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Learning Functional Data
Structures and Algorithms
Table of Contents
Learning Functional Data Structures and Algorithms
Credits
About the Authors
About the Reviewer
www.PacktPub.com
Why subscribe?
Customer Feedback
Preface
What this book covers
What you need for this book
Who this book is for
Conventions
Reader feedback
Customer support
Downloading the example code
Downloading the color images of this book
Errata
Piracy
Questions
1. Why Functional Programming?
The imperative way
Higher level of abstraction
Functional programming is declarative
No boilerplate
Higher order functions
Eschewing null checks
Controlling state changes
Recursion aids immutability
Copy-on-write
Laziness and deferred execution
Composing functions
Summary
2. Building Blocks
The Big O notation
Space/time trade-off
A word frequency counter
Matching string subsets
Referential transparency
Vectors versus lists
Updating an element
Not enough nodes
Complexities and collections
The sliding window
Maps
Persistent stacks
Persistent FIFO queues
Sets
Sorted set
Summary
3. Lists
First steps
List head and tail
Drop elements
Concatenating lists
Persistent data structures
Tail call optimization
List append
List prepend
Getting value at index
Modifying a list value
Summary
4. Binary Trees
Node definitions
Building the tree
Size and depth
Complete binary trees
Comparing trees
Flipping a binary tree
 Binary tree traversal
The accumulator idiom
Binary Search Trees
Node insertion
Searching a key
Updating a value
Exercising it
Summary
5. More List Algorithms
Binary numbers
Addition
Multiplication
Greedy algorithms and backtracking
An example of a greedy algorithm
The backtracking jig
Summary
6. Graph Algorithms
Reversing a list
Graph algorithms
Graph traversal
Avoiding list appending
Topological sorting
Cycle detection
Printing the cycle
Summary
7. Random Access Lists
Incrementing a binary number
Adding two binary numbers
List of tree roots
Insertion
Lookup
Removal, head, and tail
Update
Summary
8. Queues
Understanding FIFO queues
 Functional FIFO queues
Invariants
Implementing a priority queue
Understanding priority queues/heaps
Leftist trees
Functional heaps
Summary
9. Streams, Laziness, and Algorithms
Program evaluation
Eager evaluation
Argument evaluation
Lazy evaluation
Lazy evaluation in Scala
Lazy evaluation in Clojure
Memoization - remembering past results
Memoization in Scala
Memoization in Clojure
Memoizing simpleFactFun
Streams
Stream in Scala
Indexing the elements of a stream
Creation of an infinite length stream
Stream is immutable
Creating a stream from another
Stream to list
Appending one stream to another
Length of a stream
Some mathematical functions of the stream class
Some more methods of the stream class
Streams (lazy sequence) in Clojure
Creating a memoized function of lazy sequences in Clojure
Some algorithms on stream
Arithmetic progression
Arithmetic progression in Scala
Arithmetic progression in Clojure
Standard Brownian motion
 Standard Brownian motion in Scala
Standard Brownian motion in Clojure
Fibonacci series
First form of Fibonacci series
Second form of Fibonacci series
Fibonacci series in Scala
Fibonacci series in Clojure
Summary
10. Being Lazy - Queues and Deques
Imperative implementations
Amortization
Problem with queues
Strict versus lazy
Streams
Streams meet queues
A sense of balance
Amortized deques
Summary
11. Red-Black Trees
Terminology
Almost balanced trees
The concept of rotation
Red-Black trees
Inserting a node
The Black-Red-Red path
Left, left - red child and grand child
Left child, right grand child
Right child, right grand child
Right, left
Verifying the transformation
Complexity
Summary
12. Binomial Heaps
Binomial trees
Left child, right sibling
A binomial heap
 Linking up
Inserting a value
Binary number equivalence
Merging
Find the minimum
Deleting the minimum
Exercising the code
Complexity
Summary
13. Sorting
Stable and unstable sorting
Stable sorting
Unstable sorting
Bubble sort
Scala implementation of bubble sort
Complexity of bubble sort
Selection sort
Complexity of selection sort
Insertion sort
Complexity of insertion sort
Merge sort
Splitting the sequence
Merging two sorted subsequences
Complexity of merge sort
Quick sort
Partition
Complexity of quick sort
Summary
Learning Functional Data
Structures and Algorithms
Learning Functional Data
Structures and Algorithms
Copyright © 2017 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without
the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the
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First published: February 2017

Production reference: 1170217

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

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Credits
Authors
Copy Editor
Atul S. Khot
Gladson Monteiro
Raju Kumar Mishra

Reviewer Project Coordinator

Muhammad Ali Ejaz Sheejal Shah

Commissioning Editor Proofreader

Kunal Parikh Safis Editing

Acquisition Editor Indexer

Denim Pinto Mariammal Chettiyar

Content Development Editor Graphics

Nikhil Borkar Abhinash Sahu

Technical Editor Production Coordinator

Hussain Kanchwala Shantanu Zagade

About the Authors
Atul S. Khot grew up in Marathwada, a region of the state of
Maharashtra, India. A self-taught programmer, he started writing
software in C and C++. A Linux aficionado and a command-line guy at
heart, Atul has always been a polyglot programmer. Having extensively
programmed in Java and dabbled in multiple languages, these days, he is
increasingly getting hooked on Scala, Clojure, and Erlang. Atul is a
frequent speaker at software conferences, and a past Dr. Dobb's product
award judge. In his spare time, he loves to read classic British detective
fiction. He is a foodie at heart and a pretty good cook. Atul someday
dreams of working as a master chef, serving people with lip-smacking
dishes.

He was the author of Scala Functional Programming Patterns

published by Packt Publishing in December 2015. The book looks at
traditional object-oriented design patterns and shows how we could use
Scala's functional features instead.

I would like to thank my mother, late Sushila S. Khot, for teaching

me the value of sharing. Aai, I remember all you did for the needy
girl students! Your support for the blind school - you brought hope
to so many lives! You are no more, however your kindness and
selfless spirit lives on! I know you are watching dear mother, and I
will carry on the flame till I live! I also would like to thank my
father, late Shriniwas V. Khot. Anna, I have a photo of the 'Tamra
pat'--an engraved copper plaque--commemorating your great
contribution to the country's freedom struggle. You never
compromised on core values --always stood for the needy and
poor. You live on in my memories--a hero forever! I would also
want to thank Martin Odersky for giving us the Scala
programming language. I am deeply thankful to Rich Hickey and
the Clojure community for their work on persistent data
structures. Chris Okasaki’s "Purely Functional Data Structures" is
a perennial source of inspiration and insight. I wish to thank Chris
for writing the book. This book is influenced by many ideas Chris
 presented in his book. I also wish to thank the functional
programming community for all the technical writings which is a
source of continual learning and inspiration. I would love to
express my heartfelt thanks to Nikhil Borkar for all the support
through out the book writing. I also would take this opportunity to
thank Hussain Kanchwala for the detailed editing efforts to make
the book perfect. You guys are awesome! Thanks to y’all!

Raju Kumar Mishra is a consultant and corporate trainer for big data
and programming. After completing his B.Tech from Indian Institute of
Technology (ISM) Dhanbad, he worked for Tata Steel. His deep passion
for mathematics, data science, and programming took him to Indian
Institute of Science (IISc). After graduating from IISc in computational
science, he worked for Oracle as a performance engineer and software
developer. He is an Oracle-certified associate for Java 7. He is a
Hortonworks-certified Apache Hadoop Java developer, and holds a
Developer Certification for Apache Spark (O'Reilly School of
Technology and Databriks), and Revolution R Enterprise-certified
Specialist Certifications. Apart from this, he has also cleared Financial
Risk Manager (FRM I) exam. His interest in mathematics helped him in
clearing the CT3 (Actuarial Science) exam.

My heartiest thanks to the Almighty. I would like to thank my mom,

Smt. Savitri Mishra, my sisters, Mitan and Priya, and my maternal
uncle, Shyam Bihari Pandey, for their support and
encouragement. I am grateful to Anurag Pal Sehgal, Saurabh
Gupta, and all my friends. Last but not least, thanks to Nikhil
Borkar, Content Development Editor at Packt Publishing for his
support in writing this book.
About the Reviewer
Muhammad Ali Ejaz is currently pursuing his graduate degree at Stony
Brook University. His experience, leading up to this academic
achievement, ranges from working as a developer to cofounding a start-
up, from serving in outreach organizations to giving talks at various
prestigious conferences. While working as a developer at
ThoughtWorks, Ali cofounded a career empowerment based start-up by
providing photographers a platform to showcase their art and be
discovered by potential employers. His passion for computer science is
reflected in his contributions to open source projects, such as GoCD,
and his role in serving as the cofounder and Community Outreach
Director of a non-profit organization, "Women Who Code - Bangalore
Chapter". Along with this, he has also been given the opportunity to
speak at different conferences on Continuous Integration and Delivery
practices.

When he is not coding, he enjoys traveling, reading, and tasting new

cuisine. You can follow him on Twitter at @mdaliejaz.

I want to thank my Mom and Dad, who have always been my

inspiration. I’d also like to thank Ahmad and Sana, my siblings,
who have been a constant source of cheerful support. A lot of what
I am today is because of them.
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Preface
This book is about functional algorithms and data structures. Algorithms
and data structures are fundamentals of computer programming.

I started my career writing C and C++ code. I always enjoyed designing

efficient algorithms. I have experienced many an Aha! moments, when I
saw how powerful and creative pointer twiddling could be!

For example, reversing a singly linked list using three node pointers is a
well known algorithm. We scan the list once and reverse it by changing
the pointer fields of each node. The three pointer variables guide the
reversal process.

I have come across many such pointer tricks and have used them as
needed.

I was next initiated into the world of multi-threading! Variables became

shared states between threads! My bagful of tricks was still valid;
however, changing state needed a lot of care, to stay away from
insidious threading bugs.

The real world is never picture perfect and someone forgot to

synchronize a data structure.

Thankfully we started using C++, which had another bagful of tricks, to

control the state sharing. You could now make objects immutable!

For example, we were able to implement the readers/writer locking

pattern effectively. Immutable objects could be shared without worry
among thousands of readers!

We slept easier, the code worked as expected, and all was well with the
world!

I soon realized the reason it worked well! Immutability was finally

helping us better understand the state changes!
The sands of time kept moving and I discovered functional
programming.

I could very well see why writing side-effect free code worked! I was
hooked and started playing with Scala, Clojure, and Erlang. Immutability
was the norm here.

However, I wondered how the traditional algorithms would look like in a

functional setting--and started learning about it.

A data structure is never mutated in place. Instead, a new version of the

data structure is created. The strategy of copy on write with maximized
sharing was an intriguing one! All that careful synchronization is simply
not needed!

The languages come equipped with garbage collection. So, if a version is

not needed anymore, the runtime would take care of reclaiming the
memory.

All in good time though! Reading this book will help you see that we
need not sacrifice algorithmic performance while avoiding in-place
mutation!

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Why Functional Programming?, takes you on a whirlwind
tour of the functional programming (FP) paradigm. We try to highlight
the many advantages FP brings to the table when compared with the
imperative programming paradigm. We discuss FP’s higher level of
abstraction, being declarative, and reduced boilerplate. We talk about
the problem of reasoning about the state change. We see how being
immutable helps realize "an easier to reason about system".

Chapter 2, Building Blocks, provides a whirlwind tour of basic concepts

in algorithms. We talk about the Big O notation for measuring algorithm
efficiency. We discuss the space time trade-off apparent in many
algorithms. We next look at referential transparency, a functional
programming concept. We will also introduce you to the notion of
persistent data structures.

Chapter 3, Lists, looks at how lists are implemented in a functional

setting. We discuss the concept of persistent data structures in depth
here, showing how efficient functional algorithms try to minimize
copying and maximize structural sharing.

Chapter 4, Binary Trees, discusses binary trees. We look at the

traditional binary tree algorithms, and then look at Binary Search Trees.

Chapter 5, More List Algorithms, shows how the prepend operation of

lists is at the heart of many algorithms. Using lists to represent binary
numbers helps us see what lists are good at. We also look at greedy and
backtracking algorithms, with lists at the heart.

Chapter 6, Graph Algorithms, looks at some common graph algorithms.

We look at graph traversal and topological sorting, an important
algorithm for ordering dependencies.

Chapter 7, Random Access Lists, looks at how we could exploit Binary

Search Trees to access a random list element faster.

Chapter 8, Queues, looks at First In First Out (FIFO) queues. This is

another fundamental data structure. We look at some innovative uses of
lists to implement queues.

Chapter 9, Streams, Laziness, and Algorithms, looks at lazy evaluation,

another FP feature. This is an important building block for upcoming
algorithms, so we refresh ourselves with some deferred evaluation
concepts.

Chapter 10, Being Lazy – Queues and Deques, looks at double-ended

queues, which allow insertion and deletion at both ends. We first look at
the concept of amortization. We use lazy lists to improve the queue
implementation presented earlier, in amortized constant time. We
implement deques also using similar techniques.
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Chapter 11, Red-Black Trees, shows how balancing helps avoid
degenerate Binary Search Trees. This is a comparatively complex data
structure, so we discuss each algorithm in detail.

Chapter 12, Binomial Heaps, covers heap implementation offering very

efficient merge operation. We implement this data structure in a
functional setting.

Chapter 13, Sorting, talks about typical functional sorting algorithms.

What you need for this book
You need to install Scala and Clojure. All the examples were tested with
Scala version 2.11.7. The Clojure examples were tested with Clojure
version 1.6.0. You don’t need any IDE as most of the examples are small
enough, so you can key them in the REPL (Read/Eval/Print Loop).

You also need a text editor. Use whichever you are comfortable with.
Who this book is for
The book assumes some familiarity with basic data structures. You
should have played with fundamental data structures like linked lists,
heaps, and binary trees. It also assumes that you have written some code
in a functional language.

Scala is used as an implementation language. We do highlight related

Clojure features too. The idea is to illustrate the basic design principles.

We explain the language concepts as needed. However, we just explain

the basics and give helpful pointers, so you can learn more by reading
the reference links.

We try to site links that offer hands-on code snippets, so you can
practice them yourself.

Walking through an algorithm and discussing the implementation line by

line is an effective aid to understanding.

A lot of thought has gone into making helpful diagrams. Quizzes and
exercises are included, so you can apply what you've learned.

All the code is available online. We strongly advocate keying in the code
snippets though, to internalize the principles and techniques.

Welcome to the wonderland of functional data structures and

algorithms!
Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish
between different kinds of information. Here are some examples of
these styles and an explanation of their meaning.

Code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file
extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles
are shown as follows: "The following function f has a side effect,
though."

A block of code is set as follows:

user=> (def v [7 11 19 52 42 72])
#'user/v
user=> (def v1 (conj v 52))
#'user/v1

If there is a line (or lines) of code that needs to be highlighted, it is set as

follows:
scala> def pop(queue: Fifo): (Int, Fifo) = {
| queue.out match {
| case Nil => throw new
IllegalArgumentException("Empty queue");
| case x :: Nil => (x, queue.copy(out =
queue.in.reverse, Nil))
| case y :: ys => (y, queue.copy(out = ys))
| }
| }
pop: (queue: Fifo)(Int, Fifo)

New terms and important words are shown in bold. Words that you
see on the screen, for example, in menus or dialog boxes, appear in the
text like this: "Clicking the Next button moves you to the next screen."
Note
Warnings or important notes appear in a box like this.
Tip
Tips and tricks appear like this.
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