3.

8 ASYMPTOTES
The study of asymptotes is yet another aspect of characterizing the shape of a curve. In this section we
study rectilinear asymptote. Roughly, an asymptote to an infinite curve is a straight line touching the
curve at an infinite distance from the origin.
In order that a curve to have asymptote it should extend up to infinity. Closed curves like circle and
ellipse will not have asymptotes. But every curve extending up to infinity need not have asymptotes
for example parabola y 2 = 4ax extends up to infinity, yet it has no asymptote.
We shall now formally define an asymptote.

Definition 3.7 A point P( x , y ) on an infinite curve is said to tend to infinity (i.e., P → ∞) along the
curve as either x or y or both tend to ∞ or −∞ as P moves along the curve.

Definition 3.8 Asymptote

A straight line at a finite distance from the origin is called an asymptote of an infinite curve, if when a
point P on the curve tends to ∞ along the curve, the perpendicular distance from P to the line tends to 0.
An asymptote parallel to the x-axis is called a horizontal asymptote and an asymptote parallel to
the y-axis is called a vertical asymptote.
An asymptote which is not parallel to either axis will be called an oblique asymptote.

Theorem 3.7 If y = mx + c (where m and c are finite) is an asymptote of an infinite curve, then
⎛y⎞
m = lim ⎜ ⎟ and c = lim( y − mx ),
x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠ x →∞

where P( x , y ) is any point on the infinite curve.

Proof Given P( x , y ) be any point on the infinite curve.

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Differential Calculus ■ 3.105

The perpendicular distance from P( x , y ) to the line y − mx − c = 0 (1)

y − mx − c
is d= (2)
1 + m2
If the line (1) is an asymptote to the curve, then d → 0 as P → ∞. i.e., as x → ∞(or −∞).
∴ lim( y − mx − c ) = 0 ⇒ lim( y − mx ) = c.
x →∞ x →∞

y 1
Also − m = ( y − mx )
x x
⎛y ⎞ 1 y
∴ lim ⎜ − m ⎟ = lim( y − mx ) lim = c × 0 = 0 ⇒ lim = m
x →∞⎝x ⎠ x →∞ x →∞ x x →∞ x
⎛y⎞
Hence, lim ⎜ ⎟ = m and c = lim( y − mx ).
⎝x⎠x →∞ x →∞

Conversely, if these two limits exists as P → ∞, then y − mx − c → 0 as x → ∞

and hence, d → 0 as P → ∞
∴ y = mx + c is an asymptote.

Note
(1) In the theorem m and c are finite. If m = 0, then the asymptote is parallel to x-axis.
(2) The above theorem gives a method of finding asymptotes not parallel to y-axis.
Working rule:
Given a curve f ( x , y ) = 0.
⎛y⎞
(i) Find lim ⎜ ⎟ , where y = f( x ).
x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠

For different branches of the curve, we may get different values for this limit.
(ii) If m is one such value, then find lim( y − mx ).
x →∞
Let this limit be c, then y = mx + c is an asymptote to the curve.
Note
The above method will give all asymptotes not parallel to y-axis.
To find asymptotes not parallel to x-axis, we start with x = my + d and x = f( y ),
⎛x⎞
where m = lim ⎜ ⎟ and d = lim( x − my ).
y →∞ ⎝ y ⎠ y →∞

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
3x
Find the asymptotes of the curve y 5 .
x 22
Solution.
3x
The given curve is y = .
x −2

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When x = 2, y → ∞. ∴ x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

2y
Also rewriting the equation as x interms of y, x = .
y −3
When y = 3, x → ∞. So, y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote.

Note: Determination of asymptotes parallel to the axes

Let x = k be an asymptote parallel to the y-axis. Then lim (x − k ) = 0 ⇒ lim x = k .
y →∞ y →∞

Find the values of x, for which y → ∞. For each value of x we get a vertical asymptote x = k .
Similarly, to find the asymptote parallel to the x-axis, find the values of y for which x → ∞.
For each value of y, we get a horizontal asymptote y = k .

EXAMPLE 2
3x 2
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the curve y 5 .
x 2 1 2 x 215
Solution.
3x 2 3x 2
The curve is y = ⇒
x 2 + 2 x − 15 ( x − 3)( x + 5)
When x = −5 and x = 3, y → ∞ ∴ x = −5 and x = 3 are vertical asymptotes.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎡ 3x 2 ⎤ ⎢ 3x 2 ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
Now lim y = lim ⎢ 2 ⎥ = xlim ⎢ ⎥ = lim ⎢ ⎥=3
x →∞ x + 2x − 15
2 ⎛ 2 15 ⎞ ⎥
x →∞ →∞ ⎢ →∞ 2 15
⎣ ⎦ + −
x
⎢1 + − ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ x x 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
x 1
⎣ x x2 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
∴ y = 3 is the horizontal asymptote.

EXAMPLE 3
x 2 29
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph of the function f ( x ) 5 .
x 2 1 3x
Solution.
Let the equation of the given curve be
x2 −9 ( x + 3)( x − 3) x − 3
y = = = .
x + 3x
2
x ( x + 3) x y

When x = 0, y → ∞. ∴ x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

⎛ x − 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
Now lim y = lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1. y=1
x →∞ x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠ x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠
∴ y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
0 x=3 x
Note
The graph has a break at x = 0 i.e., discontinuous at x = 0
and continuous for all other values of x.
The y-axis x = 0 and y = 1 are the asymptotes.

Fig. 3.24

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Differential Calculus ■ 3.107

EXAMPLE 4
2x
Find the asymptote of the curve y 5 1 5x .
x 23
Solution.
2x
The given curve is y = + 5x .
x −3
When x = 3, y → ∞ . ∴ x = 3 is a vertical asymptote.

⎛ ⎞
⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎜ 2 ⎟
lim y = lim ⎜ + 5 x ⎟ = lim ⎜ + 5 x ⎟ → ∞.
Now x →∞ x →∞ ⎝ x − 3 ⎠ x →∞ 3
⎜1− ⎟
⎝ x ⎠

∴ there is no horizontal asymptote.

To find the oblique asymptote

⎛y⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
We know m = lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ + 5⎟ = + 5 = 5
x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠ x →∞ ⎝ x − 3 ⎠ ∞
And
⎛ ⎞
⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
c = lim( y − mx ) = lim ⎜ + 5x − 5x ⎟ = lim ⎜ = lim = = 2.
x →∞ x →∞ ⎝ x − 3 ⎠ x →∞ ⎝ x − 3 ⎟⎠ x →∞ ⎜ 3 ⎟ 1− 0
⎜1− ⎟
⎝ x⎠
∴ y = 5x + 2 is an oblique asymyptote.

EXAMPLE 5
Find the asymptotes if any, of the curve y 5 xe 1/ x .
Solution.
The given curve is y = xe 1/ x .
1
When x → 0 + , → ∞. ∴ e1/ x → ∞ and xlim y = lim xe1/ x (0 ⋅ ∞ form)
→0+ x→0+
x
e1/ x ⎛∞ ⎞
= lim ⎜⎝ form⎟⎠
x → 0 + 1/ x ∞

e 1/ x (1/x 2 )
= lim , [ by L’hopital’s rule]
x →0+ 1
− 2
x
= lim e 1/ x = ∞.
x →0+

∴ as x → 0 +, y → ∞. Hence, x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

It can be seen that as x → ∞, y → ∞ and so, there is no horizontal asymptote.

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To find the oblique asymptote

We know
y xe1/ x
m = lim = lim = lim e1/ x = e 0 = 1.
x →∞ x x →∞ x x →∞
(∞ ⋅ 0 form)
and c = lim( y − mx ) = lim( xe1/ x − x ) = lim x (e 1/ x − 1)
x →∞ x →∞ x →∞

(e1/ x − 1) e1/ x ( −1/ x 2 ) ⎛0 ⎞

⇒ c = lim = lim = lim e1/x = e 0 = 1 ⎜⎝ form⎟⎠
x →∞ 1/ x x →∞ −1/ x 2 x →∞ 0
∴ y = x +1 is the oblique asymptote.

3.8.1 A General Method

Find the asymptotes of the rational algebraic curve f ( x , y ) 5 0
Consider the general algebraic curve of nth degree in x and y
a0 x n + a1x n −1 y + a2 x n − 2 y 2 + … + an −1xy n −1 + an y n
+b1x n −1 + b 2 x n − 2 y + … + b n y n −1 + c 2 x n − 2 + c3 x n − 3 y + … + c n y n − 2 + …
+( rn −1x + rn y ) + s n = 0 (1)
It can be rewritten as
⎡ y y2 ⎛y⎞
n −1
yn ⎤
x n ⎢a0 + a1 + a2 2 + … + an −1 ⎜ ⎟ + an n ⎥
⎢⎣ x x ⎝x⎠ x ⎥⎦
⎡ y y 2
y ⎤
n −1
⎡ y y n−2 ⎤
+ x n −1 ⎢b1 + b 2 + b3 2 + … + b n n −1 ⎥ + x n − 2 ⎢c 2 + c3 + … + c n n − 2 ⎥ + …
⎣ x x x ⎦ ⎣ x x ⎦
⎛ y⎞
+ x ⎜ rn −1 + rn ⎟ + s n = 0
⎝ x⎠
It is of the form
⎛y⎞ ⎛y⎞ ⎛y⎞ ⎛y⎞ ⎛y⎞
x n fn ⎜ ⎟ + x n −1fn −1 ⎜ ⎟ + x n − 2fn − 2 ⎜ ⎟ + … + x f1 ⎜ ⎟ + f0 ⎜ ⎟ = 0. (2)
⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠

⎛y⎞ y
Where fr ⎜ ⎟ is a polynomial of degree r in .
⎝x⎠ x
y c
To find the point of intersection of the line y = mx + c with (2), put = m + in (2).
x x
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞
∴ x n fn ⎜ m + ⎟ + x n −1fn −1 ⎜ m + ⎟ + x n − 2fn − 2 ⎜ m + ⎟ + … = 0.
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠
Expanding by Taylor’s theorem, we get
⎡ c 1 c2 ⎤
x n ⎢fn ( m ) + fn′ ( m ) + 2
fn′′( m ) + …⎥
⎣ x 2! x ⎦
⎡ c 1 c2 ⎤
+ x n −1 ⎢fn −1 ( m ) + fn′−1 ( m ) + 2
fn′′−1 ( m ) + …⎥
⎣ x 2 ! x ⎦

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⎡ c 1 c2 ⎤
+ x n − 2 ⎢fn − 2 ( m ) + fn′− 2 ( m ) + 2
fn′′− 2 ( m ) + …⎥ + … = 0.
⎣ x 2 ! x ⎦
⇒ x n fn ( m ) + x n −1 [cfn′ ( m ) + fn −1 ( m )]

⎡c2 ⎤
+ x n − 2 ⎢ fn′′ ( m ) + cfn′−1 ( m ) + fn − 2 ( m ) ⎥ + … = 0.
⎣ 2! ⎦
n
Dividing by x , we get
1
fn ( m ) + [cfn′ ( m ) + fn −1 ( m )]
x
1 ⎡c2 ⎤
+ 2 ⎢
fn′′ ( m ) + cfn′−1 ( m ) + fn − 2 ( m ) ⎥ + … = 0 (3)
x ⎣ 2! ⎦
Also from (2), we get
⎛y⎞ 1 ⎛y⎞ 1 ⎛y⎞
fn ⎜ ⎟ + fn −1 ⎜ ⎟ + 2 fn − 2 ⎜ ⎟ + … = 0. (4)
⎝x⎠ x ⎝x⎠ x ⎝x⎠

⎛y⎞
y = mx + c is an asymptote if lim ⎜ ⎟ = m .
x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠

Hence, from (4), we get fn ( m ) = 0. (5)

The real values of m are the slopes of the asymptotes.
Substituting (5) in (3), we get

1 1 ⎡c2 ⎤
[cfn′ ( m ) + fn −1 ( m )] + 2 ⎢ fn′′( m ) + cfn′−1 ( m ) + fn − 2 ( m ) ⎥ + … = 0.
x x ⎣ 2! ⎦
Multiplying by x and taking limit as x → ∞, we get
cfn′ ( m ) + fn −1 ( m ) = 0

fn −1 ( m )
⇒ c=− if fn′ ( m ) ≠ 0. (6)
fn′ ( m )
If m1, m2, …, mr are the real roots of fn ( m ) = 0, then the corresponding values of c from (6)
are c1, c2, …, cr
∴ the asymptotes are
y = m1x + c1 , y = m 2 x + c 2 , …, y = m r x + cr .

Note
(1) Suppose fn′ ( m ) = 0 and fn −1 ( m ) ≠ 0 then c is infinite and hence, there is no asymptote to the
curve, in this case.
(2) Suppose fn′ ( m ) = 0 and fn ( m ) = 0 then cfn ( m ) + fn −1 ( m ) = 0 is an identity.
If fn′ ( m ) = 0, then fn ( m ) = 0 has repeated roots.

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Let the repeated roots be m1, m1, then c is given by

c2
fn′′( m) + cfn′−1 ( m) + fn − 2 ( m) = 0 if fn′′( m ) ≠ 0.
2
If c1, c2 are the roots, then y = m1x + c1 and y = m1 x + c2 are parallel asymptotes.

Working Rule to find oblique asymptotes of algebraic rational function f(x, y) = 0

(1) Put x = 1, y = m in the highest degree terms.
That is in the nth degree terms and find fn ( m ).Solve fn ( m ) = 0 to find the real roots m1 , m 2 ,..., m r .
(2) Put x = 1, y = m in the next highest degree terms. That is in the (n − 1)th degree terms and get
fn −1 ( m ).

fn −1 ( m )
Then find c = − if fn′ ( m ) ≠ 0.
fn′ ( m )
Find c1, c2, …, cr corresponding to m1, m2, … mr.
Then the asymptotes are
y = m1 x + c1 , y = m2 x + c2 , ..., y = mr x + cr .

(3) If fn′ ( m ) = 0 and fn′−1 ( m ) = 0 and two roots of fn ( m ) = 0 are equal say m1, m1, then the values of
c are given by
c2
fn′′( m ) + cfn′−1 ( m ) + fn′− 2 ( m ) = 0 if fn′′( m ) ≠ 0.
2
If c1, c2 are the roots, then we get parallel asymptotes y = m1x + c1 and y = m1x + c 2 .

3.8.2 Asymptotes parallel to the coordinates axes

Let f(x, y) = 0 be the rational algebraic equation of the given curve.
(1) To find the asymptotes parallel to the x-axis, equate to zero the coefficients of highest power
of x.
The linear factors of this equation are the asymptotes parallel to the x-axis.
If the highest coefficient is constant or if the linear factors are imaginary, then there is no
horizontal asymptotes.
(2) To find the asymptotes parallel to the y-axis, equate to zero the coefficients of the highest power
of y.
The real linear factors of this equation are the asymptotes parallel to the y-axis.
If the highest coefficient is constant or if the linear factors are imaginary, then there is no vertical
asymptotes.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the asymptotes of the curve
x 3 1 2 x 2 y 2 xy 2 2 2 y 3 1 4 y 2 1 2 xy 1 y 215 0.

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Solution.
The given curve is
x 3 + 2x 2 y − xy 2 − 2 y 3 + 4 y 2 + 2xy + y − 1 = 0.
It is a third degree equation. The third degree terms are
x 3 + 2x 2 y − xy 2 − 2 y 3 .
Put x = 1, y = m, we get
f3 ( m ) = 1 + 2m − m 2 − 2m 3 (1)
Solve f3 ( m ) = 0 ⇒ 1 + 2m − m 2 − 2m 3 = 0

⇒ 1 + 2m − m 2 (1 − 2m ) = 0
1
⇒ (1 + 2m )(1 − m 2 ) = 0 ⇒
(1 + 2m )(1 − m )(1 + m ) = 0 ⇒ m = − , 1, − 1
2
Now put x =1, y = m in the second degree terms 4y2 + 2xy.
We get f2 ( m ) = 4 m 2 + 2m = 2m ( 2m + 1)
fn −1 ( m ) f (m )
Now c=− =− 2
fn′ ( m ) f3′( m )
But f3 ( m ) = 1 + 2m − m 2 − 2m 3

∴ f3′ ( m ) = 2 − 2m − 6 m 2 = −2(3m 2 + m − 1)
−2m ( 2m + 1) m ( 2m + 1)
∴ c= = .
−2(3m + m − 1) 3m 2 + m − 1
2

1
When m = − , c=0
2
( −1)( −2 + 1) 1
When m = −1 c= = = 1.
3( −1) 2 + ( −1) − 1 3 − 1 − 1
1( 2 ⋅1 + 1) 3
When m = 1 c= = =1
3 ⋅1 + 1 − 1 3
2

1
∴ the asymptotes are y = − x , y = − x + 1, y = x + 1.
2

Note Since the coefficient of x3 and y3 are constants, there is no asymptotes parallel to x-axis and
y-axis.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the asymptotes of the curve y 3 1 x 2 y 1 2 xy 2 2 y 1 1 5 0.

Solution.
The given curve is
y 3 + x 2 y + 2xy 2 − y + 1 = 0.
It is cubic equation.

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Since coefficient of y 3 is 1, a constant, there is no asymptotes parallel to the y-axis.

The highest degree term in x is x 2 and the coefficient of x 2 is y, equating the coefficient of x 2 to
zero we get y = 0 is the asymptote, which is the x−axis.

To find the other asymptotes

Put x = 1, y = m in the cubic terms y 3 + x 2 y + 2xy 2 .

∴ f3 ( m ) = m 3 + m + 2m 2

∴ f3′( m ) = 3m 2 + 4 m + 1.
There is no second degree terms.
f2 ( m )
∴ f2 ( m ) = 0 and c= − if f3′( m ) ≠ 0 (1)
f3′( m )
Solving f3 ( m ) = 0
⇒ m 3 + 2m 3 + m = 0

⇒ m ( m 2 + 2m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m ( m + 1) 2 = 0 ⇒ m = 0 or m = −1, − 1.
When m = 0, c = 0. ∴ the asymptote isy = 0.
But when m = −1, we can’t find c using (1), because f3′( −1) = 0.
∴ we can find c using
c2
f3′′( m ) + cf2′( m ) + f1 ( m ) = 0
2
Now f3 ″( m ) = 6 m + 4, f2 ′( m ) = 0, f1 ( m ) = −1

c2
∴ (6 m + 4 ) + 0 − m = 0 ⇒ c 2 (3m + 4) − m = 0
2
When m = −1, c 2 (3( −1) + 4) − 1 = 0 ⇒ c 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ c = ±1

∴ there are two parallel asymptotes

y = − x + 1 and y = − x − 1.
∴ the three asymptotes are
y = 0, y = − x + 1, y = − x − 1.

EXAMPLE 3
t2 t2 12
Find the asymptotes of the curve x 5 , y 5 .
11t 3 11t
Solution.
The equation of the curve is given in parametric form
t2 t2 + 2
x= and y = .
1+ t 3
1+ t

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Differential Calculus ■ 3.113

When t = −1, x → ∞ and y → ∞, we get an asymptote.

y
We know that y = mx + c is an asymptote if m = lim and c = lim( y − mx )
x →∞ x x →∞

where (x, y) is a point on the curve.

⎡t2 + 2⎤
⎛y⎞ ⎢ ⎥
We have m = lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎢ 1 +2 t ⎥ ({ as x → ∞, t → −1).
x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠ t →−1
⎢ t ⎥
⎢⎣ t 3 + 1 ⎥⎦

⎡ (t 2 + 2)(t 2 − t + 1) ⎤ (( −1) 2 + 2)[( −1) 2 − ( −1) + 1]

= lim ⎢ ⎥= = (1 + 2)(1 + 1 + 1) = 9.
t →−1
⎣ t2 ⎦ ( −1) 2
and c = lim( y − mx ) = lim( y − 9x )
x →∞ x →∞

⎡t 2 + 2 t2 ⎤
= lim ⎢ −9 ⎥
t →−1 1 + t 1+ t 3 ⎦
⎣
(t 2 + 2)(1 + t 3 ) − 9t 2 (t + 1)
= lim
t →−1 (1 + t )(1 + t 3 )
[(t 2 + 2)(t 2 − t + 1) − 9t 2 ](t + 1)
= lim
t →−1 (1 + t )(1 + t 3 )
(t 2 + 2)(t 2 − t + 1) − 9t 2
= lim
t →−1 (1 + t 3 )
t 4 − t 3 + t 2 + 2t 2 − 2t + 2 − 9t 2
= lim
t →−1 (1 + t 3 )
t 4 − t 3 + 6t 2 − 2t + 2 ⎡0 ⎤
= lim ⎢ 0 form ⎥
t →−1 1+ t 3 ⎣ ⎦
4t 3 − 3t 2 − 12t − 2
= lim
t →−1 3t 2 [by L’Hopital’s rule]

4( −1)3 − 3( −1) 2 − 12( −1) − 2 −4 − 3 + 12 − 2 12 − 9

= = = = 1.
3( −1) 2 3 3
∴ the asymptote is y = 9x + 1.

3.8.3 Another Method for Finding the Asymptotes

Let the equation of the curve be nth degree in x and y.
Suppose the nth degree curve can be put in the form (ax + by + c )Pn −1 + Fn −1 = 0, where Pn −1 and Fn −1
denote polynomials of degree ( n −1) in x and y.
Any line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 that cut the curve in two points at infinity is an asymptote and
⎛F ⎞
it is given by ax + by + c + lim ⎜ n −1 ⎟ = 0, if the limit is finite.
y = − x →∞ ⎝ Pn −1 ⎠
a
b

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Suppose ax + by + c is a factor of Pn−1, then the equation of the curve takes the form
( ax + by + c) 2 Pn − 2 + Fn − 2 = 0 and the parallel asymptotes are given by
1/ 2
⎡ ⎛ F ⎞⎤ a
ax + by + c = ± ⎢lim ⎜ − n − 2 ⎟ ⎥ , when x , y → ∞ along y = − b x .
⎢⎣ ⎝ Pn − 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
If the equation is (ax + by + c)Pn−1 + Fn−2 = 0, then ax + by + c = 0 is an asymptote.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the asymptotes of x 3 1 y 3 5 3axy .

Solution.
The equation of the given curve is x 3 + y 3 = 3axy .
⇒ ( x + y )( x 2 − xy + y 2 ) − 3axy = 0.

This is of the form ( x + y )Pn −1 + Fn −1 = 0.

∴ the asymptotes parallel to x + y = 0is

⎡ −3axy ⎤
⇒ x + y + lim ⎢ 2 ⎥=0
y = − x →∞ x − xy + y 2
⎣ ⎦
−3ax ( − x )
⇒ x + y + lim =0
x →∞ x − x ( − x ) + ( − x ) 2
2

3ax 2
⇒ x + y + lim
= 0 ⇒ x + y + lim a = 0 ⇒ x + y + a = 0.
x →∞ 3x 2 x →∞

There is no asymptote parallel to the axes. It has only one asymptote.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the asymptotes of ( x 1 y ) 2 ( x 1 2 y 1 2) 5 x 1 9 y 22.

Solution.
The equation of the given curve is ( x + y ) 2 ( x + 2 y + 2) = x + 9 y − 2.
This is of the form ( x + y ) 2 Pn − 2 + Fn − 2 = 0.

The asymptotes parallel to x + y = 0 are

x + 9y − 2 x − 9x − 2
( x + y ) 2 = lim = lim
y = − x →∞ x + 2 y + 2 x →∞ x − 2 x + 2

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
8 x ⎜1 + ⎟ 8 ⎜1 + ⎟
8x + 2 ⎝ 8x ⎠ ⎝ 8x ⎠ ⎡ 2 ⎤
= lim
x →∞ x − 2
= lim = lim =8 ⎢{ x → 0 ⎥
x →∞ ⎛ 2⎞ x →∞
1−
2 ⎣ ⎦
x ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ x⎠ x

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∴ x + y = ±2 2 are two asymptotes.

Now the equation is of the form
( x + 2 y + 2) Pn −1 + Fn − 2 = 0

∴ x + 2 y + 2 = 0 ia an asymptote.

Hence, x + y = ±2 2 , x + 2 y + 2 = 0 are the three asymptotes. [Work out this by the general
method]

EXAMPLE 3
Find the asymptotes of x 3 22 x 2 y 1xy 2 1x 2 2xy 12 50.

Solution.
It is a third degree equation in x and y.
Since the coefficient of x 3 is constant there is no asymptote parallel to the x-axis.
Since the coefficient of y 3 is x, asymptote parallel to the y-axis is x = 0.
That is the y-axis itself.
Factorising the third degree terms

x ( x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) + x ( x − y ) + 2 = 0 ⇒ x (x − y )2 + x (x − y ) + 2 = 0

2
⇒ x ( y − x )2 − x ( y − x ) + 2 = 0 ⇒ ( y − x )2 − ( y − x ) + = 0.
x
2
Asymptote parallel to y − x = 0 is given by ( y − x ) 2 − ( y − x ) + lim =0
y = x →∞ x

⇒ ( y − x )2 − ( y − x ) = 0

⇒ ( y − x )[( y − x ) − 1] = 0 ⇒ y − x = 0, y − x − 1 = 0

∴ the asymptotes are x = 0, y − x = 0, y − x − 1 = 0.

3.8.4 Asymptotes by Inspection

In certain cases, we can find the asymptotes of an rational algebraic equation without any calculations.
If the equation can be rewritten in the form Fn + Fn −2 = 0, where Fn is a polynomial of degree n in x
and y and Fn −2 is a polynomial of degree almost n − 2.
If Fn can be factored into linear factors so that no two of them represent parallel straight lines, then
Fn = 0 gives all the asymptotes.
x2 y 2
For example: The equation of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1is of the Fn + Fn − 2 = 0, where
a b
x2 y 2 ⎛ x y ⎞ ⎛ x y ⎞
− Fn =
=⎜ − ⎟⎜ + ⎟.
a2 b 2 ⎝ a b ⎠ ⎝ a b ⎠
x y x y
So, the asymptotes are − = 0 and + = 0.
a b a b

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 3.116 ■ Engineering Mathematics

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 4
Find the asymptotes of ( x 1 y )( x 2 y )( x 2 2 y 2 4) 5 3 x 1 7 y 2 6.

Solution.
The given curve is
( x + y )( x − y )( x − 2 y − 4) − (3x + 7 y − 6) = 0.

This is of the form Fn + Fn −2 = 0, where Fn = F3 = ( x + y )( x − y )( x − 2 y − 4) and Fn is the product of

linear factors, which do not represent parallel lines.
∴ the asymptotes are given by

Fn = 0 ⇒ ( x + y )( x − y )( x − 2 y − 4) = 0

∴ The asymptotes of the given curve are x + y = 0, x − y = 0, x − 2y − 4 = 0 .

3.8.5 Intersection of a Curve and Its Asymptotes

Any asymptote of an algebraic curve of nth degree cuts the curve in two points at infinity and in ( n − 2)
other points. So, the n asymptotes of the curve cut it in atmost n ( n − 2) points.
If the equation of the curve is written in the form Fn + Fn − 2 = 0, where Fn is of nth degree and is a
product of n linear factors and Fn −2 is of degree atmost n − 2, then, the equation of the asymptote is
given by Fn = 0.
So, the point of intersection of the curve and the asymptote are obtained by solving Fn = 0,
Fn + Fn −2 = 0 and hence such points lie on the curve Fn − 2 = 0.

Note
If C is the equation of the curve and A is the combined equation of the asymptotes, then the curve on
which the points intersection of the asymptotes lie is C − A = 0.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 5
Show that the asymptotes of the cubic x 2 y 2 xy 2 1 xy 1 y 2 1 x 2 y 5 0 cut the curve again in
three points which lie on the line x 1 y 5 0 .

Solution.
The given curve is
x 2 y − xy 2 + xy + y 2 + x − y = 0
Since the coefficient of x 2 is y, the asymptote parallel to the x-axis is y = 0.
Since the coefficient of y 2 is 1− x , the equation of the asymptote parallel to the y-axis is
1 − x = 0 ⇒ x = 1.

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Now the equation can be rewritten as

xy ( x − y ) + ( xy + y 2 + x − y ) = 0

This is of the form ( x − y )Pn −1 + Fn −1 = 0.

∴ the asymptote parallel to x − y = 0 is

Fn −1 ⎡ xy + y 2 + x − y ⎤
x − y + lim =0 ⇒ x − y + lim ⎢ ⎥=0
x = y →∞ P x = y →∞
n −1 ⎣ xy ⎦
⎡x2 + x2 + x − x ⎤ ⎛ 2x 2 ⎞
⇒ x − y + lim ⎢ ⎥=0 ⇒ x − y + lim ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 0 ⇒ x − y + 2 = 0.
x →∞ x2 x →∞ ⎝ x ⎠
⎣ ⎦
∴ the asymptotes are y = 0, x − 1 = 0, x − y + 2 = 0.

The curve cannot have more than 3 asymptotes.

∴ their combined equation is
y ( x − 1)( x − y + 2) = 0 ⇒ ( xy − y )( x − y + 2) = 0

⇒ x 2 y − xy 2 + 2xy − xy + y 2 − 2 y = 0 ⇒ x 2 y − xy 2 + xy + y 2 − 2 y = 0.

∴ A ≡ x 2 y − xy 2 + xy + y 2 − 2 y = 0.
The curve is
C ≡ x 2 y − xy 2 + xy + y 2 + x − y = 0.

The point of intersection of the asymptotes lie on the curve.

C − A = 0. ⇒ x + y = 0,
which is a straight line and the number of points of intersection is 3(3 – 2) = 3.

EXAMPLE 6
Show that the four asymptotes of the curve

( x 2 2 y 2 )( y 2 2 4 x 2 ) 1 6 x 3 25 x 2 y 23 xy 2 12 y 2 2 x 2 1 3 xy 21 50

cut the curve again in eight points which lie on a conic.

Solution.
The given curve is ( x 2 − y 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) + 6 x 3 − 5x 2 y − 3xy 2 + 2 y 2 − x 2 + 3xy − 1 = 0.
Put x = 1, y = m in the fourth degree terms, we get f4 ( m ) = (1 − m 2 )( m 2 − 4).
Put x = 1, y = m in the third degree terms, we get f3 ( m ) = 6 − 5m − 3m 2 .

f4′ ( m ) = (1 − m 2 )( 2m ) + ( m 2 − 4)( −2m )

∴
= 2m [1 − m 2 − m 2 + 4] = 2m [5 − 2m 2 ]

f3 ( m ) ⎡ 6 − 5m − 3m 2 ⎤
∴ c=− = −⎢ 2 ⎥
.
f4′ ( m ) ⎣ 2 m (5 − 2 m ) ⎦

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Solving f4 ( m ) = 0, we get
(1 − m 2 )( m 2 − 4) = 0 ⇒ 1 − m 2 = 0 or m 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m = ±1 or m = ±2.

⎡ 6 − 5( −1) − 3( −1) 2 ⎤ 6+5−3 8 4

When m = −1, c = −⎢ 2 ⎥
=− = = .
⎣ 2( −1)(5 − 2( −1) ) ⎦ ( −2) ⋅ 3 2 × 3 3
4 4
∴ asymptote is y = −x + ⇒ y +x − = 0.
3 3
(6 − 5 ⋅1 − 3 ⋅12 ) ( −2) 1
When m = 1, c=− =− = .
2 ⋅1(5 ⋅1 − 2 ⋅1 )
2
2⋅3 3
1 1
∴ the asymptote is y =x+ ⇒ y −x − = 0.
3 3
[6 − 5( −2) − 3( −2) 2 ] [6 + 10 − 12] 4 1
When m = −2, c=− =− =− =− .
2( −2)[5 − 2( −2) ]
2
−4[5 − 8] 4×3 3
1 1
∴ the asymptote is y = −2x − ⇒ y + 2x + = 0.
3 3

[6 − 5 × 2 − 3 ⋅ 22 ] [6 − 10 − 12] 16 4
When m = 2, c=− =− =− =− .
2 ⋅ 2(5 − 2 ⋅ 22 ) 4(5 − 8) 4×3 3

4 4
∴ the asymptote is y = 2x − ⇒ y − 2x + = 0.
3 3
The fourth degree equation has 4 asymptotes.
∴ the combined equation of the asymptotes is
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
⎜⎝ y + x − ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ y − x − ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ y + 2x + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ y − 2x + ⎟⎠ = 0
3 3 3 3
⎡ 2 1 4 4⎤ ⎡ 2 4 1 4⎤
⇒ ⎢ y − x − 3 ( y + x ) − 3 ( y − x ) + 9 ⎥ ⎢ y − 4 x + 3 ( y + 2x ) + 3 ( y − 2x ) + 9 ⎥ = 0
2 2

⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦

4 1 4
⇒ ( y 2 − x 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) + ( y 2 − x 2 )( y + 2x ) + ( y 2 − x 2 )( y − 2x ) + ( y 2 − x 2 )
3 3 9
1 4 1 4
− ( y + x )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) − ( y + x )( y + 2x ) − ( y + x )( y − 2x ) − ( y + x )
3 9 9 27
4 16 4 16
− ( y − x )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) − ( y − x )( y + 2x ) − ( y − x )( y − 2x ) − ( y − x )
3 9 9 27

4 16 4 16
+ ( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) + ( y + 2 x) + ( y − 2 x) + =0
9 27 27 81

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17 2 2 2 5 4 16
⇒ ( x 2 − y 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) − 3xy 2 + 6 x 3 − 5x 2 y + y + x + xy − x − = 0
9 9 3 3 81

17 2 2 2 5 4 16
∴ A ≡ ( x 2 − y 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) − 3xy 2 + 6 x 3 − 5x 2 y + y + x + xy − x − = 0
9 9 3 3 81

C ≡ ( x 2 − y 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) + 6 x 3 − 5x 2 y − 3xy 2 + 2 y 2 − x 2 + 3xy − 1 = 0.

The points of intersection lie on the curve C − A = 0.

17 2 2 5 4 16
⇒ 2y 2 − y − x 2 − x 2 + 3xy − xy + x − 1 + =0
9 9 3 3 81

1 2 11 2 4 xy 4 65
⇒ y − x + + x− =0
9 9 3 3 81
65
⇒ y 2 − 11x 2 + 12xy + 12x − = 0.
9
h2 − ab > 0]
∴
which is a hyperbola. [

EXAMPLE 7
Determine the asymptotes of the curve
4 ( x 4 1 y 4 ) 217 x 2 y 2 2 4 x ( 4 y 2 2 x 2 ) 1 2 ( x 2 2 2 ) 5 0 and show that they pass through the points
of intersection of the curve with the ellipse x 2 1 4 y 2 5 4 .

Solution.
The given curve is
4( x 4 + y 4 ) − 17x 2 y 2 − 4 x ( 4 y 2 − x 2 ) + 2( x 2 − 2) = 0

Put x = 1, y = m in the fourth degree terms, we get f 4 ( m ) = 4(1 + m 4 ) − 17m 2

∴ f ′4 ( m ) = 16 m 3 − 34 m

Put x = 1, y = m in the third degree terms, we get f3 ( m ) = −4( 4m 2 − 1) .

f 3 (m ) 4( 4m 2 − 1) 2( 4 m 2 − 1)
∴ c=− = =
f ′4 ( m ) 16m − 34m 8m 3 − 17m
3

Solving, f 4 ( m ) = 0 , we get
4(1 + m 4 ) − 17m 2 = 0 ⇒ 4 m 4 − 17m 2 + 4 = 0

⇒ 4 m 4 − 16 m 2 − m 2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 4 m 2 ( m 2 − 4) − 1( m 2 − 4) = 0

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 3.120 ■ Engineering Mathematics

1
⇒ ( 4 m 2 − 1)( m 2 − 4) = 0 ⇒ 4m 2 − 1 = 0 or m2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m=± or m = ± 2.
2
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
2

2 ⎢ 4 ⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎢ 4 ⋅ − 1⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
= ⎣
1 4 ⎦
When m = − , c= 3
= 0.
2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 17
8 ⎜ − ⎟ − 17 ⎜ − ⎟ −1 +
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2

x
∴ the asymptote is y = − ⇒ 2y + x = 0 .
2

⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
2 ⎢ 4 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎝ 4⎠ ⎦
c= ⎣
1 x
When m = , = 0 . ∴ the asymptote is y = ⇒ 2y − x = 0 .
2 ⎛ ⎞
1 ⎛ 1⎞ 2
8 ⎜ 3 ⎟ − 17 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

2( 4 ⋅ 4 − 1) 2 × 15 30
When m = −2, c= = = = −1.
8( −2) − 17( −2) −64 + 34 −30
3

∴ the asymptote is y = −2x − 1 ⇒ y + 2x + 1 = 0.

2( 4 ⋅ 4 − 1) 2 × 15 30
When m = 2, c= = = = 1.
8 × 2 − 17 × 2 64 − 34 30
3

∴ the asymptote is y = 2x + 1 ⇒ y − ( 2x + 1) = 0.

The 4 th degree equation has 4 asymptotes.

Now the combined equation of the asymptotes is

( 2 y + x )( 2 y − x )[ y + ( 2x + 1)][ y − ( 2x + 1)] = 0

⇒ ( 4 y 2 − x 2 )[ y 2 − ( 2x + 1) 2 ] = 0

⇒ ( 4 y 2 − x 2 )[ y 2 − ( 4 x 2 + 4 x + 1)] = 0

⇒ ( 4 y 2 − x 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 − 4 x − 1) = 0

⇒ ( 4 y 2 − x 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) − 4 x ( 4 y 2 − x 2 ) − ( 4 y 2 − x 2 ) = 0

⇒ 4 y 4 − 17x 2 y 2 + 4 x 4 − 16 xy 2 + 4 x 3 − 4 y 2 + x 2 = 0

⇒ 4( x 4 + y 4 ) − 17x 2 y 2 − 16 xy 2 + 4 x 3 − 4 y 2 + x 2 = 0

∴ A ≡ 4( x 4 + y 4 ) − 17x 2 y 2 − 16 xy 2 + 4 x 3 − 4 y 2 + x 2 = 0

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Differential Calculus ■ 3.121

The curve is C ≡ 4( x 4 + y 4 ) − 17x 2 y 2 − 16 xy 2 + 4 x 3 + 2x 2 − 4 = 0 .

The four asymptotes intersect the curve in 4( 4 − 2) = 8 points and they lie on the curve
C − A = 0. ⇒ 4y 2 + x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x 2 + 4y 2 = 4.
which is an ellipse.
EXERCISE 3.13
I. Obtain the horizontal and the vertical asymptotes, if any, of the following curves.
x x2 x
1. y = 2. y = 3. y =
x −2 1+ x x −1
2

4. x 2 + 5y 2 = 1 5. y = loge x , x > 0 6. y = e − x
2

x 3x − 1 x2 + 2
7. y = 8. y = 9. y =
x +1 2
x +2 x 2 −1
10. y = sec x 11. y = tan x 12. xy = loge x , x > 0
x +2 2x 2
13. y = e x 14. y = 15. y =
x −3 x +3
II. Find the asymptotes of the following curves.
1. x 2 y + xy 2 + xy + y 2 + 3x = 0
2. ( x + y )( x − y )( 2x − y ) − 4 x ( x − 2 y ) + 4 x = 0
3. 2x 3 − x 2 y − 2xy 2 + y 3 − 4 x 2 + 8xy − 4 x + 1 = 0
4. x 2 y 2 − x 2 y − xy 2 + x + y + 1 = 0
5. ( x + y ) 2 ( x + 2 y + 2) − ( x + 9 y − 2) = 0
6. y 3 − 2xy 2 − x 2 y + 2x 3 + 3y 2 − 7xy + 2x 2 + 2y + 2x + 1 = 0
7. y 3 + x 2 y + 2xy 2 − y + 1 = 0
8. x 3 + 2x 2 y − 4 xy 2 − 8y 3 − 4 x + 8y = 1
9. y 2 = x 2 ( x − y )
10. 8x 2 + 10 xy − 3y 2 − 2x + 4 y − 2 = 0
11. ( x 2 − y 2 )( x + 2 y + 1) + x + y + 1 = 0
12. x 3 − 2x 2 y + xy 2 + x 2 − xy + 2 = 0
13. ( y + x − 1)( y + 2x + 1)( y + 3x − 2)( y − x ) + x 2 − y 2 + 5 = 0

III. Show that the asymptotes of the cubic x 3 − 2 y 3 + xy ( 2x − y ) + y ( x − y ) + 1 = 0 cuts the curve in
three points which lie on the straight line x − y + 1 = 0.
IV. Show that the four asymptotes of the curve
( x 2 − y 2 )( y 2 − 4 x 2 ) + 6 x 3 − 5x 2 y − 3xy 2 + 2 y 3 − x 2 + 3xy − 1 = 0 cuts in 8 points which lie on a
circle.

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ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 3.13

I.
1. x = 2, y = 1 2. x = −1 3. x = ±1, y = 0
4. No, it is an ellipse which is a finite curve. 5. x = 0
6. y = 0 7. y = 0 8. x = −2, y = 3
p
9. x = ±1, y = 1 10. x = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
2
p
11. x = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … 12. y = 0
2
13. y = 0 14. x = 3 and y = 1 15. x = 3, y = 2x − 6
II.
1. x = −1, y = 0, y = − x 2. y = x + 9, y = 2x − 4, y = − x + 2
3. y = − x + 2, y = x + 2, y = 2x − 4 4. x = 0, y = 0, x = 1, y = 1
5. x + 2 y + 2 = 0, x + y = ±2 2 6. y = x − 1, y = − x − 2, y = 2x
x x x
7. y = 0, x + y = 1, x + y = −1 8. y = , y = − + 1, y = − − 1
2 2 2
9. y = x − 1 10. 3y = −2x + 1
11. x + 2y + 1 = 0; y = x; y = −x 12. x = 0, y = x, y = x + 1
13. y + x − 1 = 0, y + 2x + 1 = 0, y + 3x − 2 = 0 and y−x=0

3.9 CONCAVITY
In Section 3.4, we have seen that the sign of first derivative of a function tells us where the function is
increasing or decreasing. Critical points are the points where the first derivative is zero or the points
where the first derivative does not exist. At these points, local maximum or local minimum occurs.
We shall now discuss another aspect of the shape of a curve called concavity. All these concepts are
needed to draw the graph of a function.
Definition 3.9 Let f be a differentiable function in the interval (a, b). The graph of f, viz, the curve
given by the equation y = f ( x ) is said to be concave up in (a, b) if the curve lies above every tangent
to the curve in (a, b)
The curve is said to be concave down in (a, b) if the curve lies below every tangent to the curve
in (a, b)

Note
Concave up is sometimes referred as convex down and concave down is referred as convex up.

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 6.5.2 Length of the Arc of a Curve
The process of finding the length of a continuous curve is known as rectification.
A curve having arc length is said to be a rectifiable curve.
As in the case of area, we can find the arc length in Cartesian and polar coordinates.

6.5.2 (a) Length of the Arc in Cartesian Coordinates

Let y = f ( x ) be the Cartesian equation of the curve whose length is required between x = a and x = b.
y B

P(x, y) Δs Q(x + Δx, y + Δy)

A Δy
Δx

x=a x=b x

Fig. 6.18

Let the arc length be measured from a fixed point F on the curve. Let the lines x = a and x = b meet
the curve at Aand Brespectively.
Let FA = s1 and FB = s2 .
Let P ( x, y ) and Q( x + Δx, y + Δy ) are neighbouring points on the curve such that FP = s and
FQ = s + Δs.
Let PQ = Δs be the element arc.

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Integral Calculus ■ 6.73

The sum of such element arcs ∑ Δs gives approximately arc AB.

s2

The limit when the largest element Δs → 0, we have the length of arc AB = ∫ ds
s1

1. Since A and B on the curve correspond to x = a and x = b,

b
ds
we have arc length = ∫ dx
a
dx
2
ds ⎛ dy ⎞
We know ( ds) 2 = ( dx ) 2 + ( dy ) 2 ⇒ = 1+ ⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
2
⎛ dy ⎞
b

∴ s = ∫ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx
a
⎝ dx ⎠
2. If the points A and B on the curve corresponding to y = c and y = d , then the arc length
2
d
ds
d
⎛ dx ⎞
= ∫ dy = ∫ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ dy
c
dy c
⎝ dy ⎠
3. Parametric form
If x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) be the parametric equations of the given curve y = f ( x ) and the limits of
t are t1 and t 2 , then arc length
t2 t 2 2
⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
2
ds
=∫ dt = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ dt
t1
dt t1
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the length of arc of the curve x 3 = y 2 from x = 0 to x = 1

Solution:
Given x3 = y 2 and a = 0, b = 1 (1)
2
⎛ dy ⎞
b 1
ds
Length of arc s = ∫ dx = ∫ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx
a
dx 0
⎝ dx ⎠

Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get

dy dy 3 x 2
3x 2 = 2 y ⇒ =
dx dx 2 y
2
⎛ dy ⎞ 9x 4 9x 4 9x
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 1+ 2 = 1+ 3 = 1+
⎝ dx ⎠ 4y 4x 4
2
⎛ dy ⎞ 9x
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 1+
⎝ dx ⎠ 4

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1/ 2
⎛ 9x ⎞
1 1
9x
∴ s = ∫ 1+ dx = ∫ ⎜1 + ⎟ dx
4 ⎝ 4⎠
0 0
1
⎡ ⎛ 9 ⎞ 3/ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎝1 + x ⎟⎠ ⎥ ( ax + b) n +1
⎢ ∫
{ + = if n ≠ −1⎥
n
( ax b )
=⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎣ a( n + 1) ⎦
⎢ 9 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 × 2 ⎥⎦ 0

8 ⎡⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎤ 8 ⎡13 13 ⎤ 1
3/ 2

= ⎢⎜1 + ⎟ − 1⎥ = ⎢ − 1⎥ = [13 13 − 8]
27 ⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎦ 27 ⎣ 8 ⎦ 27
EXAMPLE 2
Find the length of one loop of the curve 3ay 2 5 x ( x 2 a )2 .

Solution.
Given 3ay 2 = x( x − a) 2 (1)
It is even degree in y and so symmetric about the y
x-axis.
When y = 0, x ( x − a) 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0, a, a A (a, 0)
That is the curve meets the x-axis at x = 0 and O x
x = a two times
So, we get a loop between x = 0 and x = a as in
x=a
Fig 6.19.
Let A be the point (a, 0) on the x-axis Fig. 6.19
a
ds
Length of the arc OA = ∫ dx
0
dx
∴ length of the loop = 2 × the length of arc OA
2
⎛ dy ⎞
a a
ds
= 2∫ dx = 2∫ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
0 0

Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get

dy
6ay = x ⋅ 2( x − a) + ( x − a) 2 ⋅1
dx
= ( x − a) + ( 2x + x − a) = ( x − a)(3x − a)
dy ( x − a)(3 x − a)
⇒ =
dx 6 ay
( x − a ) 2 (3 x − a ) 2 ( x − a ) 2 (3 x − a ) 2 (3 x − a ) 2
2
⎛ dy ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = = =
dx 36 a 2 y 2 12ax( x − a) 2 12ax
(3 x − a ) 12ax + (3 x − a)
2
⎛ dy ⎞
2 2
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 1+ =
⎝ dx ⎠ 12ax 12ax

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Integral Calculus ■ 6.75

12ax + 9 x 2 − 6 ax + a 2 9 x 2 + 6 ax + a 2 (3x + a) 2
= = =
12ax 12ax 12ax

(3x + a) 2 3x + a
2
⎛ dy ⎞
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = =
⎝ dx ⎠ 12ax 2 3a x

3x + a
a

∴ length of the loop = 2∫ dx

0 2 3a x

⎡ a ⎤
a
1
= ∫ ⎢3 x + x ⎥⎦ dx
3a 0 ⎣
a
1
= ∫ ⎡⎣3x + ax −1/ 2 ⎤⎦ dx
1/ 2

3a 0
a
1 ⎡ x 3/ 2 x 1/ 2 ⎤
= ⎢3 ⋅ + a⋅ ⎥
3a ⎣ 3/ 2 1/ 2 ⎦ 0
1 1 4a ⋅ a1/ 2 4a
= ⎡⎣ 2a3 / 2 + 2a ⋅ a1/ 2 − 0 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ 2a3 / 2 + 2a3 / 2 ⎤⎦ = =
3a 3a 3a 3

EXAMPLE 3
Find the length of the curve x 2 / 31 y 2 / 3 5a 2 / 3 .

Solution.
The given curve is x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = a 2 / 3 (1)
y
It is symmetric w.r.to both the axes
∴ the length of the arc is the same in all four B (0, a)
quardrants as in Fig 6.20.
When y = 0, x 2 / 3 = a 2 / 3 ⇒ x 2 = a 2 ⇒ x ± a
C A
When x = 0, y 2/3
=a 2/3
⇒y =a
2 2
⇒ y = ±a x ′ (−a, 0) O (a, 0) x

∴ length of the arc AB = length of the arc BC = length

of the arc CD = length of the arc DA
(0, −a) D
∴ length of the curve = 4 × length of the arc AB y′
a
ds
= 4×∫ dx Fig. 6.20
0
dx
Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get
2 −31 2 −31 dy
x + y =0
3 3 dx

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 6.76 ■ Engineering Mathematics

dy dy x −1/ 3 y +1/ 3
⇒ y −1/ 3 = − x −1/ 3 ⇒ = − −1/ 3 = − 1/ 3
dx dx y x
2
⎛ dy ⎞ y 2/3
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ =
dx x 2/3

y 2/3 x 2/3 + y 2/3

2
⎛ dy ⎞ a2/3
∴ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ = 1 + 2/3 = = [from (1)]
⎝ dx ⎠ x x 2/3 x 2/3
2
⎛ dy ⎞ a2 / 3 a1/ 3
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = = 1/ 3 = a1/ 3 x −1/ 3
⎝ dx ⎠ x 2/3
x
a

∴ length of the curve is s = 4 ∫ a1/ 3 x −1/ 3dx

0
a
⎡ ⎤
⎢ x −1/ 3 +1
⎥ 1/ 3 ⎡ x
2/3 a
⎤
= 4a ⎢
1/ 3
⎥ = 4a ⎢ ⎥ = 6a (aa − 0) = 6a
1/ 3 2/3
1
⎢ − + 1⎥ ⎣ 2/3 ⎦ 0
⎣ 3 ⎦0

EXAMPLE 4
Find the length of the curve x 2 ( a 2 2 x 2 ) 5 8a 2 y 2.

Solution.
Given curve is x 2 ( a 2 − x 2 ) = 8a 2 y 2 (1)
The equation of the curve is of even degree in x and y and so the curve is symmetric w.r.to both the
axes.
If y = 0, then x 2 (a2 − x 2 ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 0 or x = −a, a y

That is it meets the x-axis at the arigin x = 0 twice,

x = −a and x = a.
B A
If x = 0, y = 0 and if x = ±a, y = 0
(−a, 0) (a, 0) x
∴ the curve passes through the origin and meets the O
x-axis at the points A( a, 0) and B( − a, 0) .
∴we get two loops of the curve as in Fig 6.21.
∴ total length of the curve is
s = 4 × length of the arc OA Fig. 6.21
2
⎛ dy ⎞
a a
ds
4∫ dx = 4 × ∫ ⎜1 + ⎟ dx
0
dx 0
⎝ dx ⎠

Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get

dy
8a2 2 y = x 2 ( −2x ) + (a2 − x 2 )2x
dx
= −2 x 3 + 2a 2 x − 2 x 3 = −4 x 3 + 2a 2 x = 2 x[a 2 − 2 x 2 ]

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Integral Calculus ■ 6.77

dy x[a 2 − 2 x 2 ]
∴ =
dx 8a 2 y

[ x( a 2 − 2 x 2 )]2
2
⎛ dy ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ =
dx (8a 2 y ) 2
x 2 (a 2 − 2 x 2 ) 2 x 2 (a 2 − 2 x 2 ) 2 (a 2 − 2 x 2 ) 2
= = = [from (1)]
8a2 .8a2 y 2 8a2 ⋅ x 2 (a2 − x 2 ) 8a2 (a2 − x 2 )
(a 2 − 2 x 2 ) 2
2
⎛ dy ⎞
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 1+ 2 2
⎝ dx ⎠ 8a (a − x 2 )
8a2 (a2 − x 2 ) + (a2 − 2x 2 ) 2
=
8a2 (a2 − x 2 )
8a 4 − 8a 2 x 2 + a 4 − 4 a 2 x 2 + 4 x 4
=
8a 2 ( a 2 − x 2 )
9a 4 − 12a 2 x 2 + 4 x 4 (3a 2 − 2 x 2 ) 2
= = 2 2
8a 2 ( a 2 − x 2 ) 8a ( a − x 2 )

(3a2 − 2x 2 ) 2
2
⎛ dy ⎞ 3a2 − 2x 2
∴ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = =
⎝ dx ⎠ 8a (a − x ) 2a 2 a2 − x 2
2 2 2

3a 2 − 2 x 2
a
∴ Length of the curve s = 4
∫ 0 2a 2 a 2 − x 2
dx

2(a2 − x 2 ) + a2
a

= 4∫ dx
0 2a 2 a2 − x 2
2⎡ ⎤
a a
a2
= ⎢∫ − + ∫
2 2
2 a x dx dx ⎥
a ⎣0 0 a2 − x 2 ⎦
⎧ a
a⎫
2 ⎪ ⎡ ⎧⎪ x a2 − x 2 a2 −1 x ⎪
⎫⎤ 2 ⎡ −1 x ⎤ ⎪
= ⎢
⎨ ⎨ 2 + sin ⎬ ⎥ + a ⎢ sin ⎬
a ⎪ ⎢ ⎩⎪ 2 2 a ⎪⎭ ⎥ ⎣ a ⎥⎦ 0 ⎪
⎩⎣ ⎦0 ⎭
2
= ⎡0 + a 2 (sin −1 1 − sin −1 0) + a 2 (sin −1 1 − sin −1 0) ⎤⎦
a ⎣
2⎡ 2 p p⎤ 2 2
= a . + a2 . ⎥ = .a p = pa 2
a ⎢⎣ 2 2⎦ a

EXAMPLE 5
t3
Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve x 5 t 2 and y 5 t − .
3
Solution.
t3
Given x = t 2 and y = t −
3

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 6.78 ■ Engineering Mathematics

2
⎡ t3 ⎤ ⎛ t2 ⎞
2
⎛ x⎞
2

⇒ y 2 = ⎢t − ⎥ = t 2 ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = x ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎣ 3⎦ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
2
⎛ x⎞
2
⎛ x⎞
When y = 0, x ⎜1 − ⎟ = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or ⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠ = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 3, 3
⎝ 3⎠ 3
∴ the curve meets the x-axis at the origin
y
and at the point (3, 0), twice.
∴ the loop of the curve is as shown in the
Fig 6.22. A
Let A be the point (3, 0) x
When x = 0, t = 0 and when x = 3, t = 3 O
(3, 0)
Length of the loop = 2 × arc length of OA.
Since the equation of the curve is in
parametric form, the length of the loop is
t2
ds Fig. 6.22
s = 2∫ dt
t1
dt

where t1 = 0 and t 2 = 3.
2 2
⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
3

∴ s = 2 ∫ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ dt
0
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
dx t3 dy 3t 2
We have x = t2 ⇒ = 2t and y =t − ⇒ = 1− = 1− t2
dt 3 dt 3
2 2
⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 4t + (1 − t ) = 4t + 1 − 2t + t = t + 2t + 1 = (1 + t )
2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2

dt dt
2 2
⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = (1 + t ) = 1 + t
2 2 2

dt dt
3

∴ s = 2 ∫ (1 + t 2 )dt
0

⎡ 3 3⎤
3
⎡ t3 ⎤
= 2 ⎢t + ⎥ = 2 ⎢ 3 + ⎥ = 2 ⎡⎣ 3 + 3 ⎤⎦ = 4 3
⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎣ 3 ⎦

EXERCISE 6.7
1. Find the length of the following curves
⎛2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 5 ⎞
(i) 9x 2 = 4(1 + y 2 )3 from the point ⎜ , 0⎟ to the point ⎜ , 2⎟ .
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
(ii) 2 y = ( x − 1)(3 − x ) between x = 1 and x = 3.

(iii) y 2 = 4 ax cut off by the line 3 y = 8 x .

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Integral Calculus ■ 6.79

2. Find the perimeter of the loop of the curves.

(i) 6 ay 2 = x( x − 2a)3 (ii) 9 xy 2 = ( x − 2a)( x − 5a)3
3. Find the length of the curve x = 2u − sin 2u, y = 2 sin 2 u as u varies from 0 to 2p.

4. Find the length of the curve x = at 2 cos t , y = at 2 sin t from the origin to the point t = 5.
p
5. Find the length of the curve x = a(cos u + u sin u), y = a(sin u − u cos u) from u = 0 to u = .
2
6. Prove that the length of parabola y2 = 4ax cut off by the latus rectum is 2a[ 2 + log(1 + 2 )]

7. Find the length of one complete arch of the cycloid x = a(u − sin u) and y = a(1 − cos u) .

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 6.7

22 ⎛ 15 ⎞
1. (i) (ii) 2 + log(1 + 2 ) (iii) ⎜ + log 2⎟ a
3 ⎝ 16 ⎠

8a 19a p2 a
2. (i) (ii) 4 a 3 3. 8 4. 5. 7. 8a
3 3 8

6.5.2 (b) Length of the Arc in Polar Coordinates

Let r = f (u) be the equation of the curve. Let A and B be two points on the curve with vectorial angles
b
ds
a and b. Then the length of the arc AB is s=∫ du .
a
du
We know the differential arc in polars is

(ds ) 2 = r 2 (d u) 2 + (dr ) 2

2 2 2
⎛ ds ⎞ ⎛ dr ⎞ ds ⎛ dr ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = r + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
⇒ = r2 + ⎜ ⎟
du du du ⎝ du ⎠

b 2
⎛ dr ⎞
∴ s = ∫ r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ du
a
⎝ du ⎠

r2 r 2
⎛ du ⎞
2
ds
When the limits for r are given, the arc length is s = ∫ dr = ∫ 1 + r 2 ⎜ ⎟ dr.
r1
dr r1
⎝ dr ⎠

M06_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH06_PART B.indd 79 5/19/2016 3:09:57 PM

 6.80 ■ Engineering Mathematics

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the length of the cardioid r 5 a (1 1 cos u) . Also show that the upper half is bisected by
p
u5 .
3
Solution.
The equation of the given curve is r = a(1 + cos u) (1)
The cardioid is symmetric about the initial line B
Ox as shown in Fig 6.23
So, the length of the curve is π
3 θ=0
θ=π
2 × length of the arc OBA O A x
p p 2
ds ⎛ dr ⎞
= 2∫ d u = 2∫ r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ d u
0
d u 0
⎝ du ⎠
Differentiating (1) w.r.to u, we get Fig. 6.23
2
dr ⎛ dr ⎞
= a( − sin u) = − a sin u ⇒ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = a sin u
2 2

du du
2
⎛ dr ⎞
∴ r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ = a 2 (1 + cos u) 2 + a 2 sin 2 u
⎝ du ⎠
= a2 (1 + 2 cos u + cos 2 u + sin 2 u)
u
= a 2 (1 + 2 cos u + 1) = a 2 ( 2 + 2 cos u) = 2a 2 (1 + cos u) = 4 a 2 cos 2
2
2
⎛ dr ⎞ u u
∴ r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ = 4 a 2 cos 2 = 2a cos
⎝ du ⎠ 2 2
p
p
u ⎡ sin u/2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤
∴ s = 2∫ 2a cos d u = 4a ⎢ ⎥ = 8a ⎢sin 2 − sin 0 ⎥ = 8a(1 − 0) = 8a
0
2 ⎣ 1/2 ⎦0 ⎣ ⎦
∴ upper half curve is of length 4a.
p p
2
⎛ dr ⎞
3 3
ds
Now, length of arc AB = ∫0 du du = ∫
0
r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ du
⎝ du ⎠
p
3
u
= ∫ 2a cos d u
0
2
p
⎡ sin u/2 ⎤ 3 ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
= 2a ⎢ ⎥ = 4a ⎢sin − sin 0 ⎥ = 4a ⎢ − 0 ⎥ = 2a
⎣ u/2 ⎦ 0 ⎣ 6 ⎦ ⎣2 ⎦
∴ arc AB = half of the upper half of the cardioid.
p
⇒ the line u = bisects the upper half of the cardioid.
3

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Integral Calculus ■ 6.81

EXAMPLE 2
Prove that the length of the equiangular spiral r 5 ae u cot a between the points with radii vectors
r1 and r2 is r1 2 r2 sec a.

Solution.
The equation of the given curve is r = aeu cota r2 (1)
ds
Since the limits for r are given, the length of the arc is s = ∫ dr
r1
dr
r2 2
⎛ du ⎞
∴ s = ∫ 1 + r 2 ⎜ ⎟ dr
r
⎝ dr ⎠
1

Differentiating (1) w.r.to u, we get

dr
= ae u cot a cot a
du
du 1 1
⇒ = =
dr ae u cot a .cot a r cot a
2
du 1 ⎛ du ⎞
∴ r = = tan a ⇒ r 2 ⎜ ⎟ = tan 2 a
dr cot a ⎝ dr ⎠
2
⎛ du ⎞
∴ 1 + r 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 1 + tan 2 a = sec 2 a
⎝ dr ⎠
2
⎛ du ⎞
⇒ 1 + r 2 ⎜ ⎟ = sec 2 a = sec a
⎝ dr ⎠
r2

∴ s = ∫ sec a dr = sec a [r ]rr12 ⇒ s = sec a [r2 − r1 ] if r2 > r1

r1

Note: If r2 < r1, s = r2 − r1 sec a, since s is positive.

EXERCISE 6.8
1. Find the perimeter of the cardioid r = 5(1 + cos u) .
2. Find the length of the parabola r (1 + cos u) = 2a cut off by its latus rectum.

u
3. Find the perimeter of the curve r = a sin 3 .
3
4. Find the perimeter of the curve r = a(cos u + sin u) 0 ≤ u ≤ p.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 6.8

3pa
1. 40 2. 2a ⎡⎣ 2 + log(1 + 2 ) ⎤⎦ 3. 4. 2pa
2

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