TECHNICAL DRAFTING

Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually
communicate how something functions or is constructed.
Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering. To make the
drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement,
notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. measurement. Together, such conventions constitute
a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous and relatively easy to
understand. Many of the symbols and principles of technical drawing are codified in an international
standard called ISO 128.
The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes
technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively
interpreted; their meanings are multiply determined. Technical drawings are understood to have one
intended meaning.
A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing (technical or expressive). A
professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician.

METHODS
Sketching
A sketch is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is
usually not intended as a finished work. In general, sketching
is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's
sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas
and establish a composition before a more finished work,
especially when the finished work is expensive and time-
consuming.
Sketch for a government building

Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used
by architects as a means of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to
abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarize their complex patterns,
hereby enhancing the design process.

Manual or by instrument
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other
material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight
sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as
a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid
across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.

A drafting table.
"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and
running a pencil or technical pen along the T-square's edge. The T-
square is used to hold other devices such as set squares or
triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of
known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the
edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to
others on the page. Modern drafting tables come equipped with
a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to
slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both
sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.

Old-fashioned technical drawing instruments

In addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to

draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses,
used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the French curve, for
drawing curves. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that
can be manually bent to most curves.

Stencils for lettering technical drawings to DIN standards

Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to
reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols;
i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will draw from the USITT standard library of lighting
fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are
sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not
uncommon for a drafter to create his own templates.

This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the
tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby
throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a
number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general, drafting can be a time-consuming
process.

A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an
application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these
situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite
quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for
the triangles as well.
In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece
of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough
understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands
precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.

Computer aided design

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the
use of computer-aided design systems (CAD).
There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical
drawings: two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D").

2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or MicroStation replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines,
circles, arcs, and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the
user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first
and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections and cross-section views. A 2D CAD
system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical
drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional
hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a
modification is required, a new drawing must be made from
scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be
modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to
create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but
provide no way to check the various components will fit together.

An example of a drawing drafted in AutoCAD

A 3D CAD system (such as KeyCreator, Autodesk Inventor, or SolidWorks) first produces the geometry
of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of that geometry. Any orthographic,
projected or sectioned view is created by the software.
There is no scope for error in the production of these views.
The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of
first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant
symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual
parts to be assembled together to represent the final
product. Buildings, aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled,
assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings
are released for manufacture.

View of a CAD model of a four-

cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons
Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. The various
disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have industry recognized symbols to
represent common components.
BS and ISO produce standards to show recommended practices but it is up to individuals to produce
the drawings to a standard. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The only standard across
engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic projections and cross-section views.
In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the objects can be
described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many views and sections that are
required to show all features of object.

Applications

Architecture
The art and design that goes into making buildings is known
as architecture. To communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail
drawings are used. In this field, the term plan is often used when
referring to the full section view of these drawings as viewed from three
feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways, windows,
stairwells, etc. Architectural drawings describe and document an
architect's design.

To plan a renovation, this architect takes measurements, which he later

enters into his computer-aided design software.

Engineering
Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin ingenerare, meaning "to
create". Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower definition in
the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered
items, such as manufactured parts and equipment.

Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout,
nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such
as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.

Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all

the geometric features of a product or a component. The
end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the
required information that will allow a manufacturer to
produce that component.

Engineering drawing of a machine tool part

Technical drawings
Types
The two types of technical drawings are based on graphical projection. This is used to create an
image of a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface.
Two-dimensional representation
Two-dimensional representation uses orthographic projection to create an image where only two of
the three dimensions of the object are seen.
Three-dimensional representation
In a three-dimensional representation, also referred to as a pictorial, all three dimensions of an object
are visible.

Views
Multiview
Multiview is a type of orthographic projection. There are two conventions for using multiview, first-
angle and third-angle. In both cases, the front or main side of the object is the same. First-angle is
drawing the object sides based on where they land. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the
object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen will be drawn to the right of the front side. Third-angle is
drawing the object sides based on where they are. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object
90 degrees to the right. What is seen is actually the left side of the object and will be drawn to the left
of the front side.
Section
While multiview relates to external surfaces of an object, section views show an imaginary plane cut
through an object. This is often useful to show voids in an object.
Auxiliary
Auxiliary views utilize an additional projection plane other than the common planes in a multiview.
Since the features of an object need to show the true shape and size of the object, the projection plane
must be parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major
axis needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly.
Pattern
Patterns, sometimes called developments, show the size and shape of a flat piece of material needed
for later bending or folding into a three-dimensional shape.
Exploded

Exploded-view drawing of a gear pump

An exploded-view drawing is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order
of assembly of the various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance
or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is
represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object,
causing the object's parts to be separated relative distances away from their original locations.
An exploded view drawing (EVD) can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In
mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center is assembled first or is the main part
in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts,
where the parts on the outside normally get removed first.

Standards and conventions

Basic drafting paper sizes
There have been many standard sizes of paper at different times and in different countries, but today
most of the world uses the international standard (A4 and its siblings). North America uses its own
sizes.

ISO "A series" papers sizes used in most countries of the world

ANSI paper sizes used in North America

 TECHNICAL DRAWING TOOLS
Drafting tools may be used for measurement and layout of drawings, or to improve the consistency and speed of
creation of standard drawing elements. Tools such as pens and pencils mark the drawing medium. Other tools such
as straight edges, assist the operator in drawing straight lines. Various scales and the protractor are used to measure
the lengths of lines and angles, allowing accurate scale drawing to be carried out! The compass is used to draw arcs
and circles. A drawing board was used to hold the drawing media in place; later boards included drafting machines
that sped the layout of straight lines and angles. Tools such as templates and lettering guides assisted in the drawing
of repetitive elements such as circles, ellipses, schematic symbols and text. Other auxiliary tools were used for special
drawing purposes or for functions related to the preparation and revision of drawings. The tools used for
manual technical drawing have been displaced by the advent of computer-aided drawing, draughting and design
(CADD).

Pencil
Traditional and typical styli used for technical drawing are pencils and technical pens.
Pencils in use are usually mechanical pencils with a standard lead thickness. The usual line widths are 0.18 mm,
0.25 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm. Hardness varies usually from HB to 2H. Softer lead gives a better contrast, but harder
lead gives a more accurate line. Bad contrast of the lead line in general is problematic when photocopying, but new
scanning copy techniques have improved the final result. Paper or plastic surfaces require their own lead types.

"Drawing pens"

In most cases, the final drawings are drawn with ink, on either plastic or tracing paper. The pen is generally
a Rapidograph-type technical pen, a marker pen that draws lines of consistent width (so-called steel marker pen).
The pen has an ink container which contains a metal tube, inside which is a thin metal needle or wire, the soul. Ink is
absorbed between the needle and the tube wall, preventing an excessive amount of ink from being released. The
needle has a weight and by waving the pen back and forth the needle is released and the ink can run. Originally, the
tank was filled from an ink bottle; newer pens use ink cartridges.
Each line width has its own stylus. The line width is standardized: In Finland, the most commonly used set is 0.13 mm,
0.18 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.50 mm and 0.70 mm. Separate styli are used for tracing paper and plastic, because
plastic requires a harder pen tip. To function well they require regular maintenance, the finest marker pens in
particular.
Drafting board
The drawing board is an essential tool. Paper will be attached and kept straight and still, so that the drawing can be
done with accuracy. Generally, different kind of assistance rulers are used in drawing. The drawing board is usually
mounted to a floor pedestal in which the board turns to a different position, and also its height can be adjustable.
Smaller drawing boards are produced for table-top use. In the 18th and 19th centuries, drawing paper was dampened
and then its edges glued to the drawing board. After drying the paper would be flat and smooth. The completed
drawing was then cut free. Paper could also be secured to the drawing board with drawing pins or even C-clamps.
More recent practice is to use self-adhesive tape to secure paper to the board, including the sophisticated use of
individualized adhesive dots from a dispensing roll. Some drawing boards are magnetized, allowing paper to be held
down by long steel strips. Boards used for overlay drafting or animation may include registration pins or peg bars to
ensure alignment of multiple layers of drawing media.

T-square
A T-square is a straightedge which uses the edge of the drawing board as a support. It is used with the drafting board
to draw horizontal lines and to align other drawing instruments. Wooden, metal, or plastic triangles with 30° and 60°
angles or with two 45° angles are used to speed drawing of lines at these commonly used angles. A continuously
adjustable 0–90° protractor is also in use. An alternative to the T-square is the parallel bar which is permanently
attached to the drawing board. It has a set of cables and pulleys to allow it to be positioned anywhere on the drawing
surface while still remaining parallel to the bottom of the board. The drafting machine replaces the T-square and
triangles.

Drafting machine

Right-handed parallelogram machine with a ballast.

A drafting machine is a device which is mounted to the drawing board. It has rulers whose angles can be precisely
adjusted with a controlling mechanism. There are two main types of apparatus: an arm-type parallelogram apparatus
based on a hinged arm; and a track-type apparatus which moves on a rail mounted to the top of the drawing board.
The accuracy of the arm type apparatus is better in the middle of the board, decreasing towards the edges, whereas
a track machine has a constant accuracy over the whole board. The drawing head of a track-type drafting machine
slides on bearings in a vertical rail, which in turn is moved along a horizontal, top-mounted rail. Both apparatus types
have an adjustable drawing-head with rules attached to a protractor scale so that the angle of the rules may be
adjusted.
A drafting machine allows easy drawing of parallel lines over the paper. The adjustable angle between the rulers
allows the lines to be drawn in varying accurate angles. Rulers may also be used as a support for separate special
rulers and letter templates. The rules are replaceable and they can be for example scale-rules.
Drawing apparatus has evolved from a drawing board mounted parallel ruler and a pantograph, which is a device
used for copying objects in an adjustable ratio of sizes.

French Curve
French curves are made of wood, plastic or celluloid. Some set squares also have these curves cut in the middle.
French curves are used for drawing curves which cannot be drawn with compasses. A faint freehand curve is first
drawn through the known points; the longest possible curve that coincides exactly with the freehand curve is then
found out from the French curves. Finally, a neat continuous curve is drawn with the aid of the French curves.

Rulers
Rulers used in technical drawing are usually made of polystyrene. It is used for drawing lines and connecting points.
Rulers come in two types according to the design of their edge. A ruler with a straight edge can be used with lead
pencils and felt pens, whereas when a technical pen is used the edge must be grooved to prevent the spread of the
ink.
An architect's scale
A scale ruler is a scaled, three-edged ruler which has six different scales marked to its sides. A typical combination for
building details is 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:25, 1:75 and 1:125. There are separate rulers for zoning work as well as for inch
units. Today scale rulers are made of plastic, formerly they were made of hardwood. A pocket-sized version is also
available, with scales printed on flexible plastic strips.
Compass
Compasses are used for drawing circles or arc segments of circles. One form has two straight legs joined by a hinge;
one leg has a sharp pivot point and the other has a holder for a technical pen or pencil. Another form, the beam
compass, has the pivot point and pen holder joined by a trammel bar, useful when drawing very large radius arcs.
Often a circle template is used instead of a compass when predefined circle sizes are required.

beam compass

Templates
Templates contain pre-dimensioned holes in the right scale to accurately draw a symbol or sign.
Letter templates are used for drawing text, including digits and letter characters. Diagrams are usually of a standard
letter shape and size to conform to standards of encodings (e.g. DIN or ANSI). For example, in Finland the series used
is 1.8 mm, 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5.0 mm and 7.0 mm. Except for the very biggest ones, the templates are only suitable for
technical pen drawing.
For drawing circles and circle-arcs, circle templates which contain a set of suitably-sized holes are used. Templates
are also available for other geometric shapes such as squares and for drawing ellipses, as well as many specialized
varieties for other purposes.
There are also specific templates to provide user with the most common symbols in use in different branches of
designing. For example, the architect templates can be used to draw different sized doors with their "opening arcs",
building and equipment symbols and furniture. The templates also provide the symbols for thermal insulation.

Two methods of drawing smooth curves in manual drafting are the use of French curves and flat splines (flexible
curves). A French curve is a drawing aid with many different smoothly-varying radiused curves on it; the manual
drafter can fit the French curve to some known reference points and draw a smooth curved line between them. A
spline is a flexible ruler, usually rubber or plastic coated with a metal "backbone", which can be smoothly shaped to
follow a desired curve and allows drawing a smooth line between initial reference points. Sometimes a spline is
temporarily held in position with small weights.

Perspective machines
A perspective machine is an instrument designed to create perspective drawings.

DRAWING MATERIALS
Drafting paper
Silk-paper -like translucent drafting paper that wrinkles when wetted. It is primarily suitable for pencils and felt tip
pens. Pencil marks can be corrected to some extent with an eraser.
Thick draft paper
Sandwich paper -like, thin translucent sheet of paper. Manufactured in different strengths, the surface may be slightly
polished. This paper also wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for pencil and felt tipped pens, and with limitations for
technical pens. An eraser can be used for pencil lines. Ink is difficult to erase without damage.
Cloth
Drafting linen was formerly used for technical drawings. It was durable and held up to handling, but it was difficult
to use in modern whiteprints for reproduction, and shrinking was a concern.
Tracing paper
Polished sandwich paper -like, translucent thick paper, which comes in different strengths. Wrinkles upon wetting.
Suitable for both graphite pencils and technical pens. An eraser or sharp scraper tool is used for corrections.
Tracing tube
Translucent plastic film, which is usually of gray or a light khaki shade. Common types are 0.05, 0.07 and 0.10 mm
thick. These films are also used in photocopying. The most commonly used materials are polyesters, and sometimes
also PVC or polycarbonate; arguably, a proprietary eponym or genericized trademark for this is called Mylar.
In drawing, plastic's specific advantages over translucent paper are higher mechanical strength and dimensional
accuracy; plastic does not, unlike paper, shrink or stretch with changing air humidity. Plastic is also as a surface
completely flat, while the surface of paper is relatively rough. Plastic is suitable for both pencils and drawing pens.
However, the surface tends to wear the pen tips, which must be made of hard-metal alloy. Ordinary ink is not
absorbed into the plastic at all, so the lines can easily be removed with an eraser. Photocopier marks can be removed
by scraping.
Inks
Drawing inks can be divided into two groups: India ink and polymer inks. India ink is used on paper and drafting film
plastics. The most commonly used India ink is a colloidal mixture of water and carbon black.
Dry transfer
Dry transfer decals can speed the production of repetitive drawing elements such as borders, title blocks, line types,
shading, and symbols. They were frequently used in the production of schematic drawings, maps, and printed circuit
board artwork, for example. Dry transfer lettering such as Letraset was used especially in lettering larger size
document annotations, or when consistency of lettering was especially required.

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis,
or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of
design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output
is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD (for
computer aided design and drafting) is also used.
Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA). In mechanical design it is
known as mechanical design automation (MDA) or computer-aided drafting (CAD), which includes the process of
creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting,
or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more
than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey
information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-
dimensional (3D) space.
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding,
and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to
produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called
DCC digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and
shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous
economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer
graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric
design (CAGD)

Overview of CAD software

Starting around the mid-1960s, with the IBM Drafting System, computer-aided design systems began to provide more
capability than just an ability to reproduce manual drafting with electronic drafting, the cost-benefit for companies
to switch to CAD became apparent. The benefits of CAD systems over manual drafting are the capabilities one often
takes for granted from computer systems today; automated generation of bills of materials, auto layout in integrated
circuits, interference checking, and many others. Eventually, CAD provided the designer with the ability to perform
engineering calculations. During this transition, calculations were still performed either by hand or by those
individuals who could run computer programs. CAD was a revolutionary change in the engineering industry, where
draftsmen, designers and engineering roles begin to merge. It did not eliminate departments as much as it merged
departments and empowered draftsman, designers, and engineers. CAD is an example of the pervasive effect
computers were beginning to have on industry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from
2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow
rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside
looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling.
CAD technology is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings,
from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).[8]
CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used
throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic
analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects
such as jewelry, furniture, appliances, etc. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and
animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs. 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction
engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project management.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits
such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and
develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
Uses
Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending
on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole digital product development (DPD) activity within the product lifecycle
management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules
or stand-alone products, such as:
• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and finite element analysis (FEA, FEM)
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to computer numerical control (CNC)
machines
• Photorealistic rendering and motion simulation.
• Document management and revision control using product data management (PDM)
CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of
environmental impact reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like, where the proposed facilities are
allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through
the use of CAD.
CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history,
features, parameterization, and high-level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the
model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can
be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the
CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength, electrical,
or electromagnetic properties. Also, its stress, strain, timing, or how the element gets affected in certain
temperatures, etc.
Types

A simple procedure
There are several different types of CAD,] each requiring the operator to think differently about how to use them and
design their virtual components in a different manner for each.
There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open-source programs. These
provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that
accompanied hand drafting since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.
3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line has to be manually inserted
into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added
to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems
allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real-world objects (not often used today). Basic
three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted
from them as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated
from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components, set limits to their
motion, or identify interference between components.
There are two types of 3D solid modeling
• Parametric modeling allows the operator to use what is referred to as "design intent". The objects and
features created are modifiable. Any future modifications can be made by changing how the original part
was created. If a feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator should
locate it from the center of the model. The feature could be located using any geometric object already
available in the part, but this random placement would defeat the design intent. If the operator designs
the part as it functions the parametric modeler is able to make changes to the part while maintaining
geometric and functional relationships.
• Direct or explicit modeling provide the ability to edit geometry without a history tree. With direct
modeling, once a sketch is used to create geometry the sketch is incorporated into the new geometry
and the designer just modifies the geometry without needing the original sketch. As with parametric
modeling, direct modeling has the ability to include relationships between selected geometry (e.g.,
tangency, concentricity).
Top-end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetic, and ergonomic features into
designs. Freeform surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit
the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine.

Technology

A CAD model of a computer mouse

Originally software for CAD systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran, ALGOL but with the
advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric
feature-based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules with their
own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI)
with NURBS geometry or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry
constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as
wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.
Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form of prototyping called digital
prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD models
can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT
scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen
according to specific needs.
Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages support
multiple platforms.
Currently, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically
and computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large
amounts of RAM may be recommended.
The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics
tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of
a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model. Technologies
which in the past were limited to larger installations or specialist applications have become available to a wide group
of users. These include the CAVE or HMDs and interactive devices like motion-sensing technology
Software
CAD software enables engineers and architects to design, inspect and manage engineering projects within an
integrated graphical user interface (GUI) on a personal computer system. Most applications support solid
modeling with boundary representation (B-Rep) and NURBS geometry, and enable the same to be published in a
variety of formats. A geometric modeling kernel is a software component that provides solid modeling and surface
modeling features to CAD applications.
Based on market statistics, commercial software from Autodesk, Dassault Systems, Siemens PLM Software, and PTC
dominate the CAD industry. The following is a list of major CAD applications, grouped by usage statistics.
Commercial • SketchUp
• AC3D • Solid Edge (Siemens)
• Alibre Design • SolidWorks (Dassault Systèmes)
• AutoCAD (Autodesk) • SpaceClaim
• Autodesk Inventor • TopSolid
• AxSTREAM • T-FLEX CAD
• BricsCAD • TurboCAD
• CATIA (Dassault Systèmes) Freeware and open-source
• Cobalt • Blender
• Fusion 360 (Autodesk) • BricsCAD Shape
• IntelliCAD • BRL-CAD
• IRONCAD • FreeCAD
• KeyCreator (Kubotek) • LibreCAD
• MachineBuilder (Vention) • OpenSCAD
• MEDUSA • QCAD
• MicroStation (Bentley Systems) • Salome (software)
• Modelur (AgiliCity) • SolveSpace
• Onshape • Tinkercad (successor to Autodesk 123D)
• Promine CAD kernels
• PTC Creo (successor to Pro/ENGINEER) • ACIS by Spatial
• PunchCAD • C3D Toolkit by C3D Labs
• Remo 3D • Open CASCADE Open Source
• Rhinoceros 3D • Parasolid by Siemens
• Siemens NX • ShapeManager by Autodesk
 EXERCISES
I. MATCHING TYPE: Match the drawing tool being described in the first column with
its figure in the second column and name in the third column.
Description/Use Figure Name
1. They contain pre-dimensioned holes in a. compass
the right scale to accurately draw a
symbol or sign.

__________, __________
A.
2. These are used for drawing circles or b. French
arc segments of circles. curves

__________, __________
B.
3. They are used for drawing curves which c. pencil
cannot be drawn with compasses.

__________, __________
C.
4. It has the pivot point and pen holder d. stylus
joined by a trammel bar, useful when
drawing very large radius arcs.

__________, __________ D.

5. This is usually mounted to a floor e. drafting

pedestal in which the board turns to a board
different position, and also its height
can be adjustable. It is where paper are
placed or attached and kept straight
and still, so that the drawing can be
done with accuracy.
E.
__________, __________
6. This drawing tool utilizes leads with f. templates
line widths of 0.18 mm, 0.25 mm,
0.5 mm and 0.7 mm and the hardness
varies usually from HB to 2H.

F.
__________, __________
7. It is used for drawing lines and g. T-square
connecting points.

__________, __________
G.
8. This drawing tool utilizes inks. The h. ruler
standard line widths most commonly
used in Finland are 0.13 mm, 0.18 mm,
0.25 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.50 mm and
0.70 mm. H.

__________, __________

9. It is a device which is mounted to the i. pencil

drawing board. It has rulers whose
angles can be precisely adjusted with a
controlling mechanism.

__________, __________
I.
10. It is a straightedge which uses the edge j. drafting
of the drawing board as a support. It is machine
used with the drafting board to draw
horizontal lines and to align other
drawing instruments.

__________, __________ J.

II. ESSAY: Explain in one paragraph only.

The advantage/disadvantage of utilizing manual drafting over CAD.
III. DRAWING:
Create a perspective drawing.