25 Module 3: Infrastructure Civil Engineering: Societal & Global Impact
Geothermal energy is defined as heat from within the earth that can be used for heating or to generate electricity.
Geothermal literally means 'earth's heat. there are extreme amounts of heat found at the core of the earth. In fact,
this intense heat is enough to melt rocks, resulting in magma. Magma that reaches the earth's surface through
cracks in the earth's crust is known as lava. However, magma does not always come to the surface of the earth. If
it stays trapped within the layers of the earth, it can heat underground water. It can form natural pools of heated
water, known as 'hot springs,' or gushing jets of hot water and steam that burst up from the earth's surface, known
as 'geysers.' If the heated water within the earth does not reach the earth's surface, it remains as underground
concentrations of hot water and steam, known as geothermal reservoirs. By tapping into geothermal reservoirs,
we can efficiently heat our homes and businesses and even generate electricity. Let's take a look at how this is
done.
Geothermal Power Plants
At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to pump steam or hot water to the
surface. You're most likely to find one of these power plants in an area that has a lot of hot springs, geysers, or
volcanic activity, because these are places where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.
1. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.
Geothermal Heat Pumps
Not all geothermal energy comes from power plants. Geothermal heat pumps can do all sorts of things from
heating and cooling homes to warming swimming pools. These systems transfer heat by pumping water or a
refrigerant (a special type of fluid) through pipes just below the Earth's surface, where the temperature is a constant
50 to 60°F.
During the winter, the water or refrigerant absorbs warmth from the Earth, and the pump brings this heat to the
building above. In the summer, some heat pumps can run in reverse and help cool buildings.
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26 Module 3: Infrastructure Civil Engineering: Societal & Global Impact
1. Water or a refrigerant moves through a loop of pipes.
2. When the weather is cold, the water or refrigerant heats up as it travels through the part of the loop that's buried
underground.
3. Once it gets back above ground, the warmed water or refrigerant transfers heat into the building.
4. The water or refrigerant cools down after its heat is transferred. It is pumped back underground where it heats
up once more, starting the process again.
5. On a hot day, the system can run in reverse. The water or refrigerant cools the building and then is pumped
underground where extra heat is transferred to the ground around the pipes.
Geothermal Energy Advantages
Environmentally friendly There are a few polluting aspects to harnessing geothermal energy, and
the carbon footprint of a geothermal power plant is seen as minimal. An average geothermal power
plant releases the equivalent of 122 kg CO2 for every megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity it generates
one-eighth of the CO2 emissions associated with typical coal power plants.
A renewable resource Geothermal reservoirs are naturally replenished. According to some
scientists, the energy in our geothermal reservoirs will last billions of years. While fossil fuels have an
expiry date, renewable sources like geothermal energy is not going to expire anytime soon.
Potential capacity Estimates for the potential of geothermal power plants vary between 0.035 to 2
TW.
A stable resource The power output of a geothermal plant can be accurately predicted. Not subject
to the same low-energy fluctuations as with solar or wind.
Great for Heating/Cooling There is significant growth in the number of homeowners utilizing
geothermal heating/cooling over the last couple of years.
No fuel required After installation, no mining or transportation activity is necessary.
Small land footprint Smallest land footprint of any major power source.
Stable resource Can provide base load or peak power.
Economic factors Cost-competitive in some areas.
Accessibility Some level of geothermal energy available most places.
Renewable Geot
exists. It is therefore renewable and can be used for roughly another 4-5 billion years.
Abundant Supply With geothermal energy, there are no shortages or other sorts of problems which
sometimes occur with other types of power.
Significant Savings for Home Owners There has been a tremendous increase in the number of
homeowners who want to utilize geothermal energy for heating and cooling purposes. The result is that
less energy is used for heating homes and offices which results in significant savings for home owners.
After the initial expense, a 30-60% savings on heating and 25-50% savings on cooling can cover that
cost within few years.
Geothermal Energy Disadvantages
Potential emissions migrate to the surface and
into the atmosphere. Such emissions tend to be higher near geothermal power plants, which are
associated with sulfur dioxide and silica emissions. Also, and the reservoirs can contain traces of toxic
heavy metals including mercury, arsenic and boron.
Surface Instability Construction of geothermal power plants can affect the stability of land.
In January 1997, the construction of a geothermal power plant in Switzerland triggered an earthquake
with a magnitude of 3.4 on the Richter scale.
High cost for electricity Total costs usually end up somewhere between $2 7 million for a 1 MW
geothermal power plant.
High up-front costs for heating and cooling systems While there is a predictable ROI, it will not
happen quickly.For an average sized home, installation of geothermal heat pumps costs between
$10,000 $20,000 which can pay off itself in another 5-10 years down the line
Location Specific Good geothermal reservoirs are hard to come by. Iceland and Philippines meet
nearly one-third of their electricity demand with geothermal energy. Prime sites are often far from
population centers.
Distribution costs If geothermal energy is transported long distances, cost can become prohibitive.
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Sustainability questions Some studies show that reservoirs can be depleted if the fluid is removed
faster than replaced. This is not an issue for residential geothermal heating and cooling, where
geothermal energy is being used differently than in geothermal power plants.
Cost of Powering the Pump Geothermal heat pumps need a power source.
May Run Out of Steam: You have to be incredibly careful when you are trying to check everything
that is related to geothermal energy. Mind must be taken to watch the heat and not to abuse it, because
if the heat is not taken care of properly, it can cause a meltdown or other issues where the energy is not
properly distributed or used.
Water Supply Provisioning
Water Quantity Estimation
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be designed
requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)
2. Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population
Water Consumption Rate
It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since there are many
variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of water demands, which a city may have, may
be broken into following classes:
Water Consumption for Various Purposes:
Types of Consumption Normal Range Average %
(lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrial and Commercial Demand 45-450 135 30
3 Public Uses including Fire Demand 20-90 45 10
4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25
Fire Fighting Demand:
The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water is required is very
large. The rate of fire demand is sometimes traeted as a function of population and is worked out from following
empirical formulae:
Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh
Population)
American Insurance Q (L/min)=4637 ÖP (1-0.01 ÖP) 41760
1
Association
2 Kuchling's Formula Q (L/min)=3182 ÖP 31800
3 Freeman's Formula Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/5+10) 35050
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Ministry of Urban Q (kilo liters/d)=100 ÖP for P>50000 31623
4 Development
Manual Formula
Factors affecting per capita demand:
a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller
towns as big cities have sewered houses.
b. Presence of industries.
c. Climatic conditions.
d. Habits of people and their economic status.
e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will
not resort to private wells, etc.
f. Pressure in the distribution system.
g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorised use of
water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
h. Cost of water.
i. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the basis of
meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
Fluctuations in Rate of Demand
Average Daily Per Capita Demand
= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations.
Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in summer,
increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and Festival days,
thus increasing demand on these days.
Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working
hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily
requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a
huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a
maximum rate of hourly supply.
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the
supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by
pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect
of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design
of pumps and service reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 x average daily demand/24
= 2.7 x annual average hourly demand
Design Periods & Population Forecast
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of the future . The future
period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the design period.
Design period is estimated based on the following:
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Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.
Expandability aspect.
Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial developments & migration-
immigration.
Available resources.
Performance of the system during initial period
5 Steps of Water Treatment
1. Coagulation/flocculation: Raw water from terminal reservoirs is drawn into mixing basins at our
treatment plants where we add alum, polymer and sometimes lime and carbon dioxide. This process
causes small particles to stick to one another, forming larger particles.
2. Sedimentation: Over time, the now-larger particles become heavy enough to settle to the bottom of a
basin from which sediment is removed.
3. Filtration: The water is then filtered through layers of fine, granulated materials either sand, or
sand and coal, depending on the treatment plant. As smaller, suspended particles are removed, turbidity
diminishes and clear water emerges.
4. Disinfection: To protect against any bacteria, viruses and other microbes that might remain,
disinfectant is added before the water flows into underground reservoirs throughout the distribution
system and into your home or business. Denver Water carefully monitors the amount of disinfectant
added to maintain quality of the water at the farthest reaches of the system. Fluoride occurs naturally in
our water but also is added to treated water.
5. Corrosion control: pH is maintained by adding alkaline substances to reduce corrosion in the
distribution system and the plumbing in your home or business.
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Codes & standards for infrastructural development
In order to achieve minimum standards of safety and welfare of residents of a building, the governing body
defines a set of guidelines to regulate the construction activities termed as building codes.
A building code is a set of rules to regulate the construction activities across the country. The building code
includes basic building requirements coupled with administrative regulations. As per definition, the building code
is a set of local laws relating to how buildings should be designed or built, especially keeping in mind the safe and
quality aspects of the final product.
In India, the National Building Code of India (NBC) was first published in 1970. The major provisions of the
Indian Building Code include -
Structural safety of buildings
Accessibility for senior citizens and differently-abled citizens
Fire and life safety
Earthquake resistant design
Use of alternative building techniques
Environmentally compatible construction techniques such as the use of solar power, rainwater
harvesting
Solid waste management
The main objective of framing building norms is to attain minimum standards of safety and general welfare and
health of the inhabitants of a building. The code contains guidelines for the overall structure of a building including
wall assemblies, size of rooms, foundations, floor plans, roof structures, staircase design and mechanical and
electrical assemblies such as plumbing, drainage system, lighting, and fixtures standards.
Since its first notification, the building norms in India have been regularly revised to suit the time. The building
code was first revised in 1983. In 1987, two more amendments were made. NBC was further amended in 2005.
In 2017, the Central Government tweaked the national building code once more to achieve the highest quality of
construction. As per the revised building norms, builders are now liable for the safety of the developed structures.
The code reads several clauses pertaining to the use of innovative building materials and technologies which
would help the government meet its housing target of over 20 million affordable homes under Pradhan Mantri
Awas Yojana (PMAY). Besides making developers liable for construction quality, the revised building code
specifies fire and life safety norms as well, especially for high rise residential buildings
Indian Standards Codes
SP 1:-1967 Comparison of Indian and Overseas Standards on Aluminum Alloy Castings
SP 2 : 1982 Comparison of Indian and Overseas Basic Sizes for Sheet and Wire
SP 4 : 1970 Metric Change in India
SP 6 : Part 1 : 1964 Handbook for structural engineers - Structural steel sections
SP 6 : Part 2 : 1962 Handbook For Structural Engineers - 2 : Steel Beams and Plate Girders
SP 6 : Part 3 : 1962 Handbook Structural Engineers - Part 3 : Steel Columns and Struts
SP 6: Part 4: 1969 ISI Handbook for Structural Engineers 4. Use of High Strength Friction Grip Bolts
SP 6 : Part 5 : 1980 Handbook for structural engineers - Cold-formed, light gauge steel structures
SP 6 : Part 6 : 1972 Handbook for structural engineers - Application of plastic theory in design of steel
structures
SP 6 : Part 7 : 1972 ISI Handbook for Structural Engineers - Part 7 : Simple Welded Girders
SP 7 : 1983 National building code of India 1983
SP 8 : 1970 ISI Handbook of Mathematical, Physical, Chemical and Engineering Tables
SP 10 : 1975 Nomograms for Thickness of Masonry Walls
SP 14 : 1976 Index to Steel Designations
SP 16 : 1980 Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS 456 : 1978
SP 17 : 1979 Index to IS 1956 Glossary of Terms Relating to Iron and Steel
SP 20 (S and T) : 1991 Handbook on Masonry Design and Construction
SP 21 (S and T) : 1983 Summaries of Indian Standards for Building Materials
SP 22 : 1982 Explanatory Handbook on Codes for Earthquake Engineering
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32 Module 3: Infrastructure Civil Engineering: Societal & Global Impact
SP 23 : 1982 Handbook on Concrete Mixes
SP 24 (S and T) : 1983 Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced
Concrete
SP 25 : 1984 Handbook on Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings
SP 27 : 1987 Handbook on method of measurement of buildings works
SP 30 : 1985 Special Publication - National Electrical Code
SP 32 : 1986 Handbook on Functional Requirements of Industrial Buildings (Lighting and Ventilation)
SP 33 : 1986 Handbook on Timber Engineering
SP 34 : 1987 Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing
SP 35 : 1987 Handbook on Water Supply and Drainage (with Special Emphasis on Plumbing)
SP 36 : Part 1 : 1987 Compendium of Indian standards on soil engineering: Part 1 Laboratory testing of soils for
civil engineering purposes
SP 36 : Part 2 : 1988 Compendium of Indian standards on soil engineering: Part 2 Field testing
SP 38 (S and T) : 1987 Handbook of Typified Designs for Structures with Steel Roof Trusses (with and without
Cranes) (Based on is Codes)
SP 40 (S and T) : 1987 Handbook on Structures with Steel Portal Frames
SP 41 (S and T) : 1987 Handbook on Functional Requirements of Buildings (Other than Industrial Buildings)
SP 43 (S and T) : 1987 Handbook on Structures with Reinforced Concrete Portal Frames (Without Cranes)
SP 46 : 2003 Engineering Drawing Practice for Schools and Colleges
SP 47 (S and T) : 1988 Handbook on Structures with Steel Lattice Portal Frames (Without Cranes)
SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993 Handbook on Pipes and Fittings for Drinking Water Supply
SP 58 : 1995 Handbook on Pumps for Drinking Water Supply
SP 60 : 1993 Guidelines for Competence, Acceptance and Accreditation of Laboratories, Inspection Bodies,
Certification Bodies and Systems of Certification
SP 62 (S and T) : 1997 Handbook on Building Construction Practices (Excluding Electrical Work)
SP 63 : 1997 Explanatory guide for the application of quality system standards (IS/ISO 9001, 9002 and 9003)
SP 64 (S & T) : 2001 Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than
Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures
SP 65 : 1998 Handbook on IS/ISO 9000 for Small Businesses
SP 67 : 2000 Guidelines for Managing the Economics of Quality
SP 68 : 2000 Guidance on Statistical Techniques for ISO 9001 : 1994
SP 69 : 2000 Banking and Related Financial Services - Information Security Guidelines
SP 70 : 2001 Handbook on Construction Safety Practices
SP 1650 : 1993 Standard colours for building and decorative finishes
IS 1 : 1968 Specification for the national flag of India (cotton khadi)
IS 2 : 1960 Rules for rounding off numerical values
IS 4 : 1963 Guide for Layout of Learned Periodicals
IS 5 : 1994 Colours for ready mixed paints and enamels
IS 12 : 1988 Guide for Drafting and Presentation of Indian Standard
IS 35 : 1975 Specification for zinc oxide for paints
IS 195 : 1991 Fireclay Mortar for Laying Fireclay Refractory Bricks - Specification
IS 269 : 1989 Specification for 33 grade ordinary Portland cement
IS 277 : 2003 Galvanized Steel Sheets, (Plain and Corrugated) - Specification
IS 278 : 1978 Specification for Galvanized Steel Barbed Wire for Fencing
IS 287 : 1993 Permissible Moisture Content for Timber Used for Different Purposes - Recommendations
IS 303 : 1989 Specification for plywood for general purposes
IS 383 : 1970 Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete
IS 399 : 1963 Classification of Commercial Timbers and Their Zonal Distribution
IS 401 : 2001 Preservation of Timber - Code of Practice
IS 427 : 1965 Specification for distemper, dry, colour as required
IS 428 : 2000 Washable Distemper - Specification
IS 432 : Part 1 : 1982 Specification for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars and hard-drawn steel wire for
concrete reinforcement: Part I Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars
IS 432 : Part 2 : 1982 Specification for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars and hard-drawn steel wire for
concrete reinforcement: Part 2 Hard-drawn steel wire
IS 455 : 1989 Specification for Portland slag cement
IS 456 : 2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice
IS 457 : 1957 Code of practice for general construction of plain and reinforced concrete for dams and other
massive structures
IS 459 : 1992 Indian Standard Corrugated and semi-corrugated asbestos cement sheets - Specification
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IS 516 : 1959 Method of test for`strength of concrete
IS 524 : 1983 Specification for Varnish, Finishing, Exterior, Air-drying
IS 525 : 1968 Specification for Varnish, Finishing, Exterior and General Purposes
IS 650 : 1991 Specification for standard sand for testing of cement
IS 654 : 1992 Specification for clay roofing tiles, Mangalore pattern
IS 655 : 1963 Specification for Metal Air Ducts
IS 656 : 1988 Specification for logs for plywood
IS 659 : 1964 Safety code for air conditioning
IS 707 : 1976 Glossary of terms applicable to timber technology and utilization
IS 712 : 1984 Specification for building limes
IS 732 : 1989 Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installations
IS 771 : Part 1 : 1979 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 1 General requirements
IS 771 : Part 2 : 1985 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 2 Specific requirements of
kitchen and laboratory sinks
IS 771 : Part 3 : Sec 1 : 1979 Specification for glazed fire clay sanitary appliances : Part 3 Specific requirements
of urinals, Section 1 Slab urinals
IS 771 : Part 3 : Sec 2 : 1985 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 3 Specific requirements
of urinals: Section 2 Stall urinals
IS 771 : Part 4 : 1979 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 4 Specific requirements of
postmortem slabs
IS 771 : Part V : 1979 Specification for Glazed Fire-clay Sanitary Appliances - Part V : Specific Requirements
of Shower Trays
IS 771 : Part VI : 1979 Specification for Glazed Fire-clay Sanitary Appliances - Part VI : Specific Requirements
of Bed Pan Sinks
IS 771 : Part 7 : 1981 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 7 Specific requirements of slop
sinks
IS 772 : 1973 Specification for general requirements for enamelled cast iron sanitary appliances
IS 783 : 1985 Code of practice for laying of concrete pipes
IS 784 : 2001 Prestressed Concrete Pipes (Including Fittings) - Specification
IS 786 : 1967 Conversion Factors and Conversion Tables
IS 787 : 1956 Guide for inter conversion of values from one system of units to another
IS 800 : 1984 Code of practice for general construction in steel
IS 801 : 1975 Code of practice for use of cold formed light gauge steel structural members in general building
construction
IS 806 : 1968 Code of practice for use of steel tubes in general building construction
IS 808 : 1989 Dimensions for Hot Rolled Steel Beam, Column, Channel and Angle Sections
IS 809 : 1992 Specification for rubber flooring materials for general purposes
IS 811 : 1987 Cold formed light gauge structural steel sections
IS 816 : 1969 Code of practice for use of metal arc welding for general construction in mild steel
IS 817 : 1966 Code of practice for training and testing of metal arc welders
IS 848 : 1974 Specification for Synthetic Resin Adhesives for Plywood (Phenolic and Aminoplastic)
IS 851 : 1978 Specification for synthetic resin adhesives for construction work (non-structural) in wood
IS 875 : Part 1 : 1987 Code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake)for buildings and structures Part
1 Dead loads - Unit weights of building material and stored materials (Incorporating IS:1911-1967)
IS 875 : Part 2 : 1987 Code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures:
Part 2 Imposed loads
IS 875 : Part 3 : 1987 Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures -
Part 3 : Wind Loads
IS 875 : Part 4 : 1987 Code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures Part
4 Snow loads
IS 875 : Part 5 : 1987 Code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures Part
5 Special loads and load combinations
IS 883 : 1994 Code of practice for design of structural timber in building
IS 962 : 1989 Code of practice for architectural and building drawings
IS 965 : 1963 Specification for equivalent metric units for scales dimensions and quantities in general
construction work
IS 1003 : Part 1 : 2003 Timber Paneled and Glazed Shutters - Specification
IS 1003 : Part 2 : 1994 Specification for timber panelled and glazed shutters: Part 2 Window ventilator shutters
IS 1038 : 1983 Specification for steel doors, windows and ventilators
IS 1064 : 1980 Specification for Paper Standard Sizes
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