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Electronics Workshop (EC15103) EC-1st semester

Unit-2
Rain Drop detector:

The rain drop sensor module is a smart and low-cost rain sensing device. It has two parts i.e. a
rain sensing pad and a control board. The sensitive sensing pad detects any water present on it
while the control board reads these signals and can also binarize them. The rain drop module
has a major application in the automobile industry. It can be used to monitor the rain and send
closure requests to shutters or windows whenever the rain is detected.

Rain Drop Pinout

The rain drop control sensor is embedded with LM393 voltage comparator, current limiting
resistors to adjust signal states and divide the voltage and capacitors as biasing elements. The
pinout of the Rain Drop Sensor module is as shown:
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Rain Drop Sensor Working

A rain drop sensor is basically a board on which nickel is coated in the form of lines.
It works on the principle of resistance. When there is no rain drop on board.
Resistance is high so we get high voltage according to V=IR. When rain drop present
it reduces the resistance because water is a conductor of electricity and the presence of
water connects nickel lines in parallel so reduced resistance and the reduced voltage
drop across it.
Copper Pads
The working of the rain sensor module is easy and straightforward. The sensor has a
series of exposed copper paths that acts as a variable resistor whose resistance varies
according to the amount of water on its surface. Usually, they are not connected but
are bridged through the water. This resistance is inversely proportional to the amount
of water. The more water on the surface of the rain pads the better is the conductivity
and will result in a lower resistance. The sensor produces an output voltage through
which it determines whether it is raining or not.
Sensor Module
The rain drop sensor module consists of a control sensor and a rain-sensing pad which
can be connected to any microcontroller. The module produces an output voltage
according to the resistance of the sensing pad and is given at the analog output pin.
The same signal is also passed over to the LM393 high-precision comparator to
digitize and is made available at the TTL digital output pin.
Control Circuit
In addition, the rain drop module has a potentiometer that is responsible for adjusting
the output of the digital pin. To receive accurate readings, this potentiometer should
be calibrated. The potentiometer is connected to the inverting end of the LM393
comparator and sets the reference or threshold voltage while the input analog voltage
is applied to the non-inverting side of the comparator. The respective comparator
compares both the voltages. This sets two conditions and gives the output accordingly.
If the voltage given as an input exceeds the reference voltage then the comparator
shows a high state.
Indication LED
Whereas if the threshold voltage is greater than the applied voltage then the
comparator output will be low. Apart from these, the module has a power LED and a
status LED. The power LED will light up when the module is powered while the
status LED glows and indicates the digital output pin status.
Specifications of Raindrop Sensor
 Adopts high quality of RF-04 double sided material.
 Area: 5cm x 4cm nickel plate on side.
 Anti oxidation, anti-conductivity, with long use time.
 Comparator output signal clean waveform is good, driving ability, over 15mA.
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 Potentiometer adjusts the sensitivity.

 Working voltage 5V.
 Output format: Digital switching output (0 and 1) and analog voltage output
AO.
 With bolt holes for easy installation.
 Small board PCB size: 3.2cm x 1.4cm.
 Uses a wide voltage LM393 comparator.

Circuit Diagram
The functional diagram of the Rain Drop Sensor module for conceiving the
knowledge of the internal connections of the module is provided below:

Following components will be used

 Arduino Board
 Rain sensor module
 Pin connectors
 USB cable
First make connections with Arduino and Rain drop sensor module.
 Rain Drop Black Board +ve with Integrated Chip +ve
 Rain Drop Black Board –ve with Integrated Chip –ve
 Vcc with Arduino Board +5V
 GND with Arduino Board GND
 Integrated Chip D0 with Arduino Board Digital pin 2
 Integrated Chip A0 with Arduino Board Analog pin A1
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The analog output is used for the detection of rain drops with respect to the extent of rainfall.
Connected to the 5Vpower supply, the LED will turn on when there is no rain drop on the
nickel coated pads, and DO output is high. When dropping a little amount of water, DO output
is low, the switch indicator will turn on. Brush off the water droplets, and when restored to the
initial state, outputs high level. When no rain digital output is 1 and analog output gives 1023
max value. When rain is present digital output is 0 and analog output is much less than 1023.
Using a potentiometer on-chip we can control the turning OFF point of a digital pin at some
value of an analog pin.

Follow the steps to run program

1. Connect the components based on the figure shown in the wiring diagram using
pin connectors. VCC pin is connected to the 5V power supply, GND pin is
connected to the GND, DO pin is connected to a digital I/O pin and the AO pin
is connected to the analog output pin. Pin number will be based on the actual
program code.
2. After hardware connection, insert the sample sketch into the Arduino IDE.
3. Using a USB cable, connect the ports from the Arduino to the computer.
4. Upload the program.
5. See the results in the serial monitor
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Code
void setup()

// put your setup code here, to run once:

Serial.begin (9600);

pinMode (2 , INPUT);

void loop()

// put your main code here, to run repeatedly:

int value = analogRead(A1);

int digital = digitalRead(2);

Serial.println (value);

Serial.println (digital);

delay(2000);

}
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Unit-3
Classification and Features of PCB
Printed circuit is a conductive pattern attached to the insulating substrate surface to
connect electronic components. The finished boards of printed circuit become printed
circuit boards, namely PCBs. A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and
electrically connects electronic components or electrical components using conductive
tracks, pads and other features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated
onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Components are
generally soldered onto the PCB to both electrically connect and mechanically fasten
them to it. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They
are also used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both once popular but now rarely
used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and
assembly can be automated. Specialized CAD software is available to do much of the
work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other
wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation. Large numbers
of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout only has to be done
once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits. PCBs
can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides of
one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with
layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because
circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between
components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially
with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount
technology. However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of
circuits much more difficult and usually impractical.

Classification of PCB
1. Rigid PCB: The rigid PCB has a certain mechanical strength, and the parts
installed with it have a certain ability of resistance to bending, and it is usually at a
state of flat when used. Generally, the rigid PCBs are always popular with the
electronic devices because of its good flatness and excellent performance of
resistance to bending.
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2. Flexible PCB: Flexible PCBs are made of soft laminated plastics or other soft
insulating materials. The boards made by the flexible PCBs can easily be bent and
stretched, which means that people can bend optionally them when using the
flexible PCBs according to the installation requirements. Flexible printing plate is
used for special occasions. For example, the display screen of some digital
multimeter can be rotated just because of the popularity and application of the
flexible PCBs.

3. Single-side PCB: Single sided PCB is the basic simple PCB, parts is layouted
on one side and the circuit is on the other side. As there is only layer conductor, it is
called single sided PCB (Single-sided PCB or one layer PCB). Single-side PCB is
usually made of the laminate or the glass cloth and the conductive pattern of it is
relatively simple, so most of them are made by silkscreen printing or wet film
process. In addition, some small amount of various products usually use photoresist
to pattern circuit.
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4. Double-side PCB: Double Sided PCBs (also known as Double-Sided Plated

Thru or DSPT, which is usually made of the epoxy board or the glass cloth.) circuits
are the gateway to higher technology applications. They allow for closer (and
perhaps more) routing traces by alternating between a top and bottom layer using
vias.

5. Multi-layer PCB: A multilayer PCB is a printed circuit board with three or more
layers of conductive graphics. The conductive graphic of the inner layer of the multi-
layer board is superimposed with the insulating bonding sheet, and the outer layers
are covered with foils, which are compressed into a whole multi-layer board. The
holes of multi-layer board must be metallized in order to lead out and connect the
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printed circuits sandwiched between the insulating substrates, which is also namely
PTH (Plate Through Hole).

6. Zero PCB: Zero PCB is basically a general-purpose printed circuit board (PCB), also known
as perfboard or DOT PCB. It is a thin rigid copper sheet with holes pre-drilled at standard
intervals across a grid with 2.54mm (0.1-inch) spacing between holes. Each hole is encircled
by a round or square copper pad so that component lead can be inserted into the hole and
soldered around the pad without short-circuiting the nearby pads and other leads. For
connecting the lead of component with another lead, solder these together or join these using a
suitable conducting wire.

Features of PCB:
I. General characteristics:

1) Higher density: Over the past 100 years, the high density of PCB can be
developed with the improvement of integrated circuit and the progress of
installation technology.
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2) Higher reliability: A series of inspections, tests, and aging tests will ensure
that the PCB will work reliably for a long period of time (generally 20 years).

3) Good designability: The requirements for various properties (electrical,

physical, chemical, mechanical, etc.) of PCB can be achieved through
normalization and standardization of design, with short time and high efficiency.

4) Good Producibility: Adopting modern management can carry out

standardization, scale, automation and other production, guaranteing product
quality consistency.

5) Easily testability analysis: A relatively complete test method, test standard,

various test equipment and instruments were established to test and evaluate
the PCB product's qualification and service life.

6) Assembly ability: PCB products not only facilitate the standardized assembly
of various components, but also can be automated and mass production. At the
same time, PCB and various components can be assembled into larger
components, systems and even whole machines.

7) Great Maintainability: As PCB products and components are assembled into

parts that are designed and manufactured in a standardized way, they are also
standardized. In case of system failure, the system can be replaced quickly,
conveniently and flexibly and the system can be restored quickly.

II. Features of Multi-layer PCB:

1) Used with integrated circuit can make the whole machine miniaturization,
reducing the weight of the whole machine.

2) It improves the wiring density, reduces the spacing of components and shortens
the signal transmission path.

3) It reduces the component welding points which results in the reduction of the
failure rate.

4) The signal distortion of the circuit is reduced because of the application of the
shielding layer.

5) The grounding thermal plane is introduced to reduce the local overheating,

improving the reliability of the whole machine.
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PCB Design Considerations/Rules:

PCB layout of any electronics project is equally important as to the circuits, the
latest components, and the codes.

A Poor PCB layout can cause malfunction and reliability problems.

1. Board Material:
A flat laminated composite made from non-conductive substrate materials with layers of copper circuitry
buried internally or on the external surfaces.

They can be as simple as one or two layers of copper, or in high density applications they can
have fifty layers or more. The flat composite surface is ideal for supporting the components that
are soldered and attached to the PCB, while the copper conductors connect the components to
one another electronically.
The six basic components of a standard printed circuit board are:
 Prepreg: Prepreg is a thin glass fabric that is coated with resin and dried, in special machines called prepreg
treaters.
 Laminate
 Copper foil
 Soldermask
 Nomenclature
 Final finish

2. Sizing Traces
As we know, copper traces have resistance. Which means that it has a voltage drop, power
dissipation, and a temperature rise when current flows through it.

Resistance can be defined as :

R= (Resistivity × Length)/(Thickness × Width)

PCB designers most commonly use length, thickness, and width to control the resistance of a
PCB trace.

Resistance is actually a physical property of the metal that is used to make the trace.

Since it is not possible to change the physical properties of copper, so what we can do ? We can
focus on the trace size, which can be controlled.
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3. Make Loops Small

Since small loops have lower inductance and resistance, loops, especially the high frequency
loops, should be made as small as possible.

Placing loops over a ground plane further reduces inductance.

Having small loops reduces high frequency voltage spikes that are caused by V =L (di/dt)

Small loops also help in reducing the amount of signals that are inductively coupled into the
node from external sources, or are broadcast from the node. This is what you need, unless you
are designing an antenna.

Also in case of op-amp circuits, keeping smaller loops small prevent noise from being coupled
into the circuit.

4. Decoupling Capacitor Placement

The decoupling capacitors should be placed as near as possible to the power and ground pins of
integrated circuits to maximize decoupling efficiency.

Placing capacitors farther away introduces stray inductance.

Multiple vias from the capacitor’s pin to a ground plane reduce inductance.

5. Copper Traces
Keep Digital and Noisy Traces Away from Analog Traces.
A capacitor is formed by using parallel traces or conductors. So, if you place the traces very
close together it will capacitively couples the signals on the traces, especially if the signals are
high frequency.

Hence, you should always keep high frequency and noisy traces away from the traces that you do
not want noise on.

Leaving space between copper traces or fills and mounting holes helps in
preventing shock hazards.

Since, solder mask is not a reliable insulator, you should always take care that
there is distance between copper and any mounting hardware.

6. Ground is Not Ground

Ground is actually not an ideal conductor.
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Hence, you should take care to route noisy grounds away from signals that need to be quiet.

You can make ground traces large enough to carry the currents that will flow. It’s ideal to place a
ground plane directly under signal traces lowers the impedance of the traces.

7. Via Size and Number

Vias have both inductance and resistance.

So if you are routing a trace from one side of the PCB to the other and need low inductance or
resistance, you should use multiple vias as large vias have lower resistance.

This is especially useful in grounding filter capacitors and high current nodes.

8. Selecting Components:
It should be easily available, low cost, small size, etc.

9. EMI Interference:
Low crosstalk, component placement, layer allocation should be proper to minimize the EMI.

10. Signal and Power Integrity:

For maximum performance and signal integrity, PCB layout designers need to follow specific
requirements for routing traces of different circuitry. Here is where the design rules and
constraints will help--by allowing designers to input the physical routing parameters into the
CAD system for routing. Although the exact values will change depending on the needs of the
board, designers will usually set up rules to ensure the following guidelines are followed:
 Short and direct high-speed transmission line routing.
 Trace width, spacing, and allowed board layers for controlled impedance routing.
 Specified trace lengths and length tolerances for matched length routing.
 Differential pair trace widths and spacing requirements.
 Width and spacing for sensitive signals such as clock and control lines.
 Via types for different nets.
 Trace widths and spacing for analog circuitry.
 Trace widths and copper weight for high-current power circuits.

11. Using PCB as Heatsink

Placing extra copper around surface mount component can provide extra surface area to dissipate
heat more efficiently.
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Some component datasheets (especially power diodes and power MOSFETs or voltage
regulators) have guidelines for using PCB surface area as heatsinks.

12. Thermal Vias

Vias can be used to transfer heat from one side of a PCB to the other.

This is especially useful in case where a PCB is mounted on a heatsink on a chassis which
further dissipate heat.

As we know, large vias transfer heat more efficiently than small vias. Hence it will lower the
operating temperature of components and increase the reliability.

What is Electromagnetic Interference?

EMIs consist of electromagnetic waves that comprising both the E (Electric) and H (Magnetic)
field components and oscillate at right angles.

Electromagnetic interference, or EMI, refers to the unwanted and damaging effects of

EMC, as well as electromagnetic interference from environmental sources. Too much
EMI can result in a defective or damaged product. Any PCB designer should follow
EMC design rules to minimize the amount and effects of EMI.

Sources of electromagnetic interference are all around us, and we can categorize them in
several ways:
 Source: Human-made EMI arises from electronic circuits. Naturally occurring EMI, on
the other hand, can arise from environmental factors like cosmic noise and lightning.
 Duration: Continuous interference is an EMI source that emits a constant signal, which
most often appears as background noise. Impulse interference is intermittent, usually
caused by switching systems, lightning and other non-constant sources.
 Bandwidth: Narrowband signals like those used by radio can encounter interference from
oscillators and transmitters, though these sources only affect certain parts of the spectrum
intermittently. Broadband interference affects high-data signals like TV and can come
from many sources, including arc welders and solar noise.

The various sources of EMI are broken down below.

• • Transmission from TV
• • Radio AM, FM, and Satellite
• • Solar magnetic storm
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• • Lightning that flashes as high voltage and high current

• • Airport radar, Electrostatic Discharge, and White Noise
• • Switching mode power supplies
• • Arc welders, Motor Bushes, and Electrical Contacts

Whether human-made or environmental, EMI can be both costly and dangerous. It can disrupt
communication channels and sensitive devices. EMI is a notable concern in the medical field,
where wireless device usage is on the rise. Unfortunately, EMI can affect the functionality of
medical equipment like ventilators, ECG monitors, cardiac monitors and defibrillators. In other
industries, EMI can disrupt sensors and navigational systems. The result in all cases is a
disturbance of equipment that may be responsible for the health and safety of its users.
However, the most common source of EMI — and the most problematic source for designers —
is internal. Poor PCB design can result in incompatible signals interfering with one another on
the board. This interference can ultimately cause the board to fail. Designers must ensure that
interference is kept to a minimum and any signals let off are compatible so as not to result in
interference.

Types of Electromagnetic Interferences

EMI is common in the modern environment, and it can occur in many ways. So, the
classification of EMI can be done in many ways. One way of categorizing the EMI is by the way
it is created on earth.
The different types of EMI can be categorised in several ways.
1. Source of EMI

Human-made EMI
Human-made EMI occurs from another manufactured electronic device. This type of interference
happens when two signals come close to each other or when multiple signals pass through one
device at the same frequencies. A good example is when the radio in the car picks up two
stations simultaneously.

Natural EMI
This type of EMI also affects the devices, but they are not human-made, rather the EMI happens
due to natural phenomena on earth and space like Lightning, Electric Storms, cosmic noise, etc.

2. Duration of EMI

Continuous EMI
When a source continuously emits EMI it is known as continuous EMI. The source can be
human-made or natural. EMI occurs as a long coupling mechanism exists between EMI source
and receiver. This type of EMI arises from sources like a circuit that emits a continuous signal.

Impulse EMI
These types of EMI occur for a very short duration like pulses. So, it is known as Impulse EMI.
The source can be either natural or human-made like the continuous type of EMI. Good
examples to understand are noise heard from switches, lighting, etc which emit signals that could
cause a disturbance in voltage and current.
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3. Bandwidth of EMI

Narrowband EMI
This type of EMI occurs at a single frequency that gets generated from an oscillator. It can also
occur due to different types of distortion in a transmitter. Usually, in the communication system,
narrowband EMI plays a very minor role and it can be corrected easily. But, the limit of
interference should be controlled in limits.
Broadband EMI
The main difference from that of the narrowband EMI is that this type of EMI does not occur at a
single frequency. When looking at the magnetic spectrum, this type of EMI covers a wide
spectrum and exists in different forms. The source can be either natural or human-made. An
example of a human-made source is an arc welding, in which spark is emitted continuously.
Similarly, an example of a natural source is Sun-outs for a satellite TV system.

How to reduce EMI?

Electromagnetic interference is commonly found in industries and it causes an adverse effect on
the instrumentation signals. To name few EMI sources from industries are Variable frequency
drives, soft start motor starters, SCR heater controllers, Power contacts, AC and DC motors, AC
and DC generators, Switching power supplies, Power wiring, walkie talkies, arc welding,
electrostatic discharge, lightning, etc. Hence, EMI has to be reduced, else EMI degrades the
critical measurement and control signals.
Three basic elements that cause the EMI noise are a noise source that generates noise, receiving
device that gets affected due to noise, and a coupling channel between source and receiver.
Electromagnetic compatibility can be obtained if either of these elements is minimized or
diverted or eliminated. Few techniques that can be applied to eliminate EMI are listed below.

1. Filtering

A direct way to get rid of unwanted signals is through filtering them out, and in this instance,
passive filters work well, and they’re used in most new equipment to minimise EMI.
Filtering usually starts with an AC line filter that prevents bad signals from entering the power
supply or powered circuits. It keeps internal signals from being added to the AC line.
Filtering is commonly used with cables and connectors on lines into and out of a circuit, and
some special connectors can have built-in low-pass filters whose main job is to soften digital
waveforms to increase the rise and fall times and reduce harmonic generation, according to
Electronic Design.

2. Earth ground

In industries, the signals and return currents are carried using ground systems. They also form
the references for analog and digital circuits, thereby protecting the human and equipment from
fault and lightning. When current flows in the grounding system, it causes the potential
differences.
When lightning strikes, it causes a potential difference in units of thousand volts. Right from the
beginning of circuit design, the ground system should be considered such that the system works
with required safety requirements. When sketching a ground or troubleshooting a ground
problem, it is first required to ascertain where the current is passing.
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When various kinds of grounds coincide, the current may not return by the assumed path. Proper
grounding depends on several factors such as the frequencies and impedances, the length of
cabling required, and safety issues.
The most beneficial type of ground for low-frequency applications is the single-point ground as
shown in the figure below. When sensitive circuitry or cabling is used the series connection or
daisy chain, should be avoided because return currents from the three circuits flow through the
common ground impedances linking the circuits.

From the figure-above, it is seen that the ground potential of circuit 1 is not only defined by its
return current through impedance Z1 but also by the return currents from circuits 2 and 3
throughout the same impedance. This influence is called common-impedance coupling and is a
fundamental means of noise coupling.
To avoid this problem, a parallel connection is preferred for grounding. It is usually more complicated and
more expensive to implement because of the amount of wiring required. Most systems utilize a blend of
both topologies.
3. Shielding
Shielding is a method of decreasing and regulating the coupling of radio waves, electromagnetic
fields, and electrostatic fields. Shielding is implemented to confine electrical devices from the
‘outside world’, and to cables to separate wires from the environment through which the cable
runs. The effectiveness of a shield depends on the three factors; reflections, absorption, and
multiple reflections.

Figure-7: EMI shielding

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Thermal Management
Thermal management is the ability to control the temperature and noise level of a system by
means of technology based on thermodynamics and heat transfer.

Thermal Management Solutions

The latest thermal management technologies function around basic heat transfer modes – i.e.,
conduction, convection, and radiation – and the development of technologies is moving from
single-phase heat transfer to multi-phase heat transfer. The cooling technologies such as thermal
vapor chamber, cold plates and jet impingement mechanisms have revolutionized the future of
the thermal management landscape.

Main Cooling Methods in the Thermal Management Industry

Conduction cooling: Heat transfer from a hotter part to a cooler part by direct contact.
Commonly used methods in conduction cooling are conduction in chip carriers, conduction in
PCBs, usage of heat frames and thermal conduction modules.
Air cooling via natural convection and radiation: Natural convection is based on the fluid
motion caused by the density differences in a fluid due to a temperature difference. The higher
the fluid flow rate, the higher is the heat transfer rate. The fluid velocities associated with natural
convection currents are naturally low, and thus natural convection cooling is limited to low-
power electronic systems.
Air cooling via forced convection: Forced convection includes the addition of an air mover to
blow the air through the surrounding electronic components to increase the fluid flow rate which,
in-turn, increases the heat transfer rate. Forced convection is up to 10 times more effective than
natural convection.
Liquid cooling: Because liquids have much higher thermal conductivity rates than gases, liquid
cooling is far more effective than gas cooling. However, due to the possibility of leakage,
corrosion, extra weight and condensation, liquid cooling is preferred for applications that involve
power densities that are too high for safe dissipation by air cooling.
Immersion cooling: High-power electronic components can be cooled effectively by immersing
them in a dielectric liquid and taking advantage of the very high heat transfer coefficients
associated with boiling.
Advanced cooling technologies include cryogenics, refrigerant, hybrid, micro channel, spray
and cold-plate cooling.
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Unit-4
Theory of Wet process of PCB Fabrication:
Design the Circuit's Layout

1 Arrange the electronic components on a breadboard or perfboard. Double check the

layout against the schematic for errors.
2 Move the components on the board until the layout is the same size or smaller than the
PCB.
3 Launch your graphic design or PCB layout software on your computer. Create a
document that is the same length and width as your PCB.
4 Draw the circuit's layout in the software. Use black lines that are between 1/100 inch and
5/100 inch wide for the copper tracks. Thicker lines might be easier to work with for
beginners. Use circles to represent each drilled hole on the board that will accommodate a
component. Each circle consists of an empty space in the middle that is 3/100 inch wide
and a stroked line around the circle's perimeter that is 2/100 inch thick. The empty space
in the circle represents the size of the drilled hole. If you are using a drill bit that is larger
or smaller than 3/100 inches wide, adjust the size of the circle to match the size of the drill
bit.
5 Label each circle with the name of the component that is going to be soldered there.
Compare the circuit layout to the schematic to check for errors. Flip the image horizontally.
Print the Circuit's Layout

6 Remove a piece of glossy, thin paper from a magazine or catalog -do not use the cover.
Choose a page with a white background and a small amount of printed content, such as a
text-only page.
7 Cut the piece of magazine paper with your scissors to a size suitable for your printer.
8 Set the laser printer to its best quality setting. Do not use economy mode or any mode
that reduces the amount of toner used. Feed the magazine paper to your printer manually
as you print the layout to avoid a paper jam. Alternatively, tape the magazine paper to your
regular printer paper and feed the paper to the printer. Print on the side with the magazine
paper.
9 Cut off the excess paper around one of the printed layout's corners.

Prepare the PCB for Etching

10 Clean the copper side of the blank PCB with a kitchen scrubbing pad and water until
shiny. Remove all dirt and oil from the board, and use soap if necessary. Avoid touching
the copper with your fingers, and wear clean gloves if necessary.

11 Empty the water out of your iron, and set the iron to the highest heat setting. Turn off
the steam, and wait for it to heat up.
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12 Tape the PCB to a hard, flat surface with the copper side up. Do not put any tape on the
copper side.

13 Place the printed paper on top of the PCB with the printed side down. Align the layout
with the board so that it does not go off the board's edges. Tape the paper to the surface
you are working on to keep it in place.

14 Press the iron on the magazine paper and PCB firmly for one minute. Use a lot of
pressure, and do not move the iron.

15 Iron the paper for four more minutes while applying heavy pressure. Move the iron
slowly over the paper and PCB. Do not allow the paper to move. Wait for the board to cool.

16 Trim the excess paper around the PCB, and fill a plastic container with cold water. Place
the PCB in the water, and wait for the paper to soften, which might take up to five minutes.

17 Peel or lightly rub off the wet paper with your hands. When you are done, you should
see the layout on the copper side of the board clearly.
Etch the PCB

18 Put on safety goggles, rubber gloves and a plastic apron.

19 Put the hydrogen peroxide in a plastic container. Slowly pour in the hydrochloric acid.
Do not use a metal container as the mixture corrodes metal. Use a well-ventilated space.

20 Place the PCB in the mixture carefully with the copper side down, and use plastic tongs.
Wait three to four minutes, then lift the board with the tongs to check if the copper around
the tracks has dissolved. If it has not, place the board back in the mixture and check it every
two to three minutes.

21 Remove the PCB from the mixture with your tongs. Rinse it with water.

22 Lightly soak a paper towel with lacquer thinner. Rub the toner off the copper side of the
board.

Drill the Holes

23 Install a 3/100-inch high-speed or cobalt steel drill bit in your drill. If your layout uses
a different circle size, use a drill bit that is the same size as the empty part of the circle.

24 Drill holes into each of the circles on the board slowly. Do not apply pressure or the
board might break.

Solder the components according to the circuit design

Apply solder mask and silk screen for further safety and application.
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Fabrication of PCB using CNC machine:

A printed circuit board or PCB, in general, is manufactured by using the etching method or the wet method.
This method is a non-chemical copper removal process so that PCB fabrication can be done in a lab
environment without hazardous chemicals. There are no hard and fast rules for this type of PCB
manufacturing CNC Machines. However, the prototyping articles or prototype PCBs can be produced
using the CNC engraving machines.

 It involves two steps.

1: Schematic Diagram
 You must start with creating a schematic diagram using and CAD/Eagle software.
 Schematic diagram gives clear overview what kind of components you would be using in your design
and how they are connected with different paths and traces.
 This diagram won’t indicate the actual path that you would be transferring on the actual copper board,
because lines and paths you use creating a schematic diagram can be differently aligned on the PCB
board.
 Schematic is only for giving knowledge that even common man can anticipate how different
components are connected on the boards.
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2: PCB Layout Designing

 Next step is making a PCB layout design. This design will define the actual circuit
design that will be incorporated on the copper board.
 There are many software you can use to create PCB layout design including
PCBWizard, Cadsoft Eagle, Proteus and many more.
 PCB layout design covers less space than schematic diagram and it can be easily placed
in a tight space based on your requirements.
 Be careful when you create PCB layout design and avoid the short circuit for the sake
of covering the as less space as possible.

Making PCB using Milling Machine

 Now you are all done with your schematic diagram and PCB layout design.
 There are two ways to create PCB i.e additive method and subtractive method. In
additive method we add copper on the predefined trances on the board and in
substractive method we remove unwanted copper from the copper clad, leaving behind
the copper traces that electrically connect different components.
 In milling machine we will use substractive method where we use copper placed on the
predefined lines and will remove unwanted copper.
23
 24

Milling Process

 Milling process will take no more than 30 minutes however it depends on the thickness of the bit and
the size of the PCB and the number components and their alignment it would carry.
 PCB milling is the method which involves removing the unwanted copper from the board to create
paths, and signal traces according to the layout design.
 It is totally non chemical process which can be achieved in lab environment and involves no hazardous
chemical and gives a quick turnaround if you intend to make number of PCBs.
 The quality of PCB depends on the milling accuracy and sharpness of the milling bits you use for
milling.
 The rotational speeds of milling bits have little or no effect in the quality and precision of PCB.
 You need to practice this process of making PCB using milling machine if you are using milling
machine for the first time.
 You will be able to make high quality product with greater precision if you take few precautions prior
to making PCB.
 Software used for PCB milling is provided by milling machine manufacturer.
 Software can be divided into two categories i.e. Raster and Vector.
 Software that utilizes raster calculations comes with lower processing resolution than vector based
category because it is dependent on the raster information.
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Mechanism
 PCB milling machine makes use of advanced CNC milling technology.
 The milling machine controller is controlled by software that receives commands and
machine control information through serial and parallel port.
 The controller is able to monitor the positioning features that are capable of moving the
milling head and control spindle speed.
 Spindle speed depends on the type of system you use and it ranges from 30,000 rpm to
100,000 rpm.
 Higher spindle speed comes with higher accuracy and better precision.
 The whole positioning system consists of stepper motor for x and y axis and pneumatic
piston for z axis and simple DC motor is used to control the spindle speed.
 In order to control higher speed, RF spindle motor control is used.
 More advanced drive systems come with monitored stepper motor that provides greater
control during milling and drilling process.
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Other Processes

 After completing the milling process, you can solder required components into the board
based on your needs and requirements.
 There are two ways to place and solder the components on the board. One is through
hole process and other is surface mount process.
 Through hole process involves inserting the leads into the PCB hole and then connect
to the pins of right components.
 This process becomes obsolete as it is an older process and occupies more space.
 Surface mount technology is an advanced method in which components are mount on
the board surface and then soldered to the right components.
 This process occupies lesser space than through hole process and is an ideal choice for
most of the professionals.
 Be sure to take appropriate measure before soldering the components. The solder you
use for soldering the components mostly consists of lead that is considered as a toxic
material.
 And the fumes created by the the soldering can be hazardous to health.
 27

 It is better to clean and extract the fumes before you discharge them into the
environment.
 You must take safety measures before you start milling the board. You should wear
safety goggles, use the drill bit carefully and put your hand away from the board when
spindle is active.

Advantages
 PCB milling process comes with a lot of benefits because it involves no hazardous
chemical and is an ideal choice for mass production.
 Best part is that CNC milling can be used for multiple purpose i.e milling, drilling and
cutting.
 You can change the bits based on your needs and requirements.
 Some PCB boards that are easy to create using PCB milling process are very difficult to
create using wet etching process that also involves manual drilling afterwards which
costs lot more than regular milling process.

 1. It does not require the hazardous chemicals

 2. PCBs can be produced within the lab

 3. PCB fabrication is instant

 4. Tracks and land patterns can be produced very accurately, such as for microwave and
RF applications

 5. A single machine can be used for milling, drilling, and cutting the PCB

 6. The Gerber files can be directly linked to the CNC machine

 7.Suitable for environments where PCBs are sufficient to be used without solder
masking, through-hole plated vias and pads, and surface finishing

This method also has some disadvantages:

1. It is not suitable for large-scale production

2. PCB cost is high due to tools breakage

3. Spindle cooling is required for high-speed spindle machines

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4. Minimum PCB tracks width, clearance, via size, annular ring, and minimum hole size are the
design side constraints

5. Separate machining setup is required for vias and through-hole pads insertion

6. Any misalignment or deviation in drilling or milling tool causes inaccuracies in

the fabricated PCBs. The PCB object’s position precision is highly dependent on the machine
spindle and tool.

In conclusion, the large quantity of precision PCBs production best suits the wet or etching
method, and minimal scale prototype testing PCBs suit using the CNC fabrication method.

Alternative Methods

 Laser etching is a great alternative to both chemical etching and milling process.
 This process is an ideal choice for most of the applications because it involves no direct contact with
the board and it removes the material without physically touching it.
 When it comes to high precision and greater accuracy, laser etching process is preferable and is mostly
used for advanced microwave and RF designs.
 This process involves low power consumption, delivers high accuracy, doesn’t make use of lubricants
and abrasive material and pertains to low wear and tear and needs less maintenance.
 However, this process also comes with some limitations and is expensive as compared to other
processes.
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Unit-5
Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is such a device that maintains constant output voltage, instead of any kind of fluctuations
in the input voltage being applied or any variations in current, drawn by the load.

Depending upon the type of regulation, the regulators are mainly divided into two
types namely, line and load regulators.
 Line Regulator − The regulator which regulates the output voltage to be constant,
in spite of input line variations, it is called as Line regulator.
 Load Regulator − The regulator which regulates the output voltage to be
constant, in spite of the variations in load at the output, it is called as Load
regulator.

Depending upon the type of connection, there are two type of voltage regulators.
They are

 Series voltage regulator

 Shunt voltage regulator
The arrangement of them in a circuit will be just as in the following figures.
 30

Zener Voltage Regulator

A Zener voltage regulator is one which uses Zener diode for regulating the output
voltage.
When the Zener diode is operated in the breakdown or Zener region, the voltage across
it is substantially constant for a large change of current through it. This characteristic
makes Zener diode a good voltage regulator.
The following figure shows an image of a simple Zener regulator.

The applied input voltage ViVi when increased beyond the Zener voltage Vz, then the
Zener diode operates in the breakdown region and maintains constant voltage across
the load. The series limiting resistor Rs limits the input current.

Working of Zener Voltage Regulator

The Zener diode maintains the voltage across it constant in spite of load variations and
input voltage fluctuations. Hence we can consider 4 cases to understand the working of
a Zener voltage regulator.
Case 1 − If the load current IL increases, then the current through the Zener
diode IZ decreases in order to maintain the current through the series
resistor RS constant. The output voltage Vo depends upon the input voltage Vi and
voltage across the series resistor RS.
This is can be written as
Vo=Vin−IRs
Where II is constant. Therefore, VoVo also remains constant.

Case 2 − If the load current IL decreases, then the current through the Zener
diode IZ increases, as the current ISIS through RS series resistor remains constant.
Though the current IZ through Zener diode increases it maintains a constant output
voltage VZ, which maintains the load voltage constant.
 31

Case 3 − If the input voltage Vi increases, then the current ISIS through the series
resistor RS increases. This increases the voltage drop across the resistor,
i.e. VS increases. Though the current through Zener diode IZ increases with this, the
voltage across Zener diode VZ remains constant, keeping the output load voltage
constant.
Case 4 − If the input voltage decreases, the current through the series resistor decreases
which makes the current through Zener diode IZ decreases. But the Zener diode
maintains output voltage constant due to its property.

Limitations of Zener Voltage Regulator

There are a few limitations for a Zener voltage regulator. They are −

 It is less efficient for heavy load currents.

 The Zener impedance slightly affects the output voltage.
Hence a Zener voltage regulator is considered effective for low voltage applications.
Now, let us go through the other types of voltage regulators, which are made using
transistors.

Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

This regulator has a transistor in series to the Zener regulator and both in parallel to the
load. The transistor works as a variable resistor regulating its collector emitter voltage in
order to maintain the output voltage constant. The figure below shows the transistor
series voltage regulator.
 32

With the input operating conditions, the current through the base of the transistor
changes. This effects the voltage across the base emitter junction of the transistor VBE.
The output voltage is maintained by the Zener voltage VZ which is constant. As both of
them are maintained equal, any change in the input supply is indicated by the change in
emitter base voltage VBE.
Hence the output voltage Vo can be understood as
Vo = Vz - Vbe
VO=VZ+VBE
Working of Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

The working of a series voltage regulator shall be considered for input and load
variations. If the input voltage is increased, the output voltage also increases. But this in
turn makes the voltage across the collector base junction VBE to decrease, as the Zener
voltage VZ remains constant. The conduction decreases as the resistance across
emitter collector region increases. This further increases the voltage across collector
emitter junction VCE thus reducing the output voltage VO. This will be similar when the
input voltage decreases.
When the load changes occur, which means if the resistance of the load decreases,
increasing the load current IL, the output voltage VO decreases, increasing the emitter
base voltage VBE.
With the increase in the emitter base voltage VBEVBE the conduction increases
reducing the emitter collector resistance. This in turn increases the input current which
compensates the decrease in the load resistance. This will be similar when the load
current increases.

Limitations of Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

Transistor Series Voltage Regulators have the following limitations −

 The voltages VBE and VZ are affected by the rise in temperature.

 No good regulation for high currents is possible.
 Power dissipation is high.
 Power dissipation is high.
 Less efficient.
To minimize these limitations, transistor shunt regulator is used.
 33

Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

A transistor shunt regulator circuit is formed by connecting a resistor in series with the
input and a transistor whose base and collector are connected by a Zener diode that
regulates, both in parallel with the load. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a
transistor shunt regulator.

Working of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

If the input voltage increases, the VBE and VO also gets increased. But this happens
initially. Actually when Vin increases, the current Iin also increases. This current when
flows through RS, causes a voltage drop VS across the series resistor, which also gets
increased with Vin. But this makes VoVo to decrease. Now this decrease
in VoVo compensates the initial increase maintaining it to be constant. Hence Vo is
maintained constant. If the output voltage decreases instead, the reverse happens.

If the load resistance decreases, there should be decrease in the output voltage Vo. The
current through the load increases. This makes the base current and collector current of
the transistor to decrease. The voltage across the series resistor becomes low, as the
current flows heavily. The input current will be constant.

The output voltage appears will be the difference between the applied voltage Vi and
the series voltage drop Vs. Hence the output voltage will be increased to compensate
the initial decrease and hence maintained constant. The reverse happens if the load
resistance increases.
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Difference between shunt voltage regulator and series

voltage regulator
Shunt voltages regulator Series voltages regulator

Shunt voltage regulator has good Series voltage regulator has not so
voltage regulation even at high load good voltage regulation at high load
currents. currents.

In the shunt voltage regulator the In the series voltage regulator the
output DC voltage is constant. output DC voltages is not constant.

Shunt voltage regulator is connected Series voltages regulator is connected

in shunt with the load. in series with the load.

Shunt voltages regulator has good It has good efficiency for higher load
efficiency for low load current. currents.

It is appropriate for light loads. It is appropriate for heavy loads.

Shunt voltage regulator has poor Series voltages regulator has better
voltage is constant. voltage regulation.

The control element has to bear the The control element has to carry the
load voltage across it. So, it is a high load current. So, it is a high current low
voltage low current device. voltage device.