 515
Cat, 251 Water Shrew, 35
Chipping, 241 Alaska, 37
Flying see Flying Squirrel Bendire, 37
Fox: see Fox Squirrel Great Lakes, 37
Gray: see Gray Squirrel Nova Scotia, 36
Gray-tailed Antelope, 217 Olympic, 38
Ground: see Ground Palmer, 38
Squirrel Richardson, 36
Northern Tuft-eared, 256 Rocky Mountain, 37
Pine, 244 Unalaska, 37
Prairie, 218 White-chinned, 37
Red: see Red Squirrel Weasels, 92
Rock: see Rock Squirrel Weasel, 99
Spotted Sand, 207 Alabama, 103
Striped Prairie, 211 Alaskan Least, loi
Texas Antelope, 216 Alleghenian Least, loi
Tuft-eared, 256 Arctic, 102
Squirrels, Tree, 244 Bangs, loi
Tuft-eared, 255 Black Hills, 104
Stag, American, 514 Bonaparte, 100
Stoat, 99 Bridled, 105
Sulphur-bottom Whale, 562 California, 104
Swift, 141 Cascade Mountain, 104
Dwarf, loi
Tiger, 161 Florida, 103
Tiger-cat, 162 Greenland, 102
Toothed Cetaceans, 563 Juneau, 100
Kodiak Island, 102
Varying Hare, 478, 480 Least, 01
1
Virginia Deer, 517, 518 Little, loi

Voles, 394 Long-tailed, 103
Vole, 415 Minnesota, 104
Alaska Mountain, 427 Missouri, 104
Field, 415 Mountain, 104
Gray Rock, 430 Mountain Long-tailed, 104
Meadow, 415 Newfoundland, 100
Red-backed, 410 New Mexico Bridled, 105
Rock, 430 New York, 102
Toklat River, 427 Norihern Long-tailed, 103
623
11 1
Weasel —
Continued
'
Baird, 354
Oregon, 105 Boreal, 351
Plains Least, 102 Boyle, 363
Polar, 102 Buffy, 360
Puget Sound, 10 Catalina, 356
Queen Charlotte, 102 Cloudland, 351
Redwoods, 105 Dulzura, 370
Richardson, 100 Durango, 364
Sierra Least, 10 Florida, 368
Small-eared, 10 Gambel, 353
Southern, 103 Gilbert, 366
Tundra, 102 Grand Manan, 351
Washington, 103 Grindstone Island, 351
Whales, 557 Hollister, 353
Whale, Baird, 572 Labrador, 350
Blainville, 573 Lacey, 364
Blue, 562 LeConte, 350
Bottlenose, 574 Long-nosed, 366
Ca'ing, 570 Marthas Vineyard Island,
California Gray, 560 360
Common Finback, 561 Martir, 366
Cuvier, 573 Monomoy Island, 360
Gervais, 573 Northern, 358
Gray, 559, 560 Nova Scotia, 350
Greenland Right, 559 Osgood, 354
Humpback, 562 Pallid, 355
Little Piked, 561 Prevost Island, 356
North Atlantic Right, 558 Puget Sound, 353
Pacific Right, 559 Queen Charlotte Island,
Pigmy Sperm, 565 352
Pike, 561 Redwood, 353
Pilot, 570 Rhoads, 357
Pollack, 561 Rowley, 364
Sibbald, 562 Sagebrush, 352
Sowerby, 572 San Clemente Island, 356
Sperm, 563 Saturna Island, 353
Stejneger, 573 vSitka, 356
Sulphur-bottom, 562 Skeena, 352
True's Beaked, 573 Sonoran, 355
Whales, Baleen, 558 Tawny, 354
Beaked, 572 Texas, 361
Finback, 560 True. 365
Humpback, 560 Washington, 351
Pigmy Sperm, 564 Yukon, 352
Whalebone, 558 White Goat, 547
White-footed Mouse, 348, 358 White Sheep, 545
Alaska, 352 White-tail, 517
Anastasia Island, 357 White-tailed Deer, 517
Arizona, 361 White-tailed Jack Rabbits,
Attwater, 364 480
Badlands, 360 Wildcat, 165, 166
624
Wishtonwish, 218
U. S BioLoaiCAi SLRViiy
Fourth Provisionai
ZONE MAP OP NORTH AMERICA
10 -
C. Hart Merruim, Vernon Bailey. E. W Nelson
and E A Preble
nedottedpariso/ the Austral Zoneseasto/ tilt Oreat Plaim indicate the extent of the h^ __
nonsoftheeeZones.knoum respectively as the Alleghanian,CaroUnian,a7idAU3trariparianFaurias
Theundottedpartt of thesan
mtZonesarehnoumastheTVansition, Upper Sfmoran. and Lower Sonoran.
7 20

Anthony 1928 Field Book of North American Mammals

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\

Each in One Volume

nDescriptions of every mammal krwwn

l£)ith 32 coloured plates and 175 p

Made in the United States of America

almost nothing, aside from their physical appearance. In

short of our requirements. We have discovered so many new

From the foregoing it can be seen that there is a real and

Scope of this Field Book

There are 1,445 species and subspecies treated in the follow-

superficial characters given in this field book are not exclusively

Standard List of Species and Subspecies

Descriptions of new speciesand subspecies are continually

Sources of Data Used

Wherever possible, I have compiled the data for the synopses

the accumulated collections of all the large museums. The

book, and it may be stated that in many cases I have quoted

mammal known to science has a scientific name,

not be too long, and if there is something catchy about it so

And now, having called attention to the difficulties of

specialists is by no means inexact or unscientific, but is

Measurements are habitually made in millimeters by mam-

twenty-five millimeters equal one inch (this is approximate,

ments of mammals usually taken are total length, length of

The total length is the distance in a straight line from the

been very consistently gathered and is especially desirable in

The description of the color of amammal presents several

the animal in question was so variable that the looser term

To almost everyone who has written upon North American

other could not have undertaken this field book.

To my colleagues. Dr. Frank M. Chapman and Dr. Frank E.

I know that errors will be discovered in this book. I hope

they will not be many. I have striven to keep the number

drawn to such errors, not because I shall be pleased to learn

The earliest known mammal has been found as a fossil in the

^ Figures taken from Arthur Holmes, The Age of the Earth,

beyond our complete comprehension.

Our modem system of the classification of mammals is based

certain important characters. These large groups are in turn

the Genus Condylura (Moles with highly-developed, fleshy

accepted as one of the best checks against the naming of too

that this particular subspecies or variety served as the type

well worth the solving, with their mastery of flight, their

It will be noted that there are frequent references to "Life

mammals alive or, if a study specimen for the collector's

purpose than to forego the capture and surrender the victim

National Museum has published a short account, Directions

How TO Use This Field Book xvi

Flying Squirrels (Subfamily Pteromyinae) . .

Beavers (Family .....

Voles, Lemmings, Lemming Mice, Red-backed

Goats (Family Bovidas)

II. Opossum and Armadillo. {In color)

III. Bats, Shrews, and Moles. {In color)

IV. Color Phases of the Black Bear.

V. Grizzly Bear and Alaska Brown Bear

VII. Marten and Fisher. {In color) 96

VIII. Weasels. {In color) 104

IX. Mink and Otter. {In color) 108

X. Little Spotted Skunk, Hog-nosed