Computer Networks and Internet Protocol

Prof. Sowmya Kanti Ghosh

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 37
IP Routing - I (Intra - domain routing)

Hello. So, we will continue our discussion on IP Routing in our Computer Networks and
Internet Protocol course. So, last day or in the last lecture I should say, we discussed
about this IP address and allocation and how the routing come into play. So, today we
will be little more going deep into the things. We will be having some basic introduction
to this inter Intra Domain Routing and in the subsequent lecture we will be going to more
detail about the routing protocols right.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:54)

So, when we talk about routing just to have a quick recap of the things or something
already you know. So, one of the major feature or one of the major aspect in
internetworking or our communication between 2 network 2 device connected on the
network is to forwarding, right, moving packets between ports right. So, in this case we
are looking at the network port. So, it can be from the host one end one host to other,
intermediate host to router, router to router, router to host and anything. So, how things
can move.
So, it may be on a single hop distance. It may be on a multi hop distance. So, it can be
directly connected, or it can be connected over a large network. So, look up destination
address in the forwarding table. So, as you remember in the last lecture we discussed
about the routers basically maintains a routing table. So, that means if it gets a packet for
a particular destination it says that it forwards a packet to a particular path or particular
so, to say port or next destination or like that, right.

So, it has a routing table which has all ideally all the destination possible destinations
and what should be its next hop or what should be the path to be forwarded, right. Or if it
is in the in, let us in the we will see that one in subsequent lectures when we talk about
layer 2 and type of things. Find out the find out port or output port and MAC address
right, what is the port and MAC address pair right. Finally, what we will what we know
that it finds a logical path; that is, at the IP level. Finally, in order to packet in order to
forward the packet, we need to get that hardware address or the MAC address of the
destinations.

So, that is done by this some address resolution protocol, we will come to that. So,
routing is a process of populating. If you look at that what is other way of looking, one is
forwarding another is the routing protocol, right. So, one of that that it is a process of
populating the forwarding table or the routing table, right? So, again I repeat. So, router
is a layer (Refer Time: 03:21) 3 device which has a lookup table or routing table or
forwarding table interchangeably we are using. And if a input packet comes to for some
destination it concerns the routing table that where it need to be forwarded, it forwards it.

Now, overall inter network is a large network and that is dynamic and so and so forth.
So, in other sense the router one of the objective is to maintain this routing table. How
this routing table will be updated so that, any packet comes it gets that correct path to be
forwarded, right.

So, the router exchanges; so, in order to update the routing table, the router should
exchange messages about the network they can reach, right. So, a if a router 1 is
connected to the router 2 and router 6, 7, 8, so, these routers exchange messages who
they are network they are connected, and the other things gets updated. So, find what is
my objective thing? Find the optimal route for every destination.
So, given a destination or given a destination finding the optimal route in the for every
destination. Like, if we try to look at the analogy finding the if I am going visiting a
place, so, one of the objective is that find the optimal route to visit that, to reach that
particular destination. So, optimal route maybe the shortest distance, I may look for less
congested route. I may have some other criteria. Like, I want to travel through a route
which is safer and type of things right. Nevertheless, based on my criteria I want to find
out that what is the optimal route from this source to the destination or for that particular
router to the destination, which way I should proceed.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:17)

Now, if we look at, so, routing algorithms; so, it is getting some local forwarding tables
are there. If these are the some for our discussions say, these are the different header
values then these are the links which will be forwarded right. If it is 0100 to 3, 0101 to 2,
0111 to 2 and so and so forth and I have that. So, given a header value if this one, it
concerns this table and forward it to 2.

So, one is this objective of the forwarding the packet is one of the work of this particular
router. Another, this table needs to be updated for this router, right and every router had
their corresponding table and is goes on forwarding the things. So, what we try to argue
if somewhere or other, if these tables are maintains properly or they are able to update
themselves in a proper in a regular fashion then, the packets can be routed from
anywhere in the internet to any destination, right, any source to any destination through
this different router.

One thing we should keep in mind in when we will talk about internetworking these are
some sort of a, so called distributed system. And most of the cases they are loosely
coupled or quote unquote autonomous system, right or several autonomous system
though they are at domain control, will come in this subsequently in this. So, in other
sense I do not have a control that what that other router will do. It if it is the router is in
my domain then I have some control. But, most of the cases if it is in the other domain I
do not have any control. So, that is some sort of a message exchanging are going on and
then and this routing table is getting updated. If these routing tables are updated, then we
go on hopping the things.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:15)

So, one of the issue which come into play is the stability, right. So, stable routers are
often preferred over rapidly changing ones. Or that in other sense, the routers where the
routing table is stable right. So, that the exchanges are much faster etcetera. If the routing
change because, based on the routing table or this lookup table, these packets are routed.
So, if it is very dynamic it is unstable then the whole thing is unstable. So, that is one
important aspect of the things, right. And there are several reasons. One may, is this
manageability will be better right, hard to debug a problem if it is a transient right. So, if
it is a if I if it is very dynamic and something at the when it is updating getting changed
etcetera, there will be difficult to problem to manage this overall process. And if it is a
large network then it is a or scale of internet, it is a very difficult thing.

Second reason is that higher layer optimizations like TCP RTT estimation like, as you
have if you remember when this in this particular course we discussed about this TCP
and round trip delay and type of things. And there will be challenges there. So, imagine
alters. Suppose it is alternating every 500 millisecond or 50 millisecond or 5 millisecond
routes and then how things will be there.

So, I need to, so, more I look for the stability then, I am less on the optimality, right. So,
if it is optimal things means, at that time I want to find out a solution which is the
optimal solution. And for that, I may need to be more dynamic or in other sense we are
basically fighting between stability and optimality, right. I, if suppose ideally if nothing
is changing then, it is a most stable. Say, for hours together nothing is changing. But, you
may not get a optimal thing. But, if I allow it to change every now and then when there is
a change then, it is more optimal. But, then the stability is hampered and that may cause
different other issues.

So, there should be some way of looking means need to be optimized and things. And
that is why when we talk about performance analysis of the network and several other
matrices then, we talk we try to look at that what amount of the stability, optimality and
etcetera we are looking for.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:48)

.
So, what we see? So, we have routing algorithms. So routing algorithms primarily what
it does? It basically allow me to maintain this routing tables right, individually at every
routers and now the routers becomes independently once it gets a packet and goes out
and so and so forth. So, there can be global or some sort of a centralized taking a call, a
taking the global consideration or it can be decentralized right. In global, all routers have
the complete topology. So if I had the whole topology of the whole global scenario then I
can make a optimize scenario right, but it may be possible over a small network, but it
may not be possible on a large network. Whereas, in decentralized on the other hand,
only know the neighbors and share information from them right.

So, I only know the neighbor. So, if the router RI, know it is only neighbor JKLM and it
shares information about the thing. Similarly, another router RJ takes the things and
going on, so it is a decentralized person. So, I am not looking at the whole world or the
whole network and taking a call, but more taking a call taking at the at a only the local
neighbors.

So, that is one, so we have a option of intra, that is 2 way of routing will be intra domain
and inter domain routing. So, inter domain all routers under the same administrative
control, when we say intra domain, it is under the same administrative control. It may be
large network; like in IIT Kharagpur, we have say around 50 odd networks under, but
under the control of IIT Kharagpur itself.

Whereas, inter domain which is decentralized, scale to internet, so huge amount of

network and etcetera which are to the scale scale of internet. So, these are inter-domain,
so these are the broad category of the things. We will come back to those things shortly.
So, we have 2 type of broadly routing, one is inter domain and one is intra domain. Intra
domain is somewhat all routers under the single administrative control like, IIT
Kharagpur network or any such networks or whereas inter domain is decentralized, so
like scale of internet and type of things.

Now, as we understand these 2 aspects has 2 routing and phenomena has different type of
consideration so right. Once you have everything under control you have a way of
looking at the problem or the routing algorithms and if you have that it is a decentralized
and not under a single administration we have to do. So, today we will be looking at
some basics of inter domain, rather again, the in subsequent 1 or 2 lectures we will be
looking at the intra domain and then we will talk about inter domain routing right.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:51)

So, before that we take up few couple of issues to show that we understand that what is
the challenges right, one is the issue of optimality right.

So, I can look the whole network or the in the portion of the network under consideration
as a graph. So, nodes are router and links are your edges and then the edges has can have
variable weight based on different considerations, it can be the conjestion level and or
length of the distance and a different type of consideration we can have right. So, assign
cost to each edge based on latency, bandwidth, utilization, queue length etcetera etcetera,
right, so this can be the cost to edges.

Now, our problem is finding the lowest cost path between the two nodes. So, based on a
my our, my metric or our metric under consideration I want to find out the least cost path
between node a and node b or node source node and the destination node. So, each node
individually computes the cost.

Now, if each routers had the capability to compute the cost and in a distributed fashion
and then I find out the overall cost of looking at the things right, this is now what I
looking at is a optimal solution but, it may not be possible to always get a optimal
solution, so we can go for suboptimal solution. In some cases, we will see that a concept
of default route is there. If I do not found a right route, then I may have a default path to
forward the packets.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:41)

Other issues which are definitely come into play is the scaling issue, like how it scale,
how the algorithm scale. So, each router must be able to forward based on any
destination IP address. So our bottom line is that whatever is the destination IP address
the router should be able to forward. So, given the address it needs to know the next hop
consulting the routing table or the forwarding table. So, it has to know that where it
should go next.

So, one of the naive approach maybe have a entry for each addresses right, one that I can
have entry for each addresses but however, that will be a usually there can be huge
number of entries there right the to the scale of 10 to the power 8, 10 to the power 9 type
of entries, if you consider the all systems etcetera across the across the domain right. So,
it will be huge number of address, then that is that may not be practically feasible.

So, one solution may be entry covers a range of addresses right. So, I have a things
which covers a range of addresses, like out IIT Kharagpur router takes care of the rest of
the 20,000 odd systems within the campus right, systems in the sense systems, devices
etcetera network enabled devices within each domain right but, for the external world it
looks at only 1 router or maybe 1 or 2 routers which are looking at the things right.
So, that may be so I do some sort of a address aggregation on the things. So, one is that
we can’t do this sort of things if the address are assigned randomly right like, ethernet
address or hardware address which comes from the manufacture we look at when in our
subsequent lectures. So, we cannot do something which is randomly assigned right.
Address aggregation is a important aspect which we are looking at address allocations
should be based on network structure. So, I can aggregate addresses provided that is the
in the network structure.

Now, if you look at some a type of analogy when we look at our normal postal addresses
etcetera, we are able to club them together because, there is a sense of inherent
aggregation, if it is a randomly things then making things very difficult like, if the house
number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etcetera are closely in a particular locality then sending the
particular forwarding that letters or sending letters with the postman is easy. But, after 1
if it is 101, then 49, then 216, then it is very difficult to pack them together or things. So,
that it is that, otherwise what we require is that some sort of a that addressing mechanism
itself favor this aggregation. So, that may be one of the requirement of the means, one of
the way of looking at it. So, aggregation is important.

Now, let us come back to our basic problem. So, what we have seen these are some of
the things which we try to address that scalability, optimality, stability and of the several
routing protocols and if we look at the other way this, again come back.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

.
So, what we have that we can have a way of direct delivery say, 2 systems are connected
by a cable and then I directly deliver one packet to another right, or I can have indirect
and delivery system right or I can have multiple things.

So, I have in this case a router which forwards the things etcetera and there can be
multiple where the routing come into play.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)

So, one route method that if I want to I can have a lookup table like, that if I want to go
to a particular host, this is the series of things I need to do router 1, router 2, then host B
right. So, it is explicitly specified that where things are there so, this route method is
explicitly specified that, this is the route by which you. Other way I can only say that it is
on the next hop, I only specify the next hop, the next hop takes care of that where it
should go right, that in the routing table of A, in order to go to host B in this for host A,
the it says that in order to go to B, you need to go to router 1. Router 1 says in order to go
to host B, that is the router 2 is the destination or the next hop, I should say next hop,
routing R2 says that it is connected with this particular network, so we can directly there
is no next hop, you can go directly go to the things.

Now, you see this is the next hop-based things so, individual routers R1 and R2 they
maintain that routing table, that given a destination where it should be pushed right so,
that is next hop-based thing.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:40)

Then, we can have host-specific versus network-specific, last class if you remember, we
are looking at that it is router is primarily between networks to network, not meant for
host to host right it is not like that, cannot be done but, it is mainly for network to
network.

So, if it is in the particular router a host is on the host specific method, if it is destination
is A then, R1 is the next hop B is R1 C R1 and D, R1, so for all things are there and for
routing table for host A is based on the network specific thing that, in order to reach
because, A B C are all connected to this network N2 so, it has a one thing if it is a
network, that in order to reach N2, that R1 is the next router right.

So, this network definition so, instead of taking individual host I take, we consider here
the network where the host are like and then I forward the packet on the based of the
network right.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:57)

So, there is a concept of default route. If I cannot find something where to be forwarded,
then where should I forward? So, there is a default route like, in order to go to network
N2, push it to R1. In order for any other network, push it to R2 right, so, this is a default
route. So, there is a concept of default route if it is if it cannot find that where the routing
table things are there, it will put it to the default route.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

Now, if we look at the basic modules or very fundamental structure of the a particular
router - so once it is received a packet you need to extract the destination address from
the IP address. So, these are routers are as I, as we discussed earlier that these are layer 3
switch which has enabled up to network layer. So, it opens up to the network layer and
extract the destination address and the next-hop destination address and the next-hop
address and the interface. So, it extract the destination address, search the particular
routing table or the forwarding table and find out the next hop address and the interface
number, like it has to go to that particular address and to the interface number right and
what happens when I want to push the packet to the things, I need to know the MAC
address or the hardware address of the of the next hop. For that I require a ARP protocol,
so that we will discuss later on. So, ARP protocol, so that I know that what is the next
address and push it the things. So, in other sense I have some sort of a net mask, network
address, next hop address and the interface of the router where it need to be pushed.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:46)

Like here what we are having, there are several network like starting point, 180 70 65
slash 25 here 201 4 dot 16 dot 0 and it is connected with different interfaces of this
particular router right. So, it connected to the different phases of this router and there can
be a default route, may one of this interface right.

So, these are this is a connection for 201 dot 4 dot 16 dot 2 slash 22, 180 70 slash 25 and
so and so forth and there can be other router, sorry other router connected to this type of
interface.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:35)

Now, if I see for router R1, if we look at if it is a slash 26 type of net mask with this
network address then, the next hop is m2 right ok.

So, if you look at so, slash if the net mask is slash 25 and the network address is 180 70
65 128 then, the next hop is m0 right, similarly, so and so forth. So, slash 24 201 dot 4
dot 22 dot 0, it is m3 right so, this is this is the address that it goes to this network right
201 4 22 0, the next is slash 25 in the network, it should have been m3 out here there is a
type here, not type that m3 came up into the this particular interface.

So, in other sense the routing table of this what it says when it is this net mask so, when
it is gets a packet it checks with this net mask, if the address matches, it push it to that
particular things right. So, I get a get a input packet from somewhere then, I extract that
particular destination IP, do a masking, if the address matches with these network
addresses, just put it push it to their interface. If it does not matches then, it push it to this
default interface right.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:19)

Like, some example forwarding process if the packet arrives at R1 in which the
destination address is 180 70 65 140, right.

So, if it is there so, it does at slash 26 because, as you remember so, you on the longest
prefix first right. So, 26, 25, 24, 22 so, first it does a it has 26 applied, the result is 180 70
65 128, you can apply those this type of mask that that means, 26 1 followed by their
zeros and apply to this that the value will get that these values and this does not match
with the corresponding address right, then it goes to the next slash 25 and it gives a value
of 180 70 65 128 and it matches with the this one, the second entry of the thing.

So, it push it to the m0 right. It matches with the corresponding and the packet is
interface m0 passed to the ARP for further processing. Now, what m0 interface, in order
to go to this m0, what it has do, you need to find out the hardware address of that
particular interface so, it does a ARP resolution, address resolution protocol right. So, at
the ARP typically changes a map say, IP address to a hardware address so, if it goes for a
ARP request, it returns that what is the hardware address of that particular device, so that
packet the frame at the layer 2 level can be forwarded.

So, your so, ARP things will be discussing later so, we need not immediately bother
about the ARP. But see, if a packet comes first it follows these things in the in this order
right, as we know that the we want the longest prefix match, so, 26, 25; first 26, then 25,
24, 22, if does not match go to this default right.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:16)

So, say another example. So the forwarding process if the packet arrives at R1 with 201
dot 4 dot 22 35, again do with a 26, is come up with a result 10 2 1 dot 4 dot 22, it does
not match with the corresponding, there is no corresponding this, It then goes for the next
slash 25 and does not match with the row next entry, does a third one in the 22 which
matches with the corresponding right and then it goes to the this one destination, that it
goes to the particular m3 and the at this particular resolution again will be done right.

So, what we see here that given a packet and given this type of net masking and looking
at this I can basically forward the packet to the particular, to that particular destination
interface and there is a address resolution; that means, I need to know the hardware
address to forward the packet of the frame at the layer 2. So for that as, resolution is
required. But the primary routing reason is taken care by this thing right.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:29)

So, what we see there is there may be a need of address aggregation right, like in this
case a organization 1, 2, 3, 4 may be taking service of a ISP and have different type of
network addresses right. So, I instead of having all those entries I can have a particular
network address and then I can have a next hop type of things.

So, I can so, in this particular thing I can have a entry like slash 26 if this network
address is this, next hop is m0, m1, m2, m3 and m4. Whereas, in the routing table 2, I
identify that all those things as a single network as a slash 24 and it push it to the m0. In
other sense, for this rest of the word or these routers R2, this is aggregated as the as a
single network as with a mask of slash 24, 140 24 7 dot 0 slash 24 and any packet
coming with that it will be forwarded to this packet right.

So, this is the way of looking at the things. So, these address aggregations helps us in
clubbing these two, all this together for the rest of the so, you see for the entry of the R2
becomes much simplified right. So, if instead of these 4 organization, in 400
organizations such like this things that will be it will be heavy, a huge load on this type
of router and the processing time will be much higher because, it need to go to this
scanning these things.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:23)

So, we come as a there is a concept called autonomous systems, like correspond to the
administrative domain, internet is not a single network, it is there are several autonomous
systems reflect organization network so, there are different autonomous systems which
have some authoritative control or the administrative control of the network, like in this
case, in your city likes Stanford a large company or IIT Kharagpur and type of things can
act as an autonomous system. So, goal is autonomous systems want to choose their own
local routing.

So, within the autonomous system the say IIT Kharagpur whatever the internal intra IIT
KGP routing will be there it can choose. ASes wants to set up policies about non-local
routing so, whatever for the non-local routing, for the external it can set up a policy. Each
AS autonomous system is assigned a unique 16-bit number, like this is a scenario of
autonomous systems.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:16)

So, we will be going little bit on the that how these routing structures are there, there are
backbone routers and other type of things but, nevertheless these are the different
autonomous system, very loosely if you would like to see and these are different
networks, they have a bunch of routers and type of things and they can, they have they
can communicate between each other.

So, more you we say this built in the ASes or what we look at is a some mostly as a
policy-based routing, whether within the autonomous system there is the local or intra,
the autonomous system individual autonomous system has the authority or total control
over the network and decide on the routing.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:02)

And there are different type of AS traffic, local traffic-packets with source and
destination in the local AS, transit traffic passes through the AS, stub AS-connected to
one single autonomous systems so, that is the type of stub, a router stub AS. Multihomed
AS-connected to multiple autonomous systems, carries no transit traffic right. So, it is
connected to the multiple autonomous system and push it to the respective. Transit
autonomous system connects to multiple AS and carries transit traffic right. So, that is
the multihomed where it is not carrying the transit traffic but, connected to the things and
there is a transit AS.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:42)

So, finally, we come to that intra domain routing with a, within an AS so, single
administrative control: optimality is important, within the thing that optimality is
important factor, contrast with inter-AS where policy dominates whereas, we will see
that in our next subsequent not in the next lecture, subsequent lecture that inter routing
protocol BGP where we will look at that policy-based routing or the inter-AS and
predominant intra domain routing algorithms.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:10)

One is distance vector, requires only local state, less overheads, smaller footprint, it is
sometimes difficult to debug, can suffer from loops, we will look at it. There is another
thing called link state, have a global view of the network. What we are talking about the
intra routing, simpler to debug, requires global state, that overall state of the network.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:38)

So, if we look at the routing protocols, so, we have intra domain and inter domain.
Intradomain is distance vector and link state, inter domain is path vector, link state is RIP
and OSPF and path vector is BGP. We will discuss those things in little detail.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:55)

And just to have a view of this distance vector routing, so, every in a distance vector,
each node shares its routing table with its immediate neighbor in a periodical periodical
in a periodical manner at every time interval say every 30 millisecond or so or based on
the things and when there is a change.
So, whenever or and when there is a change, if there is a change it will change or it will
go on sharing the things on a in a beaconing the things right and based on the things,
other things decides, like if I say A, A has a direct connection to B where 5 is there, A has
a connection to C where 2 is there, 3 is there so and so forth right, whereas A do not have
any connection to E, where it has go to C via C and like this. So, it goes on updating the
thing similarly, so for D, it is a only connected to A, it has different paths to look at the
things so, if we want to go to B, it has to go via A and the cost for, to go to D to B the
cost is 3 plus 5, 8 right.

So, there can be different type of paths. We will look at that what are the different types
nevertheless if you see, every router is having its routing table, that if one on to go to
these are these networks where it should fall. There could have been another entry here
that is default, if it is something which is not known where it should forward to right.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:31)

So, if we initialize at the initialization at the initial step for A, where nothing is known
say A starts up so, for A to A 0, A to 5 because, these are connected but, A to E, A doesn’t
know where E is so, it is infinity.

So, when gets A, but, it C knows where E is with 4. So, next time it gets the beacon or
the miss update from the C, C is router update then, it updates it with the things. How
these update process will go on, we will discuss in our subsequent lecture. So, this way it
goes on doing that. So, we will be discussing more detail on taking into these inter
domain routing looking at different RIP, OSPF or distance vector and link state routing in
our subsequent talk. So, let us stop here and with that basic understanding of what is
routing, what are inter domain and inter domain, intra, inter domain routing and in the
subsequent lecture we will we will discuss in detail those things.

Thank you.