2024 Paris Session
10546
A2 Power transformers and reactors
PS1 Design of resilient transformers
Transformer Sustainable Refurbishment for Ultra Long-Life
Ed TENYENHUIS* Lars Andreas ERIKSSON Goizeder PAJARO
Hitachi Energy Hitachi Energy Hitachi Energy
Canada Norway Spain
ed.g.tenyenhuis@ lars-andreas.eriksson goizeder.pajaro@
hitachienergy.com @hitachienergy.com hitachienergy.com
SUMMARY
There is an urgent, ever-growing need to strategically plan for power transformer life well
beyond 50 years. The demand for new power transformers to meet the expected rapid grid and
generation expansion for global decarbonization could be massive in scale and challenge the
present manufacturing capacity. Transformer greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to losses
are significant and can be reduced by new more efficient transformers. Power transformer
manufacturing requires vast quantities of copper and grain oriented electrical steel – which are
also required for decarbonization technologies such as renewable generation, grid battery
storage and electric vehicle production. Global copper production may need to double by 2040,
which will be difficult to achieve. Grain oriented electrical steel is produced by a limited
number of specialized steel mills which will require huge investment to expand. Greatly
extending the life of existing transformers, rather than replacement, could thus better allow
limited manufacturing capacity and resources to support sustainability strategies around
decarbonization, circularity, material avoidance, even providing higher transformer efficiency.
Considering the above constraints, asset managers should use a multifactor approach regarding
transformer condition assessment, lifecycle financial analysis and sustainability Life Cycle
Analysis (LCA) to assist in planning life extension. There are important sustainability benefits
with keeping power transformers in service versus replacing with new transformers,
considering that transformer replacement requires large carbon emissions from the raw
materials, manufacturing, and transport. On the contrary, there are minimal carbon emissions
from performing refurbishment at site for life extension. Most aged transformers do have a
large remaining cellulose life and it is prudent to let them remain in service for many more
decades if other issues could be managed. If the analysis provides a feasibility scenario around
life extension, even in case of failure or solid insulation at the end of lifetime, the transformer
can be rewound with a far reduced carbon emission footprint (versus new transformer) due to
large material reuse of the core, tank, and other key components of the existing transformer.
The large installed transformer base, particularly in North America and Europe, is already
greater than 40 years old. There are sustainable refurbishment strategies available that provide
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life extension and high reliability for several more decades (much like a new transformer), by
implementing:
• Replacement of auxiliaries (bushings, controls, tap changer) and gaskets
• Oil reclamation and dry out
• Cooling upgrade
• Windings replacement in factory facility or at site for lower winding losses and
advanced insulation in the event of transformer failure or insulation at the end of life.
This was demonstrated with cases that showed on site life extension of 30 years for a 55-year-
old and a 60-year-old transformer. Cases were also shown for new winding replacement
performed on site and in a factory that reused most of the transformer materials (core, tank,
accessories) for a 70% product CO2 emission savings versus new transformer replacement.
Refurbishment investment for ultra-long transformer life extension versus replacement has
large cost savings, but more importantly, has significant benefits for global decarbonization due
to carbon emission reduction and reduced strain on transformer production, global copper
supply and grain oriented electrical steel capacity.
KEYWORDS
Life Extension, Sustainability, Transformer
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1. INTRODUCTION
There is an urgent, ever-growing need to strategically plan for aged power transformers to
remain in service well beyond 50 years. The bulk of the installed power transformer base,
particularly in North America and Europe, is in the 40–60 year range. As it is projected that
the amount of electricity to be transmitted and distributed in the global power system will triple
between today and 2050 [1], it would be an almost impossible task to replace this vast quantity
of aged transformers in the short term with practical limitations of capital, transformer
manufacturing capacity and outages for replacement while providing the required additional
capacity for new transformers as well. The transformer manufacturing capacity already has a
multi-year backlog and while new capacity may be added, it does not seem possible that
replacement of the aged installed base can be done simultaneously with the massive new
transformer demand for grid expansion and renewables.
Given the projected increase in electricity generation and consumption over the following
decades, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy losses in transformers are expected to
grow around 50% by 2040 [2] (assuming no changes in current energy efficiency
specifications). Fossil fuels presently account for 62% of global power generation [3] and as
electricity grids will continue to decarbonize, GHG emissions from operational energy losses
will still continue to dominate the total life-cycle GHG emissions at the transformer level.
From a typical power transformer perspective, more than 90% of the remaining total life cycle
emissions (without considering emissions from operational energy losses) are associated with
the embedded carbon content from the extraction and processing of many of the main materials.
Transformer manufacturing requires huge amounts of raw materials (copper, carbon steel,
aluminium), insulating oil and electrical steel. Electrical steel used in the transformer core is
only produced by a limited number of specialized steel mills globally due to the complicated
technology and large investment. Copper and aluminium global demand is expected to double
by 2040 due to the huge expansion of the power grid [4]. Copper supply could be volatile due
to the need for new mining capacity versus mining project long lead time, declining resource
quality, growing scrutiny of mine environmental and social performance and higher exposure
to climate risks (copper extraction has high water requirements) [4]. Thus, increasing demand
for renewable technologies and other electrical power equipment will also be competing for
these main raw materials (steel, copper, and aluminium), which will challenge transformer
manufacturing capacity expansion.
Since transformers are material-intensive devices, reducing the need for virgin raw materials in
the transformer value chain is not only contributing to reducing CO2 emissions, but also easing
the material challenge of the energy transition. As adding more renewable and low carbon
power generation and storage technologies is the key lever to decarbonizing the energy system,
the energy transition is also a transition from a fossil-fuel to a material-intensive energy system.
From this perspective, there is a need for better balancing to better between supply of material
intensive new transformers with lower operational energy losses and extending the life of
existing transformers to reduce the need for raw materials.
It is thus overall recommended in this paper that future transformer manufacturing capacity be
mostly reserved for grid expansion / renewables and that the aged assets be mostly provided
life extension actions to keep them in service for another 20 – 30 years. In summary, this is a
reliable and sustainable solution that will also bring time and cost benefits, reducing outage
time, as well as avoid the need for any civil modifications to the transformer bay which may be
needed for a new unit.
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2. TRANSFORMER CANDIDACY FOR LIFE EXTENSION
Not every aged transformer is a good candidate for life extension. Transformers should be
assessed for their condition to ensure there are no pre-existing issues and that the transformer
windings have significant cellulose life remaining.
Transformer condition assessment should be a structured consistent methodology to analyse
transformer condition and calculate the transformer percent risk of failure [5]. This is based
upon the dissolved gas in oil analysis (DGA) history, oil quality, electrical test history, loading,
transformer monitoring data, maintenance performed, power system conditions, environment,
inspection records and transformer design. Transformer design models calculate the risk of
failure for several categories (dielectric, thermal, mechanical, accessories, random) and
combine the results into a single risk of failure value per Figure 1 below.
Figure 1 – Example of Transformer Condition Assessment Risk of Failure Calculation
In Table I is an example of calculated Table I - Example of Calculated Risk of Failure for a Set
of Transformers
percent risk of failure (per year) for a group
of transformers. Transformers with a low Risk of Relative Year
ID No. Failure Importance Manufactured
or normal risk of failure (green coloured) 1 1.59 40 1966
would be good candidates for life extension. 2 2.22 40 1966
3 1.22 40 1967
Transformers with a higher risk of failure 4 0.72 40 1968
5 0.98 40 1968
(yellow or red coloured) would be poor 6 1.78 40 1969
candidates for life extension especially if 7 3.78 100 1977
8 1.12 3 1966
the issues are due to transformer gassing or 9 2.67 3 1967
aged cellulose. These higher risk of failure 10 0.34 40 1984
11 2.48 40 1984
transformers should only be considered for 12 0.60 2 1972
life extension if the issues can be resolved 13
14
0.72
1.51
2
9
1972
1966
with life extension actions (accessory 15 1.90 0 1983
16 1.05 3 1966
replacement, oil upgrading etc). 17 1.31 3 1966
18 0.21 7 1991
19 1.64 20 1976
20 3.08 9 1980
21 3.67 9 1980
22 1.35 53 1978
23 0.68 53 1989
24 2.02 53 1969
25 0.33 2 1989
26 0.51 2 1981
27 0.43 0 1986
28 4.10 3 1988
29 0.90 15 1975
30 4.18 40 1982
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3. TRANSFORMER SUSTAINABILITY LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA)
Quantifying life-cycle environmental and carbon impacts of transformers ensures best-
informed decisions towards total cost of ownership and sustainability goals with new
transformers or life extension of existing transformers. From a customer perspective, GHG
accounting according to the GHG protocol classifies emissions into three categories:
• GHG Scope 1 emissions: direct GHG emissions from on-site activities
• GHG Scope 2 emissions: GHG emissions from externally procured electricity and heat
• GHG Scope 3 emissions: from the remaining value chain including among others, the
upstream emissions from procured goods and services, transportation and downstream
chain such as emissions from end-of-life disposal.
Product carbon footprint estimation (i.e. climate change total kg CO2 eq) can be done to compare
carbon emissions from several transformer life cycle scenarios. This is based upon LCA
methodology (ISO 14040/14044), and product category rules (EN15804+A2:2022-11) and
includes:
• A1-A3 Product Stage: Activities from raw materials extraction, treatment and processing /
upstream transportation from supplier to transformer factory and product manufacturing
process.
• A4-A5 Construction Stage: Downstream transportation from factory to customer and
construction installation
• B1-B7 Use Stage: Downstream product during the operation of the transformer.
• C1-C4 End of Life Stage: Downstream processes at the disposal of the transformer.
An analysis of estimated environmental performance is included in Case 3 below.
4. TRANSFORMER LIFE EXTENSION
There are sustainable refurbishment strategies available that provide life extension for several
decades, with the same reliability as a new transformer. These actions can all be done at site
with a very low level of resulting GHG emissions from travel, equipment transport and energy
consumption on-site:
1. Replacement of bushings – Bushings have been shown to be a leading cause of
transformer failure [6] and should be replaced with engineered dimensional
replacements to match the original fit and electrical parameters. If the original bushings
were oil filled porcelain type, it is advisable to replace with dry type for improved safety
due to fire prevention and minimization of damage to the transformer in the event of
bushing failure.
2. Replacement or maintenance of on load tap changer – Similar to bushings, on load tap
changers are a leading cause of transformer failure [6]. Major maintenance or upgrade
to vacuum technology of the on load tap changer can extend the transformer life.
3. Off load tap changer maintenance or bypassing – Off load tap changers frequently
become inoperable or cause gassing (coking of the contacts) due to lack of use. During
a life extension program, the off load tap changer can be inspected internally and cleaned
to ensure good working condition, or can be fixed into a single position to eliminate any
chance of future issues.
4. Digital transformer retrofit – Pursue not only the conventional replacement of existing
accessories but equip existing transformer with the latest state of the art sensors and
monitoring equipment, enabling proactive / predictive maintenance and increasing
reliability and effectiveness of the assets.
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5. Replacement of control cabinet and electrical wiring
6. Transformer re-gasketing – Gaskets age over time due to mechanical stress and heat.
Aged gaskets can leak causing moisture and oxygen ingress into the transformer which
can hasten cellulose aging. The complete replacement of all gaskets is recommended.
It should also be examined if any gaskets should be upgraded to a better suited material
(i.e. for high temperature) or the gasket system be changed.
7. Transformer tank surface treatment, weld repairs and valve replacement
8. Cover gas piping repairs or replacement
9. Cooling upgrade – A design study can determine if the MVA of the transformer can be
increased with changes in cooling (such as adding fans) [7]. It is very typical to be able
to increase the nameplate MVA rating by 5 - 10% with cooling modifications and with
no increase in the winding temperatures (no increased cellulose aging). Another
sustainable approach that could be implemented for certain applications is heat recovery
in the transformer to feed district heating, industrial facility, or process.
10. Oil reclamation or replacement – The oil inside the transformer can degrade over time,
and oil properties can usually be returned to new oil values by oil reclamation. On some
occasions it may be more practical or economical to replace the oil.
11. Dry out to reduce moisture in cellulose to below 1% for reduced insulation aging.
12. Internal inspection by transformer design engineer – If the transformer is drained, this
is an excellent opportunity for inspection of the windings, core and leads by an
experienced transformer design engineer to validate there are no issues. Minor repairs,
such as re-taping of leads or re-tightening loose parts, can also be done.
13. Full electrical testing (after completion of all work) including routine tests (ratio,
resistance, insulation resistance, power factor) and advanced tests (sweep frequency
response analysis, dielectric frequency response) for future baseline. In special cases, a
mobile high voltage test laboratory can perform high voltage tests, such as applied
voltage, induced voltage, and loss evaluation.
If the transformer is at end of life (due to cellulose condition) or the transformer has failed, the
replacement of windings at a factory facility or at the site can be considered. The windings can
be designed for lower winding losses, advanced insulation and with modern winding design
practices. This is also a sustainable refurbishment action (in the event of transformer failure or
insulation at the end of lifetime) since the core and tank are reused with a lower impact on GHG
emissions as in the case of a total transformer replacement.
5. CASES OF LIFE EXTENSION
Below are cases of selected life extension projects of transformers to demonstrate the
sustainability benefits.
Table II - Representative user cases from 3 countries
User Cases Life Extension Description Country of origin
1 Major Transformer Refurbishment at site Canada
2 Major Transformer Refurbishment at site Norway
3 Transformer Repair at site Spain
4 Advanced Transformer Refurbishment at Service premises Canada
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5.1 Case 1 – Site Transformer Refurbishment
A 60-year-old transmission transformer was refurbished on site for life extension. Although
this may be considered an old transformer, it had performed reliably during its service life, did
not have any pre-existing internal issues and the winding cellulose was deemed to have
significant life remaining. However, the transformer did have numerous leaks, aged oil and
aged accessories. It was decided to perform a major refurbishment on site to extend the
transformer life for another 30 years.
The list of performed tasks include:
- Replacement of original OIP bushings with dry type. - Replacement of accessories
- Engineering expert internal inspection - Bolted cover converted to welded type
- Oil replacement - Dry out of transformer
- Replacement of all gaskets, valves - Pre and post electrical testing
- Tank weld repairs
This work scope was completed during a 4 week outage. The transformer has been in service
for almost 1 year since the life extension actions and operates without any issue. This is a typical
scope for a major refurbishment type of life extension services.
Figure 2 – Case 1 Transformer
5.2 Case 2 – Site Transformer Refurbishment
A 55-year-old Norwegian transformer rated for 100 MVA at 300 kV went through a major
refurbishment triggered by its condition. The main issues with the transformer were oil leaks,
defective breathers, and old bushings without available measurement tap (to allow for bushing
condition assessment using diagnostic measurement of the dielectric properties of the bushing).
Because of the age of the transformer, a thorough condition assessment was performed prior to
the refurbishment. This condition assessment included full diagnostic measurements and
estimation of the cellulose condition based on actual operational data for a period of 10 years
(assumed to be representative of the transformer operating life).
The cellulose condition was assessed according to a methodology described by Sintef Energy
Research [8] and thermal modelling in accordance with transformer design tools and methods
of its manufacturer. The hot-spot factor and location was calculated as well as the temperature-
dependency with regards to the load.
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When assessing the quality of the solid insulation (kraft paper), it is best practice to consider
the average length of the glucose-chains of the cellulose molecules as the determining quality
indicator [9], normally denoted Degree of Polymerization (DP) value. The average length of
the cellulose molecules is linked to the tensile strength, and it is common to assume that the DP
value of new and dried kraft paper is in the range of 1000-1250 and that the DP value of 200
denotes a region where the solid insulation has reached end-of life due to low tensile strength
[10].
Normally, the winding hot-spot is in the top of the winding due to the dynamics of the
temperature gradient of the surrounding oil and the radial magnetic flux near the end of the
windings. However, for this unit, it was revealed that the winding design caused the hot-spot
location with the most severe ageing to be located lower than usual; approximately 1/3 of the
winding height from the top. Since the oil in the top of a transformer is warmer than at the
bottom, this yields lower temperatures and reduced ageing compared to the common cellulose
ageing estimates.
For transparency reasons, the cellulose condition was calculated employing both the measured
top-oil temperatures and a compensated oil temperature to account for the expected lower
temperature. Figure 3 displays the condition of the cellulose of the hottest part of this
transformer from 1967 (year of commissioning) to 2070. Both methods of assessing the
condition of the solid insulation and simulating its future expected degradation indicated that
the lifespan of this unit could be extended to exceed 100 years of operation if proper care was
given.
1200
Condition in hot-spot employing top oil temperature
1000 Condition in hot-spot employing compensated temperature
DP End = 200
800
600
DP-value
400
200
0
1967 1982 1996 2011 2026 2041 2055 2070
Year
Figure 3 - Estimated cellulose condition from year of commissioning to 2070
The moisture in the solid insulation was estimated to be 1.5%, which is considered as dry given
the age of the unit. The oil condition was assessed to be serviceable, mostly due to an oil
reclaiming performed around the year 2000. Following the first 30 years of service, the original
inhibitor of the oil was consumed, allowing oxidization and acids to form. The successful
reclaiming removed these acids and removed additional reactive compounds (such as sulphur)
from the oil and the solid insulation, further enhancing the performance of the oil for the
subsequent years. Table III presents some key quality indicators on different times in the
service life of the oil in this transformer. The oil parameters reveal that the formation of acids
in the oil was eliminated following the successful oil reclaiming performed around 2000.
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Table III - Key quality indicators for the oil in the transformer
Acidity Interfacial Inhibitor
Year Colour
[mgKOH/g] Tension [mN/m] Content [%]
Commissioning (typical) 1970 0-1 0.01 45 - 50 0.1
Before reclaiming 2000 2 0.09 34 0
After reclaiming 2000 1 0.01 47 0.35
Before refurbishment 2022 1.5 0.01 36 0.22
With this knowledge, it was decided to invest in refurbishment of the transformer during a 4
week outage. All the capacitance graded bushings were replaced with dry resin impregnated
(RIP) type bushings. Leaking gaskets and defective breathers were replaced. When all the
selected actions were performed, the oil was filled back into the transformer under vacuum
while heating and degassing it. Following the refurbishment, fingerprint dielectric frequency
responses of the new capacitance graded bushings were measured to allow for future trend
analysis and early diagnosis of fault under development [11].
5.3 Case 3 – On Site Transformer Repair
The third case is an on-site transformer repair in Spain (after failure) of a core type, auto
connected, three phase transformer with rating 450 MVA // 400 kV around renewables
application. The scope of the project consisted of winding replacement, retrofit of the magnetic
core and bushings replacement. The remaining materials were reused from the existing failed
transformer. The site repair was done in a temporary building close to the electrical substation
with a controlled atmosphere. Below are shown pictures of the temporary building construction
and repair work inside the building.
Figure 4: Footprint and temporary building allocated to perform the on-site repair
Maintaining dryness of the insulation during the site repair was paramount. Windings were
manufactured at a transformer service facility. The windings and insulation components were
vapor-phased and oil impregnated prior to shipment.
Figure 5: Temporary building during assembly and HV Testing process at site
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Following the complete assembly of active part, the unit was tanked and prepared for final
drying. The moisture in cellulose was reduced to below 1% using the Low Frequency Heating
(LFH) technology [12], which has similar end results as new transformer factory vapor phase
drying.
On site high voltage (HV) testing was performed including impulse, switching impulse, applied
voltage, induced voltage with PD measurement and loss measurement. The transformer has
been in service for 2 years since the repair.
In this case an LCA analysis comparing the On-site Repair (Scenario 1) with Transformer
Replacement (Scenario 2) was performed. Figure 6 compares the carbon footprint assessment
for both scenarios from cradle to grave. GHG emissions are calculated considering grid GHG
emission factors for both units together with 40 years life expectancy. It is worth to highlight
that “B1- Use Stage” emissions (operational losses) are the largest category of the total carbon
emissions over the transformer life-cycle in both scenarios.
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
0
Scenario 1 (On site repair) Scenario 2 (TR Replacement)
Total: 1.400.291 Kg CO2eq Total: 2.241.834 Kg Co2eq
A1 - Product Stage - Raw material Supply 235,330 856,607
A3 - Product Stage - Manufacturing 2,933 8,800
A2 - Product Stage - Transport 9,829 121,568
A4 - Construction Stage - Transport 2,266 53,917
B1 - Use Stage - Use 1,069,704 1,069,704
C1-C4: End of Life Stage 80,229 131,238
Figure 6: Product Carbon Footprint (Climate change total Kg CO2 eq) - Case 3 – On Site Repair versus New Transformer
On the other hand, considering electricity grids will continue decarbonize along the following
years resulting on different carbon footprint, Figure 7 provides a Scope 3 comparison from the
customer perspective around material intensity and virgin raw materials avoidance across
transformer value chain. In this regard, operating at the same energy efficiency level, the
analysis shows that Scope 3 emissions from the On-site repair Scenario 1 are 72% less than the
Transformer Replacement baseline Scenario 2 emissions.
10
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
Scenario 1 (On site
Scenario 2 (new unit) Scenario 1
repair)
Total*: 1,172,130 Kg vs
Total*: 330,587 Kg
Co2eq Scenario 2 (%)
CO2eq
A1 - Product Stage - Raw material
235,330 856,607 -73%
Supply
A3 - Product Stage - Manufacturing 2933 8,800 -67%
A2 - Product Stage - Transport 9,829 121,568 -92%
A4 - Construction Stage - Transport 2,266 53,917 -96%
C1-C4: End of Life Stage 80,229 131,238 -39%
Figure 7: Scope 3 Product Carbon Footprint (Climate change total Kg CO2 eq) – On Site Repair versus New Transformer
Overall, the On-site Repair represents 38% reduction on carbon emissions (cradle to grave)
compared to New Transformer Replacement. For this case, that means 841,543 kg CO2 eq were
avoided thanks to life extension services performed on site. In terms of circularity, material
reused in the On-site Repair Scenario 1 (tank, core, tap changer, oil, cooling equipment and
accessories) enabled a reuse of 87% of existing material and the avoidance of around 321 Tn
of new material manufacturing and associated environmental impact to the ecosystem from the
extraction and processing when comparing with Replacement of a new unit (Scenario 2).
5.4 Case 4 – Advance Transformer Refurbishment at Factory
A 90 MVA transformer had not failed but the winding paper was shown to be near end of life.
The transformer was shipped to a factory for new windings and tank refurbishment. The
transformer was rewound with a modern winding design that included high temperature
insulation material (see Figure 8) and increased cooling capacity (see Figure 9) to allow the
nameplate rating to be increased to 152 MVA within the same tank and footprint. The
transformer was in a physically restricted vault so maintaining the original external size was
critical. These advanced refurbishment actions allowed the transformer to be returned to useful
service as an essentially new transformer with reduced carbon footprint compared to a new
transformer.
Figure 8 – Advanced Transformer Factory Refurbishment New Windings with Cooling Upgrade
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6. CONCLUSIONS
Demand for new power transformers to meet the expected rapid grid and generation expansion
for global decarbonization could be massive in scale and challenge manufacturing and virgin
raw material capacity. There should be set a balance between new equipment that will require
a massive demand on raw materials, and existing transformers that could be refurbished and
continue operating for a long time within a clear added value around circularity, recyclability
and reusability of existing raw material and transformer components, contributing as well to
avoid supply chain disruption and material price escalation.
Transformer candidates for life extensions should be assessed for their condition to ensure there
are no pre-existing issues and there is significant cellulose life remaining. Transformer life
extension actions can generally include bushing replacement, tap changer upgrade /
maintenance, gasket replacement, leak repairs, accessory replacement, cooling upgrade, dry
out, and oil reclaiming.
Cases were presented that showed on site life extension of 30 years for a 55-year-old and 60-
year-old transformer. Cases were also shown for new winding replacement performed on site
and in a factory that reused most of the transformer materials (core, tank, accessories) for a 70%
product CO2 emission savings versus a new transformer replacement.
Ultra long-life extension of aged transformers is viable, practical and a sustainable approach
that will support developing corporate climate targets and elaborating effective decarbonization
strategies in the electricity sector – which is a real opportunity to advance a sustainable energy
future for all.
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Session 2020
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