EUROPEAN

SCIENCE
FOUNDATION

CRAF Handbook
for Radio Astronomy
Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies (CRAF)
An ESF Expert Committee
Third edition – 2005
The European Science Foundation (ESF) acts as a catalyst for the development of science
by bringing together leading scientists and funding agencies to debate, plan and
implement pan-European scientific and science policy initiatives. It is also responsible
for the management of COST (European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and
Technical Research).
ESF is the European association of 78 major national funding agencies devoted
to scientific research in 30 countries. It represents all scientific disciplines: physical
and engineering sciences, life, earth and environmental sciences, medical sciences,
humanities and social sciences. The Foundation assists its Member Organisations
in two main ways. It brings scientists together in its Scientific Forward Looks, Exploratory
Workshops, Programmes, Networks, EUROCORES, and ESF Research Conferences,
to work on topics of common concern including Research Infrastructures. It also conducts
the joint studies of issues of strategic importance in European science policy and
manages, on behalf of its Member Organisations, grant schemes, such as EURYI
(European Young Investigator Awards).
It maintains close relations with other scientific institutions within and outside Europe.
By its activities, the ESF adds value by cooperation and coordination across national
frontiers and endeavours, offers expert scientific advice on strategic issues, and provides
the European forum for science.

The ESF Expert Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies, CRAF, was established
in 1988 to coordinate the European efforts for the protection of radiospectrum bands
used by the Radio Astronomy Service and other passive applications.

Cover: The 76-m diameter Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, UK, came into operation
in 1957 and has operated continuously since then, 24 hours per day, apart from stoppages
for maintenance, painting, repairs, and two major upgrades to the primary reflecting surface.
In 2005 the Lovell Telescope took part in pioneering eVLBI observations, in which radio telescopes
on different continents are connected via the internet to perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry.
Photograph courtesy of Ian Morison, Jodrell Bank Observatory.

Copyright: Material from this publication may be reproduced in full or in part, provided that it is
accompanied by the acknowledgement “CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy, 3rd edition”.
CRAF Handbook
for Radio Astronomy

Edited by Jim Cohen, Titus Spoelstra,

Roberto Ambrosini and Wim van Driel

Third edition – 2005

EUROPEAN
SCIENCE
FOUNDATION
 3

Preface The Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies,

CRAF, was established under the umbrella of the
European Science Foundation in 1988 to coordinate
European efforts for the protection of the radio
frequency bands used by the Radio Astronomy Service
and other passive users of the radio spectrum.
Progress in technology, which has made possible all
kinds of advanced astrophysical research, now threatens
to render this research impossible from the surface
of the Earth. Radio transmissions from terrestrial,
airborne and space-based stations are proliferating
in ever increasing numbers for a multitude of purposes.
The pressure on the authorities to make radio
spectrum available for all newly invented applications
of radio, e.g. various space systems, high altitude
platform stations (HAPSs), digital broadcasting, power
line communications, ultra-wide band technology and
vehicular short range radar, is tremendous.
This Handbook reviews the needs of the Radio
Astronomy Service and the measures required for
its continued protection.
The Handbook has been prepared by the Committee
on Radio Astronomy Frequencies of the European
Science Foundation in Strasbourg, CRAF. It provides
a comprehensive review of matters related to spectrum
management and the protection of the science of Radio
Astronomy against harmful interference. The review is
placed within the historical and technological context
within which the Radio Astronomy Service operates.
This book is intended for a wide readership. It aims
to provide a bridge between the professional radio
astronomical community and professional radio
spectrum managers with no previous background
in astronomy.
4 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Summary

Section 1 Section 6
Radio Astronomy was first recognised The negative impact of human-generated
by the International Telecommunication interference on radio astronomical
Union, ITU, as a radiocommunication observations is explained and analysed.
service in 1959. The Radio Astronomy
Service has been vigorous in defending Section 7
its frequency allocations ever since. The question of whether the passive
The “whys” and “hows” of the service services need absolutely interference-
are introduced. free bands is discussed.

Section 2 Section 8
The Radio Astronomy Service is The European and worldwide efforts
a passive service. The radio window to cooperate within the policy-making
and passive frequency use are explained. and decision-making processes are
New discussions of Radio Astronomy described.
in space are supplied, and of passive
remote sensing of the Earth’s Section 9
atmosphere. The protection of Radio Astronomy
frequencies in the context of
Section 3 international law is explained.
The characteristics of the Radio
Astronomy Service are given. Radio Section 10
astronomical observing techniques A review of some recommendations
are explained. to improve the radio environment
for Radio Astronomy.
Section 4
The frequencies used for the Radio Section 11
Astronomy Service are introduced on Details of Radio Astronomy stations
two levels: the general considerations and passive remote sensing stations
and specific considerations, illustrated in Europe.
by tables and detailed comments.
Section 12
Section 5 Recommended literature.
Further comments are given on the use
of specific frequency bands, expanding Appendices
on the brief descriptions given in Some useful administrative sections.
Section 4.
 5

Contents

Preface
Summary

1. Introduction 9
1.1. History of Frequency Allocations to the Radio Astronomy Service 10
1.2. Radio Astronomical Requirements 12
1.3. Aim of this Handbook 14

2. Nature of the Radio Astronomy Service 17

2.1. The Radio Astronomy Service is a “Passive” Service 18
2.2. The Radio Window 18
2.3. What Radio Astronomy Offers to Society 19

3. Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 21

3.1. Radio Astronomy and Electromagnetic Compatibility 26
3.2. Radio Astronomical Observations 27
3.3. Radio Astronomical Techniques – Continuum Observations 28
3.3.1. Single Dish Observations 28
3.3.2. Antenna Array Observations 29
3.4. Radio Astronomical Techniques – Spectral Line Observations 31
3.4.1. Single Dish Observations 31
3.4.2. Antenna Array Observations 31
3.5. Calibration 31
3.6. Criteria for Harmful Interference 32
3.6.1. Interference to Arrays 33
3.6.2. Conclusions 35
3.7. Very Long Baseline Interferometry, VLBI 36
3.7.1. VLBI Techniques 36
3.7.2. VLBI Frequency Bands 37
3.7.3. Mapping Considerations 39
3.7.4. Practical Considerations 39
3.7.5. Conclusions 39
6 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

3.8. Space-based Radio Astronomy 40

3.8.1. Space VLBI 40
3.8.2. Single-mode Space Radio Observatories 41
3.8.3. Radio Science with Telecommunication Links across
Interplanetary Space 42
3.9. Passive Remote Sensing of the Earth’s Atmosphere 43
3.9.1. Microwave Remote Sensing Radiometry 43
3.9.2. Ground-based Radiometry 44
3.9.3. Satellite-borne Radiometry 44

4. Radio Astronomy Frequencies 47

4.1. Considerations on Radio Astronomical Frequency Allocations 48
4.1.1. General Considerations 48
4.1.2. Specific Considerations 49
4.2. Table of Frequency Bands Allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service 50
4.3. Comments on Frequency Allocations 59

5. Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 73

5.1. Radio Astronomical Use of the Band 322 - 328.6 MHz 74
5.2. Radio Astronomical Use of the Band 608 - 614 MHz 75
5.2.1. Polarization Studies 75
5.2.2. Beam Properties 76
5.2.3. International Cooperation 76
5.2.4. Allocation 77
5.3. Importance of the Redshifted 21 cm Hydrogen Line 77
5.4. 1.6 GHz OH Emission Lines 79
5.4.1. OH-Megamasers 79
5.4.2. Uniqueness of the OH 1612 MHz Band 79
5.4.3. Radio Astronomical Use of the OH 1612 MHz band 80
5.4.4. Interference from Satellite Services 80
5.5. Spectral Line Observations in Bands around 20 GHz 81
5.6. Millimetre Wave Astronomy (30 - 300 GHz) 82
5.6.1. Techniques of Millimetre-astronomy 85
5.6.2. Frequency Protection at Millimetre Wavelengths 87
5.7. Sub-millimetre Astronomy (>300 GHz) 88
5.8. Radio-Frequency Lines of the Greatest Importance to Radio Astronomy 89
Contents 7

6. Effects of Radio Frequency Interference

on Radio Astronomical Observations 93
6.1. The Vulnerability of the Radio Astronomy Service 94
6.2. Local, Regional and Global Interference 94
6.3. Radio-Quiet Zones 95
6.4. The Effect of Broadband Transmissions on Radio Astronomy 95
6.5. Interference from Space Stations 96
6.5.1. Geostationary Satellites 96
6.5.2. Non-Geostationary Satellites 97
6.5.3. Distribution of Unwanted Emissions within
the Radio Astronomy Band 98

7. Does Radio Astronomy Need Frequency Bands

that are 100% Free of Interference? 99
7.1. Allocations for Radio Astronomy 100
7.2. Human-generated Radiation from the Sky 102
7.3. The Threats to Radio Astronomy 103
7.4. Interference Mitigation 103
7.5. Are Radiation-free Oases Necessary? 105
7.6. Scientific and Cultural Value 106

8. Local, Regional and Global Policies 109

8.1. Communication between Radio Astronomy and National Administrations 110
8.2. CRAF and its European Role 111
8.2.1. Actions and Results 112
8.2.2. WRCs and Current Problems 114
8.2.3. Long-term Problems 114
8.2.4. The European Science Foundation 115
8.2.5. Addresses 116
8.3. IUCAF and its Worldwide Efforts 120

9. The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 121

9.1. Public, Private; Subject, Object 122
9.2. Going International 123
9.3. Evaluating and Judging 123
8 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

9.4. Protection of Radio Astronomy 124

9.4.1. 1967 Outer Space Treaty, OST 125
9.4.2. 1971 Liability Convention 129
9.4.3. 1974 Registration Convention 130
9.4.4. Additional Comments 131
9.5. Consequences 131

10. Recommendations 133

11. Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric Remote Sensing

Observatories in Europe 135
11.1. Main Research in European Radio Astronomy 138

12. Recommended Literature 145

12.1. Protection of Radio Astronomy Frequencies 146
12.2. ITU-R Texts 147
12.3. Introduction to Radio Astronomy 147

Appendices
Appendix 1. List of Acronyms 150
Appendix 2. Vocabulary of Special Terms 160
Appendix 3. Keyword Index 165
Introduction
10 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Radio Astronomy is a young and vigorous science, in which many parts of the uni-
verse are being studied and new discoveries are continually being made. Radio obser-
vations have transformed our understanding of the universe in just half a century, and
captured the public imagination. Quasars, pulsars, the Big Bang and many other phe-
nomena were first revealed by Radio Astronomy.
To continue this advance with all of its potential benefits, it is necessary to operate
many observatories with various characteristics and at diverse locations and to be able to
observe in a large number of frequency bands. Many countries around the world, includ-
ing Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the
USA have made major investments in the development of Radio Astronomy. It is antici-
pated that this investment will continue and that other countries will soon join major radio
astronomical projects. This progress in science can continue only if access to the neces-
sary frequency bands in the radio spectrum is guaranteed in an adequate manner.
This Handbook is concerned with frequency allocations for Radio Astronomy, and the
regulatory means necessary for protecting the science from radio frequency interference.
The Handbook has been prepared by the Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies
of the European Science Foundation in Strasbourg, CRAF (see Section 8.2). It aims to
provide a bridge between radio spectrum management and Radio Astronomy, so that
professional spectrum managers can better understand the needs of Radio Astronomy,
and radio astronomers can better understand the regulatory process.

1.1. History of Frequency Allocations to the Radio Astronomy

Service

The scientific need for Radio Astronomy to have its own allocated radio-quiet fre-
quency bands was first presented in 1959 to a World Administrative Radio Conference,
WARC, a global conference held under the auspices of the International
Telecommunication Union, ITU. At that time the general philosophy regarding the fre-
quency-allocation scheme for the benefit of radio astronomical research was:
• that the science of Radio Astronomy should be formally recognised as a radio service
in the context of the ITU Radio Regulations (RR);
• that a series of bands of frequencies should be set aside internationally for Radio
Astronomy, which should lie at approximately every octave (that is, doubling in frequen-
cy) above 30 MHz, each with a bandwidth of about 1% of the centre frequency;
• that special international protection should be afforded to the hydrogen line
(1400 - 1427 MHz), the hydroxyl radical (OH) lines (~1.6 GHz; rest frequencies:
1612.231 MHz, 1665.402 MHz, 1667.359 MHz, 1720.530 MHz) and the predicted
deuterium line (322 - 329 MHz);
• that some frequency bands should be afforded the highest protection by being
reserved exclusively for passive use, nowadays specified by Footnote No. 5.340 of the
RR, which states that in these bands all emissions are prohibited
Introduction 11

At the 1959 WARC, considerable steps were made towards meeting these needs, and
at subsequent conferences (with more limited tasks) the growing scientific needs were
stated and further steps taken to meet them.
The discovery of discrete cosmic radio sources and most of our current knowledge
of their nature and distribution, and of the processes responsible for the radio emission
from them, has come through observations of their broadband radiation (continuum
spectra). Observations of the intensity of the continuum emission of a radio source need
to be made in a number of frequency bands, in order to determine its characteristic
“spectrum”.
Although the bands made available to the Radio Astronomy Service, in accordance
with the Final Acts of the World Administrative Radio Conference for Space
Telecommunications (Geneva, 1971) represented a significant improvement over the
international allocations made to the Service in 1959 and 1963, they represented only
a partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Service: many of the allocated bands had
insufficient bandwidth, most of them were shared with other radio services; many
applied only to limited areas of the world; and there were large intervals between some
of the allocated bands.
At WARC 1979, Radio Astronomy improved its position in the ITU Radio
Regulations, and the requirements of the service were given more serious considera-
tion. At frequencies above 20 GHz most requests for allocations were granted. Below
20 GHz the situation was more difficult, because of the requirements of already well-
entrenched active services.
One of the results of WARC-79 is Article 29 of the ITU Radio Regulations. It con-
tains a series of frequency assignment provisos for the protection of the Radio
Astronomy Service whose impact in practice depends on their implementations by
individual national Administrations. It does not, however, contain explicit acceptance
of levels of interference detrimental to Radio Astronomy, such as are given in
Recommendation ITU-R RA.769. Although the foundations of this article are well
documented, there is great reluctance within the ITU-R to incorporate it in official reg-
ulations because of its impact on the active services.
At the World Radio Conference, WRC, in 1995, however, a footnote (No. 5.208A) was
added to the ITU Radio Regulations on the protection of the Radio Astronomy Service in
the bands 150.05 - 153 MHz, 322 - 328.6 MHz, 406.1 - 410 MHz and 608 - 614 MHz
from harmful interference according to the threshold levels listed in Recommendation
ITU-R RA.769. This footnote was inserted in the frequency table for all bands below
1 GHz, which are allocated to the Mobile Satellite Service for operation in the space-to-
Earth direction.
A major achievement of WRC-2000 was the re-allocation of most of the frequency
bands between 71 and 275 GHz, where the Radio Astronomy Service secured its access
to nearly all the spectrum that is useable from the ground through the atmospheric win-
dows in this frequency range. It was gratifying that the Radio Astronomy Service was
given primary status in these millimetre-wave bands where it had in fact been making
observations without the benefit of formal allocation for many years (see Section 5.6).
12 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Until recently no WARC, WRC, or any other regulatory forum had addressed effec-
tive structural solutions to the problems of interference to Radio Astronomy from trans-
mitters operating in frequency bands outside those allocated to the Radio Astronomy
Service. Many primary radio astronomy bands are adjacent to bands allocated to air-
borne or space services (space-to-Earth). The first steps towards addressing this prob-
lem were made in Istanbul in 2000, where WRC-2000 introduced new footnotes (Nos.
5.443B, 5.511A and 5.551G) which specify that downlinks of certain specified satel-
lite services shall not exceed radio astronomy interference thresholds in the bands
4990 - 5000 MHz, 15.35 - 15.40 GHz and 42.5 - 43.5 GHz. This was the first time that
interference levels for the protection of the Radio Astronomy Service appeared explic-
itly in the Radio Regulations.
WRC-2000 also set the first general limits on unwanted emissions from satellites.
Specifically, WRC-2000 revised Annex 3 of the Radio Regulations which now gives
tables of maximum permitted power levels for spurious emissions, including those
from satellites. The limits apply for all new satellites from 1 January 2003, and will
apply to all satellites from 1 January 2012. Three years later, WRC-03 adopted a
Resolution on the “Compatibility between the radio astronomy service and the active
space services in certain adjacent and nearby frequency bands” (Resolution 739) which
specifies lower thresholds for unwanted emission flux densities from space stations at
a radio astronomy station, for particular frequency bands and particular space services.
It has become abundantly clear in recent years how spectral usage by active servic-
es close to, or even inside, radio astronomy frequency bands is detrimental to the qual-
ity of radio astronomical observations. This growing problem continues to receive con-
siderable attention. The problems mentioned hold in particular for satellite (space-to-
Earth) and aeronautical transmissions which contribute significantly to the increase in
harmful interference to radio astronomy observations on a worldwide scale.

1.2. Radio Astronomical Requirements

The electromagnetic radiation detected in Radio Astronomy is either emission from

atoms or molecules at very specific characteristic frequencies: line emission; or it is
so-called continuum emission of thermal or non-thermal origin, which is very broad-
band. In both cases the radiation may be polarized. The polarization characteristics of
the radiation may be of great astrophysical significance, since these are a manifestation
of magnetic fields in the radio source or in the intervening medium between the source
and the Earth.
Good frequency coverage, high spectral resolution, high spatial resolution and high
time resolution are (besides state-of-the-art technology) essential for radio astronomi-
cal research.
• Good frequency coverage is very important for the study of the spectral characteris-
tics of continuum emissions, since these are clues to the emission mechanism and
therefore are direct “finger prints” of the physical conditions within the radio source.
Introduction 13

Wide frequency coverage is essential for polarization studies, since, because of the
magneto-ionic characteristics of the interstellar medium, the angular direction of lin-
ear polarization varies in proportion to the inverse square of the frequency. Therefore,
observations at three or more unequally spaced frequencies are needed to separate the
polarization characteristics due to the magnetic properties intrinsic to the radio source
from those of the interstellar medium. To achieve this good frequency coverage,
bands spaced at intervals of about an octave in frequency are normally required.
• High spectral resolution is crucial to analyse the kinematics within a radio source,
as manifested through its Doppler-shifted line emission. A resolution of 1 Hz per
MHz corresponds to a velocity resolution of 300 metres per second.
• High spatial resolution is essential for the study of the detailed structure of radio
sources. Very high spatial resolution (e.g. 10-6 of a radian) can be achieved by the
technique of VLBI (see below and Section 3.7).
• High time resolution is important to study time variations in radio sources. These
variations can be as short as microseconds (in the case of pulsars).

For over three decades astronomers have been linking together radio telescopes
located many thousands of kilometres apart, thereby creating interferometer systems
with very long baselines. This technique, known as Very Long Baseline
Interferometry, VLBI, has proved invaluable in studying the structure of very distant
radio sources (see Section 3.7). VLBI arrays are sensitive to the fine structure in the
radio source. The angular resolution achieved is of the order of λ/D radians, where λ is
the wavelength and D is the largest distance between the radio telescopes. Extremely
high angular resolutions can be achieved with intercontinental baselines, and many
countries have collaborated in the global development of this technique (e.g., Australia,
Canada, China, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland,
South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the USA).
The baselines available to the global VLBI network have been extended by the
launching of a dedicated space-VLBI antenna. Baselines of up to three times the
Earth’s diameter have led to improved higher angular resolution images (see Section
3.8). From such studies astronomers have found, among other significant results, that
the enigmatic quasars, the most powerful radio sources in the universe, show intricate
small-scale structures associated with their central “engine”.
The technique of VLBI also has many practical applications, such as studies of con-
tinental drift, the rotation rate of the Earth, polar wandering, latitude determination and
earthquake prediction. Such experiments are able to determine intercontinental dis-
tances with accuracies of a few centimetres.
For VLBI experiments to succeed, telescopes in several different countries must
observe together simultaneously on exactly the same frequency, without interference.
Thus it is essential that the same frequency bands be allocated to the Radio Astronomy
Service and be protected worldwide.
14 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

1.3. Aim of this Handbook

In this Handbook we state the views and needs of the Radio Astronomy Service for
the protection of the science of Radio Astronomy in Europe.
There is continuing need for review and updating of the allocations of frequencies
for Radio Astronomy. Despite the extension of radio techniques to frequencies above
1000 GHz the use of relatively low frequencies still remains very important to Radio
Astronomy.
The needs of continuum observations, when first stated in 1959, were based large-
ly on the desire to measure the spectra of radio sources over a wide range of frequen-
cies. Since that time two developments have reinforced this need for continuum bands.
First, the discovery of pulsars has not only given us new astronomical objects to study
but has also provided a unique tool for exploring the properties of the interstellar medi-
um. For these studies continuum bands, particularly those at frequencies below a few
GHz, are required. Second, the technique of VLBI requires telescopes in several differ-
ent countries to observe the same source simultaneously on exactly the same frequen-
cy, which in turn requires that the frequency bands be protected worldwide.
The original request of about 1% of the centre frequencies for the bandwidths of the
continuum bands has proved to be inadequate. New techniques require larger band-
widths to achieve better sensitivity, and hence in some parts of the spectrum bandwidth
expansions have been requested.
Since 1959 many thousands of discrete spectral lines have been discovered. They
are produced by a wide variety of simple and complex atoms, ions and molecules. The
protection of these spectral-line frequencies is a difficult task. The frequencies are
given by laws of nature and cannot be altered. Some lines have been discovered in fre-
quency bands already allocated to other services.
In some simple cases what is needed is clear; for example, the value of hydrogen-
line studies has grown, particularly as more sensitive instruments look further out into
space. Because of the general expansion of the universe, the more distant objects have
greater recession velocities, and so by the Doppler effect their spectral lines undergo a
redshift to lower frequencies. This has made it urgent to look for ways to extend the
protection of the hydrogen-line to below 1400 MHz.
Some protection is also needed for spectral lines from the more exotic molecular
species. This can sometimes be achieved through frequency allocations given by foot-
notes in the Table of Frequency Allocations of the ITU Radio Regulations. Although
spectral lines are intrinsically very narrow in bandwidth, the internal and bulk motions
of the molecular clouds cause Doppler shifts of the line frequencies that are received.
A minimum protected bandwidth 0.2% of the rest frequency is usually suggested for a
spectral line, to allow observations of line emissions Doppler-shifted by up to ±300
kilometres per second (which is typical for sources within the Milky Way).
The frequencies between 2 and 30 MHz are also significant for radio astronomical
research, but because of the congestion problems in this range of the spectrum hardly
any possibility exists of improving the situation for the Radio Astronomy Service. The
Introduction 15

development of the new generation radio telescope for low frequencies, the Low
Frequency Array, LOFAR, with the goal to “open a new window on sky in the electro-
magnetic spectrum from ~10 - 240 MHz with unprecedented sensitivity and resolution”
illustrates that access to these “low frequencies” remains an important issue for the
Radio Astronomy Service.
In 1960 the vulnerability of Radio Astronomy to interference was documented by
the former International Radio Consultative Committee, CCIR, of the ITU. The early
estimates have been refined and improved (although they have in fact proved to be
remarkably accurate) and are published in Recommendation ITU-R RA.769. It is
important to find ways to protect the radio astronomy bands from adjacent band inter-
ference from air- and space-to-ground transmissions. In some cases it may be possible
to increase the radio astronomy band allocations at the same time that the adjacent band
interference problem is solved (e.g. at 2690 and 5000 MHz through a modification of
allocations to the Broadcast Satellite Service and the Microwave Landing System,
respectively).
CRAF proposes that the frequency bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service
be afforded protection to the levels given in Recommendation ITU-R RA.769. Within
these bands the total spectral power flux density, spfd, produced by services in other
bands should not exceed these recommended levels.
16 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy
2.
Nature of the Radio Astronomy
Service
18 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

2.1. The Radio Astronomy Service is a “Passive” Service

The use of the radio frequency part of the electromagnetic spectrum is regulated by
an international body which, for historical reasons, is primarily interested in its use for
telecommunication rather than for scientific and in particular astronomical purposes.
This body is the International Telecommunication Union, ITU. Its Radio Regulations,
RR, define and recognise a number of different “radio communication services”, such
as the broadcasting, aeronautical radionavigation, and mobile services. By means of
World Radiocommunication Conferences, WRCs (formerly WARCs), the ITU allo-
cates radio frequencies to the different services. Radio Astronomy is one such recog-
nised service but is exceptional in being a passive service, that is, a service not involved
in transmission but concerned only with the reception of naturally occurring radio
waves. Consequently the intensity of the radio waves received by radio telescopes
is, unlike those of active services, not subject to human control. Likewise, the fre-
quencies of astrophysically important radio spectral lines are fixed by laws of nature
and cannot be controlled. Furthermore, the spectral lines from distant objects are red-
shifted to lower frequencies because of the expansion of the universe, so the frequency
of reception depends on the distance of the source.
All the active services operate in bands that are also occupied by signals of cosmic
origin. Generally they suffer no noticeable interference from these signals, because
artificial transmitters produce power flux densities at the Earth’s surface that are many
orders of magnitude stronger than the power flux densities from cosmic sources.
In the early days of the development of radio, receivers were not sufficiently sensi-
tive to detect the natural emissions of cosmic origin, and for that reason the sole use-
fulness of the radio spectrum was perceived to be for communications. Thus its appor-
tionment fell into the hands of bodies having communications as their main concern.
With the development of more sensitive radio receivers, it became possible to view
the universe through the “radio window”. As a result of much ingenuity, modern radio
telescopes have now been developed to such an exquisite degree of sensitivity that they
closely approach the theoretical limit of what is physically possible. So today, radio
waves of cosmic origin, that are perhaps as little as one millionth of the intensity of
those used by other radio services, are routinely observed by the telescopes of the
Radio Astronomy Service.

2.2. The Radio Window

The radio spectrum is a unique natural resource. It offers possibilities that are of
great importance to humankind because it enables wireless communication. It also
offers astronomers a dramatic view of the universe through the “radio window”, the
range of radio wavelengths over which the Earth’s atmosphere is transparent.
Electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light were predicted theoretically
by J. C. Maxwell (1831-1879) in 1873. H. Hertz (1857-1894) demonstrated the exis-
Nature of the Radio Astronomy Service 19

tence of these waves experimentally in 1888. G. Marconi (around 1900) pioneered the
exploitation of these radio waves for economic and social use: our radio spectrum was
born.
Radiocommunications and Radio Astronomy have always been closely associated.
T. A. Edison in collaboration with A. E. Kennely, who first predicted the existence of
the ionosphere, tried to detect radio waves from the Sun (1890). The experiment might
well have succeeded but for the ionosphere itself. They were probably using detectors
for very long wavelengths of many kilometres. The father of Radio Astronomy was K.
G. Jansky, a telecommunications engineer. While investigating noise levels in long dis-
tance communication links at 10-metre wavelength, Jansky discovered cosmic radio
noise, the radio counterpart of starlight (1932). He found that this so-called “back-
ground noise” peaked in the direction of the centre of the Milky Way.
To Jansky, cosmic radio waves were just a form of interference to communications
systems. Today, by contrast, radiocommunication systems have grown to become
sources of interference that set serious limitations to Radio Astronomy.
Radio techniques advanced very rapidly during the Second World War, particularly
due to the development of radar. The beginnings of Radio Astronomy were thus root-
ed in the technology of radiocommunications and radar. In the course of its evolution,
Radio Astronomy has in turn led to advances in communications through the develop-
ment of low-noise amplifiers in receiver systems and of large steerable antennas which
later proved vital for space communications. Today however, we find ourselves more
in competition than cooperation with radio and radar, where the use of the radio win-
dow is concerned.

2.3. What Radio Astronomy Offers to Society

Like every science, Radio Astronomy, its results and techniques, serve the progress
of other sciences in particular and humankind in general. This has been recognised by
the award of three Nobel prizes. Radio Astronomy has long-term cultural and scientif-
ic returns. Words such as “quasar”,” pulsar”, and “black hole” have entered everyday
use. Large radio telescopes have become local landmarks and even national icons for
science. But Radio Astronomy also provides more tangible benefits, among which we
may mention:
• the development of very-low-noise receivers (with wide applications), over a large
frequency range, with noise temperatures as low as 1 Kelvin per GHz;
• the study of the thermography of the body by use of millimetric radio techniques
(~45 GHz);
• the detection of cancers at centimetre wavelengths (~10 GHz) with modern radiome-
ters and using a method of mini-aperture synthesis (interferometry);
• computerised X-ray tomography techniques employ methods originally developed for
mapping radio sources;
• the detection of forest fires by their microwave radiation;
20 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

• the development of radio sextants for marine navigation, allowing accurate determi-
nations of positions at sea even on overcast and rainy days;
• the forecasting of earthquakes by very long baseline interferometric, VLBI, measure-
ments of fault motion by a determination of the apparent positions of small radio
sources;
• the determination of many geophysical parameters such as continental drift, polar
wandering, latitude measurements, and variation in the Earth’s rotation, with the use
of connected elements and VLBI techniques;
• experimental verifications of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity and the phenom-
enon of gravitational lensing using radio interferometry;
• verification of the existence of gravitational waves, and precise confirmation of
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, from timing measurements of binary pulsars;
• testing theories of the origin of the universe, and determining the age of the universe,
using observations of the 3 K background radiation, the relic of the primeval fireball
or Big Bang;
• measuring the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and the distribution of water
vapour and impurities such as carbon monoxide by passive, remote-sensing tech-
nique;
• monitoring of weather by using radiometers;
• using radio astronomy spectroscopy at mm-wavelengths to survey the ozone layer
and environmental pollution;
• discovery of the ozone hole;
• training of people going on to all kinds of positions in daily life.
3.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy
22 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Since the discovery of cosmic radio waves by Jansky in 1932, the science of Radio
Astronomy has expanded enormously. Many new types of astronomical object have been
discovered and investigated by radio methods and many important discoveries have been
made.
Whereas “optical astronomy” observes and studies the light waves from hot objects
such as stars, celestial radio waves come mainly from material between the stars, includ-
ing cool clouds of gas and dust, and high energy electrons in ordered motion. Radio
astronomers study many of the same celestial objects as do optical astronomers, but radio
measurements often reveal unexpected new aspects. In addition, radio astronomers have
discovered new classes of objects and quite unexpected forms of activity. The universe
provides a laboratory in which matter can be studied over a wide range of physical con-
ditions, the extremes of which cannot now or even in the foreseeable future be reproduced
on Earth. Extremes of density, temperature, and pressure and unusual chemical composi-
tions can all be found at places in the universe that are under study by astronomers.
Some of the sources of radio waves studied by astronomers are believed to be at the
very furthest limits of the currently known universe; and because they are so far away, the
radio waves have been travelling for many billions of years. They tell us about the con-
dition of the universe a very long time ago. Beyond the last identifiable objects is the cos-
mic microwave background radiation, the relic of the Big Bang in which our universe was
formed. Closer to home, there are large sections of our Milky Way Galaxy that cannot be
seen by optical astronomers because light is blocked by clouds of interstellar dust; radio
waves can penetrate these dust clouds, enabling us to study the whole of our Galaxy and
beyond to other galaxies that were previously hidden behind the Milky Way.

Characteristics of cosmic radio emissions

The spectrum of the celestial radio waves reaching the Earth has a broad continuum,
which covers the whole range of frequencies that can penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere,
together with a large number of spectral lines of atoms, ions and molecules, each line
being confined to a quite narrow frequency range. Due to Doppler shifts produced by
motions of the emitting material, spectral line emissions may be shifted in frequency
or broadened in frequency.

Continuum emission
Many interactions between ions and electrons, or between electrons and cosmic mag-
netic fields, produce radio pulses of varying amplitude and narrowness. The superposi-
tion of a large number of such events in an object in space produces continuum emis-
sion. Such emissions can arise through several different mechanisms. Analysing the
mixture requires observations to be made at multiple frequencies. Strategically located
frequency allocations to the Radio Astronomy Service make it possible to establish the
general characteristics of the emission from the source, to estimate the mix of emission
mechanisms, and thence determine the conditions in the source.
The radio continuum arises from two principal types of mechanism:
• “Thermal” emission, the intensity of which is proportional to the physical temper-
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 23

ature, observed mainly in an ionised gas of unbound electrons and protons, but also
in solids such as the planets, or our Moon, or even our own body.
• “Non-thermal” emission is characteristic of the majority of the radio sources (such
as radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars and supernova remnants). This radiation is gen-
erated by high-energy particles in the presence of magnetic fields. The non-thermal
radiation produced by highly relativistic electrons is called synchrotron emission.
The synchrotron process generally produces a radio spectrum with a negative slope
of ~0.8 in the log frequency versus log flux density plane. Hence these non-ther-
mal sources have higher radio fluxes at lower radio frequencies. Additionally, some
non-thermal sources contain compact components where the electrons have higher
energies, and the radio spectrum is flat or even inverted.

Non-thermal emission usually bears the imprint of the magnetic field in which it is gen-
erated. Many non-thermal radio sources show weak polarization of their emission, from
which it is possible to estimate the magnetic field and electron density within the source.
The polarization is further modified by the magnetic fields and charged particles through
which the radio waves propagate to Earth. The plane of linear polarization undergoes
Faraday rotation by an amount that depends on the frequency. Observations at several
widely spaced frequencies are needed to disentangle the various effects. The need for
exclusive bands every octave is clearly indicated in the case of polarization studies.
At sufficiently low frequencies self-absorption in an emitting source causes a
decrease in the flux density (Figure 1). This cut-off occurs at different frequencies for
sources with different physical parameters, such as the strength of the magnetic fields
at the source. It is imperative to establish the low-frequency spectra of such sources in
order to study their physical properties.
The low-frequency range also has a great importance in the observations of both the
thermal and non-thermal diffuse radiation in our Galaxy. Such observations give informa-
tion on the high-energy particles in our Galaxy and on their distribution, and also on the
hot ionised plasma in the plane of the Galaxy. In particular, the ionised interstellar clouds

Figure 1:
Spectrum of a “typical”
non-thermal radio
source, showing
a low frequency cut off
below 10 MHz, plus
a “compact” high
frequency component
(dashed) found
in some sources.
24 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

can be studied at low frequencies, where their spectra approximate that of a black body.
Several hundred such galactic clouds appear approximately as black bodies at frequen-
cies below ~100 MHz. Such spectral observations can be used directly to compute the
physical parameters of the radiating clouds particularly their temperatures.
Another interesting and important class of objects are the pulsars. Pulsars are now
understood to be highly condensed neutron stars that rotate with a period of the order of
1 second. They are produced by the collapse of the cores of very old stars during a cata-
strophic supernova explosion. The most rapidly rotating pulsars have millisecond periods
which are extremely stable, rivalling the best laboratory clocks. The radio spectra of pul-
sars indicate a non-thermal emission mechanism, perhaps of synchrotron type.
Observations have shown that pulsars are generally strongest at frequencies in the range
from ~50 to 600 MHz; hence most pulsar observations are being performed at such fre-
quencies.
The discovery and the study of pulsars during the last decades have opened up, unex-
pectedly, an important new field in physics, that of the state of highly condensed matter.
The study of neutron stars with densities of the order of 1017 kg/m3 and magnetic-field
strengths of 108 Tesla, has already contributed immensely to our understanding of the
endpoint of stellar evolution and has brought us closer to understanding the enigmatic
black holes (which are supposed to be the most highly condensed objects in the universe).
Observations of binary pulsars have verified the existence of gravitational radiation at the
level predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Low frequencies are indeed
important for pulsar observations.

Spectral line emission

The space between the stars is not empty, but filled with rarefied gas and dust. In some
places cold dense clouds of this material are collapsing to form new stars and planets. In
other locations, stars are interacting with this medium, heating it and enriching it through
mass loss. In an average galaxy, this “interstellar medium” makes up a significant frac-
tion of the total mass. It contains the material for new stars and the ashes of old ones. The
study of this material is a major branch of astronomy. Radio spectroscopy provides a
means of investigating regions of space that are too cold, dark or rarefied to radiate visi-
ble light or infrared radiation.
Energy changes in the atoms, ions and molecules of interstellar material produce radio
emissions at discrete frequencies, which are characteristic of the materials producing
them and their environments. In addition, if the clouds are moving as a whole or the mate-
rial within them is in motion, Doppler shifts change the frequencies measured at the
Earth. The result is that by observing these “spectral line emissions”, it is possible to
measure the composition of the interstellar medium, the amount of material, its chem-
istry, and how it is moving.
One of the most widely observed spectral lines occurs at a wavelength of 21 cm, i.e.
1 420.4057 MHz, arising from neutral (un-ionised) hydrogen atoms in the interstellar gas.
The hydrogen 21 cm line is the single most important spectral line studied by radio
astronomers (see Section 5.3). Thousands of spectral lines have now been detected from
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 25

other atoms, ions and molecules in the interstellar medium. Lines have been detected
from several atomic species and their isotopes, and from a large number of molecules.
The study of spectral lines allows us to investigate the chemistry and kinematics with-
in star-forming clouds of gas and dust. Spectral lines have now been detected from more
than 100 different molecular species in interstellar space. Many of these are organic mol-
ecules, and some are quite complex. These discoveries have raised interesting questions
about the way in which these complex entities have been built up and the way in which
further development may have led to the spores of life, as a possibly widespread phenom-
enon. Astronomers now study astrochemistry, in which they attempt to trace out the
development of a chain of chemical compounds by searching for the appropriate spectral
lines. To study the physical conditions inside a molecular cloud, or in different portions
of the cloud, it is necessary to compare the relative strengths of lines from different mol-
ecules, or of different transitions from the same molecule. In some cases, a set of lines
can be studied from a particular type of molecule, involving different isotopes of one or
more of the constituent atoms (hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen); these studies can give
valuable information on the relative densities of the various isotopes and thus indirectly
on the general evolution of the chemical elements. The relative significance of particular
lines depends very much on the kind of study for which they are used. However, to under-
stand the chemical and physical conditions properly, it is necessary to intercompare a
large number of lines.
The locations in the radio spectrum of these lines are dictated by nature. In seeking fre-
quency allocations to the Radio Astronomy Service, attempts have been made to cover
the main spectral lines, such as the 1 420.4057 MHz spectral line from interstellar atom-
ic hydrogen, with enough bandwidth to cover the most likely range of Doppler shift, and
to cover the band requirements for continuum observations, while keeping the requests to
a reasonable level. This has required, of necessity, various compromises.
One such compromise includes attempts to observe outside allocated frequency bands
in cases where there are large Doppler shifts (such as those in which sources lying far
beyond our Galaxy).

Radio sources
In the solar system, the Sun, an ordinary star to which we are exceptionally close, has
always been an object of great interest to radio astronomers. The slowly varying com-
ponent of solar radio emission has been found to provide one of the best indicators of
the variation of solar activity over the Sun’s 11-year sunspot cycle. In addition, intense
and rapid bursts of solar emission are providing greater understanding of what happens
on the Sun during active periods and the way the Sun influences events in the Earth’s
atmosphere and ionosphere. Besides the Sun and the planets (e.g. Jupiter and Saturn),
comets are also the subject of radio astronomical research. The study of comets is of
increasing importance, since they may offer clues to the origin of the solar system.
Radio Astronomy has provided new information about the early and late stages of the
“life” of stars, stages that are important in the evolutionary process but that are not well
understood. Strong and localised sources of radiation in spectral lines of the hydroxyl
26 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

and water molecules are found in the shells of objects that appear to be in the process of
becoming stars. Some compact sources of thermal continuum radiation, which are
embedded in dense clouds of dust, also seem to be protostellar objects. Certain giant
molecular clouds have in fact been shown to be the main breeding grounds of new stars.
Such clouds can be studied only by radio methods.
At the other end of the stellar life cycle, radio astronomers study supernova remnants,
the material blown out from massive stars in giant explosions at the end of their lives as
stars. Radio astronomers have also discovered the very dense and compact neutron stars
which are the residue left behind after a supernova explosion. A neutron star is observed
in the form of a pulsar, a pulsating radio source, which emits narrow beams of radiation
as it rotates with a very regular period of about a second.
Many distant galaxies are abnormally strong emitters of radio waves. These “radio
galaxies” are the subject of many investigations in an attempt to discover the source of
their enormous radio energy and the circumstances of the explosive events that seem to
have occurred in many of them.
Intrinsically, the most powerful radio sources are the quasars, which are compact
objects emitting radio energy at a prodigious rate. A quasar is believed to be the nucle-
us of a galaxy that is usually too distant for anything but the bright central core to be
seen. The radio technique of Very Long Baseline Interferometry, VLBI, enables the cen-
tral “engine” to be studied with resolutions as small as tens of microarcseconds.
Superluminal expansion motions (apparently faster than the speed of light) have been
measured. These superluminal motions indicate that the radio emission comes from
highly relativistic beams of plasma. The study of quasars involves fundamental physics,
in the continuing attempt to understand these exotic sources of energy.
Apart from quasars, the nuclei of some other classes of galaxies show great activity
and unusual energy production. Even the nucleus of our own Galaxy is a small-scale
version of an active galaxy, and this can best be studied by radio methods.
The history of Radio Astronomy has produced a remarkable and increasing rate of
major unexpected discoveries. In the last few decades, radio astronomers have made
fundamental new discoveries in physics and have brought us closer to understanding the
nature of the universe. The rapid rate of discoveries in Radio Astronomy will surely con-
tinue. It is to the advantage of all humankind to assure such progress in part by protect-
ing radio frequency bands for the Radio Astronomy Service.

3.1. Radio Astronomy and Electromagnetic Compatibility

Astronomy is interested in the entire electromagnetic spectrum

Different physical processes produce electromagnetic radiation at different frequen-
cies. Telescopes exist for all parts of the spectrum. The natural limitations to ground-
based Radio Astronomy are set by the ionosphere which becomes opaque below 3 MHz
and the absorption due to various molecular constituents of the atmosphere at frequen-
cies higher than 350 GHz.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 27

Alien circumstances compared to active services

The radio signals used in active services are modulated to carry information and the
power levels are set high enough to produce the required signal-to-noise ratio. In the
Radio Astronomy Service the user has no control over the transmitted signal. The trans-
mitted power cannot be varied to improve detectability. So we need to avoid absolute-
ly the intentional use of the passive bands by transmitters of active users. Radio astro-
nomical spectral lines are not tuneable. Their frequencies are set by the nature of the
particular atom, ion or molecule and by the physical conditions within the emitting
region. Radio Astronomy receives cosmic noise, it is an analogue service. The signals
are extremely weak, i.e. 60 dB below receiver noise (as is the current state-of-the-art
technology). For normal radiocommunications 20 dB above receiver noise is usual.
Astronomers can control the electromagnetic environment only at the receiver and this
creates a potential incompatibility with active spectrum use.

The radiation received is usually Gaussian noise

Careful study of the intensity of the radiation as a function of frequency, position,
polarization and its variation with time can give details on the nature of the source.

Receiver bandwidth
There are two major goals:
• broadband: detection of continuum emission from thermal as well as non-thermal
extraterrestrial radio sources. In this application the sensitivity is improving with
increasing bandwidth.
• narrowband: in use for spectral line studies, i.e. of the Doppler-shifted line emission,
which informs us about the kinematics within extraterrestrial radio sources.

Equipment
The equipment is continuing to be improved with greater sensitivity and better angu-
lar resolution. System temperatures of 10 - 20 K for cm-wavelengths and angular res-
olutions of milliarcseconds are obtained in daily practice.

3.2. Radio Astronomical Observations

Celestial radio sources emit electromagnetic radiation at all frequencies in the entire
electromagnetic spectrum. Very often the emission at frequencies other than radio fre-
quencies is so weak that these objects can be studied only by Radio Astronomy. The fre-
quency dependence of the emitted intensity depends fundamentally on the physical con-
ditions, kinematics, and distribution of matter and its characteristics within the radio
source. This frequency dependence is conditioned by the mechanism generating the radi-
ation. The intensity of emitted radiation can be constant as a function of time for a cer-
tain frequency, but the frequency dependence can also show temporal variations (for
instance, due to violent events within the radio source).
28 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

The intensity of the received radiation can be constant in time, but can also show vari-
ations at all possible time scales ranging from many years to fractions of a millisecond.
Flux variations may arise from intrinsic variability in the source (for example, regular
pulses from pulsars, or irregular outbursts from interacting stars and active galactic
nuclei), or from propagation effects (such as interstellar and interplanetary scintillations).
Also other parameters such as the structure of radio sources often show temporal variabil-
ity. Of course this is not known a priori, hence the radio astronomical observations need
to be stable as a function of time. This stability puts requirements on the equipment and
also on the interference levels that can be tolerated within the frequency bands used.
Given the characteristics of the celestial radio sources, high spectral, high spatial and
high time resolution are necessary for radio astronomical observations (see Section 1.2).
Furthermore, good frequency coverage is essential since the dependence of the intensity
of the radio source as a function of frequency is the “finger print” of the nature of the
radio source.
To analyse the spectral characteristics within the receiver bandwidth (which can range
from a kHz to several GHz) observations are usually done with many frequency chan-
nels in parallel (up to several thousand is quite common). The extremely weak signals
received on Earth can be detected only if the sensitivity is adequate. Usually the sensi-
tivity of a radio astronomy receiver is -60 dB below the sensitivity used in telecommu-
nication receivers. Furthermore, high dynamic range in the final results is important to
investigate weak features around strong radio sources. A dynamic range of 50 dB is
state-of-the-art. Sensitivity levels of a few microJanskys are currently achievable
(1 microJansky corresponds to 10-32 Wm-2 Hz-1). To achieve these high quality results
both large bandwidth and long observing times are needed. This is only possible when
the EMC environment does not generate harmful interference within the observing
bandwidth and during the integration time (which can be up to several days). Since char-
acteristics of radio sources can vary on time scales of days to many years, the observa-
tions should be repeatable with at least the same quality over these time intervals.
For the reasons outlined, radio astronomical measurements are particularly vulnera-
ble to interference from transmitters of active services

3.3. Radio Astronomical Techniques – Continuum Observations

3.3.1. Single Dish Observations

Radio astronomical observations may employ stand-alone instruments, such as single
dish telescopes, or a combination of instruments, as a radio interferometer.
Single dish telescopes have dimensions ranging from a metre to 100 metres for fully
steerable dishes such as the Effelsberg 100-m dish in Germany, and up to 300 metres for
dishes that can cover only a very limited area of the sky, such as the Arecibo fixed dish
in Puerto Rico.
Figure 2 shows a map of the Milky Way at 408 MHz made over several years using
the 76-m Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank in the UK, the Effelsberg 100-m telescope in
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 29

Figure 2:
An all-sky map of
continuum emission at
408 MHz from the Milky
Way, plotted in celestial
coordinates. The bright
spots are discrete radio
sources lying inside and
beyond our Galaxy
(Haslam et al.1982).
Copyright: MPIfR Bonn.

Germany, and the Parkes 64-m telescope in Australia. The angular resolution or half-
power beamwidth of the image is 0.85 degrees (about 1.6 times the diameter of the
Moon). The map was made using many scans across the sky, assuming that the back-
ground radiation and receiver noise varied slowly with time during the course of each
scan. The map shows the large-scale structure of the radio emission from the Milky Way,
but most of the discrete sources appear point-like: their intrinsic angular sizes are much
less than the radio telescope beamwidth.
A single dish measurement of an unresolved point source usually involves a compari-
son between the radio power measured in the direction of the source and the mean power
measured towards a number of nearby comparison or reference regions. In this way the
strength of the emissions, their polarization, and the variation of these properties with fre-
quency may be determined. It is implicitly assumed that the source and the environment
in which the measurements are made do not vary during the course of the measurement.
Variability over weeks, months or years may also be monitored. Some sources, such as
pulsars and the Sun, produce emissions that vary more rapidly. They therefore require
special observing techniques.

3.3.2. Antenna Array Observations

Single dish measurements are limited by their angular resolution. Radio astronomers
use radio interferometers to measure the structure of radio sources on very fine angu-
lar scales down to a fraction of a milliarcsecond. An array of two or more antennas has
a field of view roughly equal to the half-power beamwidth of one of the individual
antennas making up the array, and an angular resolution or beamwidth equal to that of
an equivalent aperture with the dimensions of the whole array. Each pair of antennas in
the array is sensitive to a range of angular scales. If there are enough antennas in the
array, many angular scales can be measured simultaneously, and images can be pro-
duced in a single operation or “snapshot”. Most arrays, however, use the rotation of the
Earth to sample the radio source from different directions, in the technique called
“aperture synthesis”. For linear arrays with moveable antennas, such as the Synthesis
Radio Telescope at Westerbork in the Netherlands, about twelve 12-hour observations are
needed, using different antenna spacings, to collect enough information to make the best
30 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Figure 3:
Radio image made using a synthesis
telescope at 1.4 GHz. It shows the rapidly
expanding remnant produced by a
supernova explosion. The object is about
10 000 light years away, and, if it were
visible to our eyes, it would look bigger than
the full Moon. The background dots are not
stars; they are distant radio galaxies and
quasars. Figure courtesy of Ken Tapping,
Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory,
Canada.

image; each day the antennas have to be moved to new positions. In assessing the impact
of unwanted emissions, the average half-power beamwidth of the individual array anten-
nas should be used, since this is the size of the patch of sky the array can “see”. The syn-
thesised beam pattern for the final image is determined in the data processing.
An example of a radio map made in this way is shown in Figure 3.
Different combinations of instruments are used in radio interferometry. In Europe, radio
interferometers located on a single site and operating at metre and centimetre wavelengths
are located in Cambridge (United Kingdom), in Nançay (France) and in Westerbork (the
Netherlands). An interferometer operating at mm-wavelengths is located on the Plateau de
Bure (France). Such connected element interferometers achieve the angular resolution
equivalent to a “single dish” instrument with the diameter of the whole array, which is sev-
eral km, for the examples mentioned.
Long baseline interferometry, where the array is of order 100 km across, is carried out
in the United Kingdom, using the Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network
MERLIN, operated by Jodrell Bank Observatory. Optical fibre connections will replace
the radio links in 2005. MERLIN achieves the angular resolution of a (hypothetical) sin-
gle dish 218 km in diameter.
On a continental or worldwide scale telescopes are combined in Very Long Baseline
Interferometry, VLBI (see Section 3.7). VLBI is a very special kind of radio astronomical
technique and puts particular constraints on the protection of radio astronomy frequency
bands.
Radio astronomical observations can be done in a single frequency band or in several
frequency bands simultaneously. Furthermore, telescopes can move from one frequency
band to another within time scales as short as 1 minute. The choice of frequency is based
on the astronomical requirements, physics of the celestial radio source and the character-
istics of the instrument used. This implies that, in practical matters of frequency manage-
ment, one must assume that all frequencies allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service are
always used.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 31

3.4. Radio Astronomical Techniques – Spectral Line Observations

3.4.1 Single Dish Observations

In spectral line observing the bandwidth of the receiver is divided into many frequen-
cy channels of equal width that are measured simultaneously, usually via digital signal
processing. The number of frequency channels is typically many thousands. The total
power measured as a function of frequency contains the wanted power from the spec-
tral line, together with the unwanted contributions from receiver noise, ground radia-
tion, sky background etc. If the unwanted components in the spectrum are constant in
time and slowly varying with frequency, it may be possible to estimate their contribu-
tion in the vicinity of the spectral line, the so-called “instrumental baseline” by inter-
polation, and subtract it. This is the total power mode of observing. Radio astronomers
also use position switching and frequency switching techniques to subtract the instru-
mental baseline. In position switching the on-source spectrum is measured together
with one or more off-source reference spectra obtained at nearby positions on the sky.
The final spectrum is then obtained by subtracting a suitable mean of the reference
spectra from the target spectrum. In cases where the spectral line emission is very
extended and line-free reference positions cannot be found, radio astronomers can use
frequency switching, in which the reference spectrum is obtained by measuring at a dif-
ferent frequency (or frequencies). In all three modes of observing the requirement for
stable conditions during the course of the measurement is paramount.
We can conclude that spectral line observations are particularly sensitive to “unwant-
ed” emissions for the degradation they can produce. Any pattern feature of the line can
be obscured, distorted or cancelled by interfering signals. The effect is even worse if the
interfering signals are multiple, move or vary in time, because the previously described
“subtraction” techniques can be invalidated. This difficulty applies principally to the
1400 - 1427 MHz band, which is used to observe emissions from cosmic hydrogen. This
is the dominant material in the universe and is detectable all over the sky.

3.4.2. Antenna Array Observations

In the case of spectral line interferometry, separate images are made for each spec-
trometer channel. After correction for the Doppler shift due to the Earth’s motion, each
channel corresponds to a range of Doppler velocities in the target source. The final set
of maps is termed a “data cube”. Three-dimensional display techniques are necessary to
study and interpret such data cubes.
Similar concerns about unwanted emissions apply here.

3.5 Calibration

Calibration of single dish measurements is usually achieved by measuring the receiv-

er output when the radio telescope is pointed towards a point source of known spectral
flux density. Calibration involving a switchable broadband noise source (or sources) at
the receiver input is also usually employed. Calibration of interferometer data is more
complex and beyond the scope of this Handbook.
32 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

3.6 Criteria for Harmful Interference

The radio astronomical measurement made at the receiver output is an estimate of the
mean power available at the port of the receiving antenna. Radio astronomers express
this noise power in terms of a noise temperature, which is the temperature at which a
matched resistance, placed at the input port of the receiver, would produce the same
power at the receiver output as is observed when the antenna is connected. This noise
power is kTsystemB (in Watts), where k is Boltmann’s constant, B is the bandwidth (in
Hz), and Tsystem is the system noise temperature (in degrees Kelvin).
The measurement process is complicated by several noise contributions, all of which
have similar properties: ground noise, atmospheric noise, and the internal noise of the
receiver. Taking them together one can write
Tsystem = Treceiver + Tatmosphere + Tsidelobes + Tsource ,

where Treceiver , Tatmosphere and Tsidelobes are the unwanted noise contributions from the
receiver, the atmosphere in the main beam and any sources (ground, atmosphere, inter-
ference, etc.) in the antenna sidelobes, and Tsource is the wanted contribution from the
source in the main beam. In general Tsource is the smallest term in this equation. The
determination of Tsource consists therefore of measuring the very small change in the
average Tsystem when the antenna is pointed at and away from the source (for a point-
like source) or during a scan across an extended source. The weakest cosmic sources
that can usefully be measured are those that produce, when the antenna is pointed at
them, a change in the output of the receiver comparable with the rms noise fluctuations
in the detector output, namely

This quantity represents the rms error in a measurement. Since increasing the band-
width reduces the rms fluctuations in the receiver output, radio astronomers make con-
tinuum measurements using the largest bandwidth possible. Note that if part of an allo-
cated band has to be sacrificed to implement a guard band, the measurement error will
increase. If x% of the band is lost, an x% increase in the integration time will be need-
ed to retrieve the required sensitivity, which in turn will mean a reduction in efficiency
at the observatory of roughly x%.
Recommendation ITU-R RA.769 tabulates the levels of interference that would, if
noise-like, produce additional rms fluctuations in the receiver output equivalent to 10%
of the fluctuations in the absence of that interference. In converting this noise temper-
ature to a spectral power flux density at the observatory, it is further assumed that the
interfering signals enter through far sidelobes of the radio telescope at 0 dB gain
(Recommendation ITU-R RA.769).
Radio astronomical measurements are usually expressed in terms of spectral power
flux density, i.e. power in Watts falling on a square metre of antenna collecting area, per
Hz of receiver bandwidth. The actual bandwidth used to make the measurement will be
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 33

Figure 4: Thresholds of interference versus frequency for radio astronomy spectral line and continuum
observations. From ITU-R Recommendation RA.769.

much larger than 1 Hz – generally the entire bandwidth of the frequency allocation in
the case of a continuum measurement, or the channel bandwidth in the case of a spec-
tral line measurement. Because of the tiny amounts of power received from cosmic
sources, their spectral power flux density is usually specified in terms of the Jansky:
1 Jy = 10 –26 W m–2 Hz –1.
However, for spectrum management purposes, Recommendation ITU-R RA.769
gives the interference thresholds in units of receiver noise temperature ∆T, in terms of
power in the measurement bandwidth, and in terms of spectral power flux density. The
spfd thresholds for spectral line and continuum measurements are plotted in Figure 4.
1 Jansky corresponds to –260 dB(W/(m2Hz)).

3.6.1. Interference to Arrays

It has long been realised that a radio interferometer is less sensitive to radio interfer-
ence than a single dish telescope. A simple two-element interferometer responds prima-
rily to signals which are correlated at the two telescopes. Interference which is present at
only one telescope has a secondary effect on the result (unless it overloads the receiver,
destroying its linear transfer function). Furthermore, any interfering signal appearing
simultaneously at both telescopes will not in general have the characteristic fringe fre-
quency and delay of a cosmic source. One result of this is that the effective time over
which such interference disrupts the measurement is reduced from the time of the com-
plete observation to the mean period of one natural fringe oscillation. For VLBI the nat-
34 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Figure 5. Harmful threshold of interference to radio astronomical continuum measurements shown as

a function of frequency for different types of radio telescope. The lower curve applies to total power
measurements using a single telescope. Connected element interferometers such as the VLA and MERLIN
have a degree of extra immunity against interference which increases with the array size (expressed in
wavelength). The curve for VLBI assumes the interfering signal affects only one telescope, in which case
the result is independent of the array configuration or size. Adapted from ITU-R Recommendation RA.769.

ural fringe rate is measured in kHz, and so the extra immunity to interference resulting
from this effect is considerable. Table 1 lists some representative numbers for VLBI sys-
tem of 3 000 km baseline. Interference thresholds for VLBI and for radio interferometers
of different sizes are compared with the single dish thresholds in Figure 5.
A second effect which occurs is bandwidth decorrelation of broadband interference.
Interfering signals at opposite ends of the receiver band will generally have different
fringe rates, and this will lead to decorrelation of order
sin πBt
πBt
where B is the bandwidth and t the delay. This means that the effect of the interference
is reduced by an amount –10 log10(πBt) dB. The discrimination against interference is
strongest when the cosmic source is moving across the interferometer fringes and least
when it is moving along a fringe. For VLBI the delay t is sufficiently large that the
bandwidth decorrelation factor is also large. Table 1 gives representative values for
continuum (B = 2 MHz) and spectral line (B = 1 kHz) measurements.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 35

Table 1: Factors Affecting the Response of a VLBI Array to Interfering Signals

Representative baseline D = 3 000 km

Observation time τ = 40 min
Wavelength 18 cm 6 cm 1.3 cm
Projected baseline υ = D/λ 1.7x107 5x107 22x107
Fringe spacing (milliarcsec) 12 4 0.9
*Natural fringe rate ϖυ (kHz) 1.2 3.6 16.3
Fringe frequency effect
(ϖυτ )-1/2 (dB) -32 -35 -38
Representative delay t = D/c = 10-2 sec for all λ
Representative bandwidth B = 2 MHz (continuum)
1 kHz (line)
Bandwidth decorrelation factor (dB)
-10 log10(πBt) dB = -48 dB (continuum)
= -15 dB(line)

Note: Here ϖ = 7.3 x 10-5 Hz is the Earth rotation rate.

Table1 suggests at first sight that VLBI measurements may yield useful results in the
presence of relatively strong interference. However there are other factors to be consid-
ered. In order to make an accurate measurement of a radio source we must calibrate the
amplitude of the fringes. The correlator output is usually in the form of raw cross-cor-
relation coefficients

Any interfering signal present at one site only will effectively add to the receiver noise
component of the power Pi , and so will reduce the correlation coefficient. The ITU-R
criterion for harmful interference to VLBI measurements is that the interfering signal
should add no more than 1% to the receiver noise at a given site (ITU-R
Recommendation RA.769). This figure of 1% also corresponds fairly closely to the typ-
ical uncertainties in “well calibrated” VLBI data. In practice this 1% limit becomes
important before the combined effects of decorrelation given in Table 1.

3.6.2. Conclusions
Radio Astronomy differs from most other radio applications in that the measurements
are obtained as averages over long integration times and large bandwidths. In terms of
standard radio telecommunications definitions, the available signal-to-noise ratios are
very small, usually far less than unity. In addition, radio astronomical observations
almost always involve differential measurements of flux density, polarization and/or
spectrum at different points in the sky. This needs to be taken into account when
addressing interference problems and formulating mitigation measures.
36 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

3.7. Very Long Baseline Interferometry, VLBI

Very Long Baseline Interferometry, VLBI, is the technique used for radio astronom-
ical studies requiring the highest angular resolution. A radio interferometer achieves an
angular resolution of λ/D radian, where λ is the wavelength and D is the projected sep-
aration of the telescopes, as viewed from the radio source. With telescopes separated
by intercontinental distances and wavelengths of 1 cm or less, a resolution of less than
1 milliarcsec may be achieved (1 milliarcsec is approximately the angle subtended at
the Earth by a person on the Moon). This is the highest angular resolution achieved in
any branch of science. The feasibility of extending the technique even further to radio
telescopes in space was first demonstrated using the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite
System, TDRSS, and space VLBI is now conducted using a dedicated orbiting radio
telescope (see Section 3.7).
VLBI is normally used to measure or map sources of very small angular size (mil-
liarcseconds and smaller), or to use known sources to measure changes in the dimen-
sional shape of the antenna array (geophysics research). In this latter case the formal
accuracy in the measurements can be a few millimetres over intercontinental distances
(usually called baselines).
VLBI observations are now conducted regularly at most cm-wave radio observato-
ries around the world. In addition there is a growing global millimetric VLBI network.

3.7.1 VLBI Techniques

VLBI differs from connected-element radio interferometry in several aspects. In a con-
ventional radio interferometer all the receivers at each antenna use a common local oscil-
lator, locked to an accurate frequency standard, to maintain the coherence of the interfer-
ometer. Signals from each telescope are brought together, through appropriate delays, to
be correlated in real time to produce the interferometer fringes. VLBI is a radio astronom-
ical technique based upon the recording of the amplified cosmic radio emissions in raw
form (although downconverted in frequency and then sampled), along with precise tim-
ing and reference signals.
In VLBI each observatory relies on its own highly stable atomic frequency standard to
maintain coherence by dead reckoning. A hydrogen maser is usually employed, when
receiving radio astronomical signals at microwaves (>10GHz) and over hundreds of sec-
onds. The frequency stability required is a few parts in 1014; indeed coherence times are
then limited by atmospheric effects and the short-term phase noise of the atomic refer-
ence. Coherence times range from 100s at 7 mm wavelength up to tens of minutes at cm
wavelengths.
The data from each VLBI station are separately digitised and recorded for subse-
quent processing. After recording, the signals are brought together at a processing sta-
tion, where they are synchronised and correlated. In effect, a network of VLBI radio
telescopes operates like a single radio telescope using an array of antennas but without
those antennas needing to be connected together during the observations. This makes
it possible for the array to be very large, with antennas on different continents, or even
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 37

in space. The recording system used has high sensitivity and is wideband. This so-
called MKIV system uses a multichannel tape drive to record up to 512 Mb/s of data
on magnetic tape. The MKV system uses computer hard-disc-based recording at 1
GB/s. The feasibility of bringing VLBI data together over the internet, eVLBI, was
demonstrated by European and US radio astronomers in 2004.
Another difference from connected-element radio interferometry is the way that
VLBI data are processed to make radio maps. Compared with most conventional radio
interferometers a VLBI array is very sparse and irregularly filled. Also the absolute
phase of the interferometer is virtually impossible to determine. Special mapping tech-
niques have been developed to deal with this situation. Great advances have been made
in the last decade in the self-calibration techniques, which make use of redundancy in
the data to determine corrections for telescope-dependent errors. If there are three or
more telescopes in the array we can construct closure phases of the form
φ123 = φ12 + φ23 + φ31,
where φ ij is the phase angle on the baseline formed by stations i and j. These closure phas-
es depend only on the structure of the radio source. Instrumental or atmospheric/ionos-
pheric phase errors introduced at any one station will appear twice in the closure phase
equation with opposite signs, and so will cancel. For an array of n>4 telescopes the num-
ber of independent closure phases exceeds the number of telescopes, and so it is possible
to solve for the telescope-dependent phase errors. There is a penalty in that the absolute
phase information is lost. However this is not a major disadvantage for VLBI as the
absolute phase is not known in any case. In a similar way closure amplitudes of the form

A1234 =

may be constructed from the fringe amplitudes aij on individual baselines, and used to
determine telescope-dependent gain errors. The effectiveness of these self-calibration
techniques increases as the number of telescopes increases. For an array of n telescopes
there are:
n(n-1)/2 baselines,
n(n-1)(n-2)/2 independent closure phases, and
n(n-3)/2 independent closure amplitudes.

Such has been the success of the method that it is now used to process data from con-
nected-element interferometers.

3.7.2. VLBI Frequency Bands

The frequency bands below 50 GHz used regularly for VLBI are listed in Table 2. In
most cases they are centred on bands having a primary allocation to Radio Astronomy
in at least one ITU region. The degree of protection actually afforded to Radio
Astronomy varies considerably from country to country even within a given ITU region
38 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

(e.g. Section 5.2). The frequency bands used by some of the different VLBI networks
are also indicated in Table 2: EVN stands for the European VLBI Network in which 10
radio observatories participate; VLBA stands for the US Very Long Baseline Array net-
work.

Table 2: Frequency Bands Below 50 GHz Used for VLBI

Wavelength R.A. Band (MHz) MKIV Band EVN VLBA Other

(cm) in ITU-R RR (MHz)

90.0 322.00 - 328.60 315.0 - 335.0 - - R

319.99 - 333.99 X X X
50.0 608.00 - 614.00 599.99 - 613.99 X X -
21.0 1400.00 - 1427.00 1374.99 - 1430.99 X - -
1385.0 - 1435.0 - - R
18.0 1660.00 - 1670.00 1636.99 - 1692.99 X X X
1645.0 - 1695.0 - - R
13.0 (2290.00 - 2300.00) 2075.0 - 2325.0 - - R
2214.99 - 2270.99 - - DS
6.0 4990.00 - 5000.00 4805.0 - 4855.0 - - R
4956.99 - 5012.99 X X *
5000.0 - 5020.0 - - R
7800.0 - 8700.0 - - R
3.6 (8400.00 - 8500.00) 8270.99 - 8326.99 X X DS
1.3 22210.00 - 22500.00 22195.0 - 22245.0 - - R
22206.99 - 22262.99 X X *
0.7 42500.00 - 43500.00 43178.99 - 43234.99 X X +

Notes:
DS Space Research band used for VLBI, often with NASA dishes.
R Russian VLBI network
* Non-standard band for Russian Radioastron space VLBI.
+ Ad hoc sessions.

It will be noticed that the standard VLBI frequency bands for the MK IV recorder
usually exceed the bands allocated to Radio Astronomy. Fruitful use of these unprotect-
ed sub-bands is possible for reasons discussed in Section 3.7.5.
Two of the bands used are allocated to the Space Research Service for Deep Space
transmissions from Space to Earth. VLBI use of these bands has become established
through collaborations with NASA. The bands offer the advantage of 64 m-class
NASA radio dishes equipped with state-of-the-art cooled receivers and top perform-
ance atomic frequency standards.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 39

3.7.3. Mapping Considerations

In Section 3.6.1 we have considered the effect of radio interference on individual
measurements of fringe visibility. However the modern trend in VLBI is to use large
arrays capable of high quality imaging. “World Array” experiments involving about 20
radio telescopes are beginning to yield high resolution images of a quality similar to
that produced by the largest US connected interferometer, the Very Large Array, VLA,
in its early years. The quality of the VLBI images is determined by several factors: the
number of telescopes, their geographical location, the choice of the receiving frequen-
cy and the celestial coordinates of the source being observed – all of which govern the
efficiency with which Earth rotation syntheses the large aperture of the array. To be
effective, most of the array must be operating most of the time. For an array of 20 tel-
escopes to be fully operational 90% of the time each telescope should be operational
99.5% of the time (assuming the interference events at each site are independent). The
ITU-R has adopted 90% of time as its criterion in assessing the likelihood of interfer-
ence to Radio Astronomy due to unusual propagation effects. The present argument
suggests that the 90% of time for VLBI should apply to the whole array, and that a fig-
ure of 99.5% would be appropriate for each individual radio telescope. To illustrate the
point, an array of 20 telescopes each operating 90% of the time would be fully func-
tional only 12% of the time!

3.7.4. Practical Considerations

The response of a connected-element interferometer to interfering signals has been
studied under controlled experimental conditions, and the theory outlined in Section
3.6 has been confirmed. Such a study has not yet been made for VLBI. This is under-
standable, as VLBI programme committees might not sanction the controlled sabotage
of a multimillion dollar international observing facility. If we consider instead the use
of existing data we meet new difficulties.
It appears that it would be very difficult to obtain systematic information on radio
interference from existing VLBI data. To begin with, the monitoring of radio interfer-
ence during VLBI experiments varies considerably, and interference at the 1% level
might actually pass unnoticed at some sites. The effects of interference only become
apparent during the correlation of the data, but that happens some months after the
experiment, or even later, during the mapping process. Again it would be difficult to
extract exhaustive statistical information. Bad data are usually discarded once identi-
fied as such, and there is not yet a systematic procedure for logging this information. It
is by now in the hands of scientists whose livelihoods depend on publishing results, not
brooding over interference. Nevertheless, there must be a pool of experience and
expertise which could be drawn on.

3.7.5. Conclusions
There are factors which give VLBI extra immunity to radio interference compared
with a total power system. These factors include the wide separation of the telescopes,
the fact that the interferometer responds primarily to signals which are correlated at all
40 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

telescopes, and the degree of redundancy and parallelism in the data collection which
allows data to be edited and corrected in the off-line processing. Partly because of these
factors, some VLBI operations are successfully carried out in frequency bands not allo-
cated to Radio Astronomy.
A number of questions deserve further study. For example, we know that
astronomers will edit out strong interference, and that the self-calibration techniques
will deal with some types of low-level interference. Is there an immediate level at
which interference causes more subtle effects in the radio mapping? How should we
standardise the logging of interference during VLBI experiments? For example would
it be worthwhile to construct automatic interference monitors which could run during
VLBI observations? It is clear that a detailed understanding of the effects of radio inter-
ference on VLBI in practice, rather than in theory, will require the cooperation of many
VLBI scientists at all stages of the experiment from data logging through to correlation
and mapping. Can we convince them that it is worth the trouble?

3.8 Space-based Radio Astronomy

Space-based Radio Astronomy is a relatively new field. Because of the absence of

atmospheric absorption, space-based Radio Astronomy is invaluable for observing in
frequency ranges where ground-based observations can never be made. Several space
missions have already been successfully dedicated to Radio Astronomy, as is indicated
by the examples in this section.

3.8.1. Space VLBI

The Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry observatory, HALCA, was launched
by Japan in February 1997. This satellite has been the main element of the VLBI Space
Observatory Programme, VSOP, which is producing high resolution radio images of
celestial radio sources. With VLBI, the larger the dimensions of the array of the radio
telescopes involved, the finer the resulting angular resolution. The VSOP mission is the
first dedicated Space VLBI observatory. By combining observations from the HALCA
satellite and ground radio telescopes, the world’s astronomers are now able to generate
an array of telescopes that is three times the Earth’s diameter in extent, and to reap the
rewards of improved angular resolution images.
The VSOP mission is a complex international endeavour involving a global network of
about 40 radio telescopes, five tracking stations and data processing facilities in Australia,
Canada, Japan, the USA, and with participation also of the European VLBI Network and
the Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe, JIVE, in the Netherlands.
HALCA’s radio telescope is an 8 m Cassegrain type antenna composed of a mesh-sur-
face main reflector. Its orbit is highly elliptical with an apogee height of 21 400 km, a
perigee height of 560 km, an inclination angle of 31°, and an orbital period of 6.3 hours.
The on-board radio astronomy sub-system includes low-noise receivers for three frequen-
cy bands, 1.60 - 1.73 GHz, 4.7 - 5.0 GHz and 22.0 - 22.3 GHz (see also Table 2).
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 41

Of crucial importance in the production of VSOP images is the choice of an appropri-

ate weighting scheme since in any given experiment, the antenna with the poorest anten-
na sensitivity is the HALCA spacecraft. When the appropriate weighting scheme is cho-
sen, VSOP images of moderate dynamic range (≈ 1000:1) can be produced.
In 2005 operations of HALCA ended. Another Space VLBI mission, Radioastron, led
by the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian Space Agency, is being prepared
for launch in the first decade of the twenty-first century.
HALCA and Radioastron represent first generation Space VLBI missions. Their angu-
lar resolutions are between 3 and 10 times higher than those of ground-based VLBI sys-
tems at the same wavelength. However, they are limited in their scientific productivity by
the relatively low sensitivity of the orbital radio telescopes compared to a typical ground-
based VLBI radio telescope. The sensitivity of an orbital radio telescope is defined by the
size of its antenna and the noise characteristics of its on-board radio astronomy receivers
(the diameter for the first Space VLBI telescopes is 8-10 metre as opposed to 25-30 metre
for a typical ground-based VLBI telescope).
Space VLBI missions have observed at frequencies as high as 22 GHz, while ground-
based VLBI systems routinely operate at frequencies up to 43 GHz (some of them oper-
ate at frequencies as high as 220 GHz). There are a number of high-priority scientific
objectives which require VLBI observations with an angular resolution roughly 10 times
higher than that achievable with ground-based VLBI in the frequency range from 5 to 100
GHz, and with a sensitivity up to 100 times better than that of the current Space VLBI
missions.
To address these objectives, a second generation Space VLBI mission is being con-
sidered. It will differ from its precursors essentially in two major characteristic: (a) up
to two orders of magnitude higher sensitivity; and (b) a broader frequency coverage
with an emphasis on the frequency range 5 - 90 GHz. This will require a 25 - 30 metre
antenna with an rms surface accuracy of 0.2 mm. Such a mission is currently under
study at ESA and NASA.

3.8.2 Single-mode Space Radio Observatories

In 2001, Sweden launched the Odin satellite for both astronomical and atmospheric
(aeronomy) research. For atmospheric sounding the spacecraft follows the Earth limb,
scanning the atmosphere up and down from 15 to 120 km at a rate of up to 40 scans
per orbit (see Section 3.9.3). When observing astronomical sources, Odin is continu-
ously pointing towards the target for up to 60 minutes. The satellite includes optical and
radio observing facilities. The radio astronomical research serves particularly the stud-
ies of spectral line emissions. Emissions from a large range of molecules are detected
by the system.
The main objective is to perform detailed studies of the physics and the chemistry of
the interstellar medium by observing emission from key molecular species. Comets, plan-
ets, protostars, circumstellar envelopes and nearby galaxies are also studied.
The radio telescope consists of a mirror of 1.1 metre diameter, with a surface accura-
cy of 10 µm rms. The following frequencies are observed: 118.25 - 119.25 GHz, 486.1 -
42 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

503.9 GHz and 541.0 - 580.4 GHz with bandwidth 100 MHz to 1 GHz and a spectral res-
olution of 0.1 MHz to 1 MHz. The sensitivity of the receiver is 1 K in 1MHz with S/N=5
after 15 min of integration.
Another satellite operating at frequencies between about 100 and 500 GHz is the
NASA Sub-millimetre Wave Astronomy Satellite, SWAS, launched on 5 December 1998.
Other space radio observatories include those dedicated to cosmic microwave back-
ground research such as COBE, which detected the anisotropy of the cosmic
microwave background radiation, and the Wilkinson MAP probe. There are many
advantages to placing such radio astronomy stations in one of the Lagrangian points in
the gravitational field of the Sun-Earth system around which stable (halo) orbits can be
established for spacecraft, namely the L2 point (ITU-R Handbook on Radio
Astronomy, Chapter 7). At the L2 point the Earth, Sun, Moon and most artificial radio
transmitters are concentrated within a small region of sky, so by pointing away from
this direction observations of the highest stability can be achieved.
Further developments foreseen in space radio astronomy include the establishment of
a radio astronomy station in the shielded zone of the Moon (ITU-R Handbook on Radio
Astronomy, Chapter 7).

3.8.3. Radio Science with Telecommunication Links across Interplanetary Space

The availability at the big VLBI radiotelescopes of extremely high stability frequen-
cy standards and of very low noise receivers has opened the possibility for these stations
to participate in Doppler tracking of interplanetary spacecraft. Modern missions carry
on-board transponders suitable to retransmit to the Earth the uplink signal, translated to
a different frequency band, while preserving phase coherence, even at 8.4GHz and
recently 32 GHz. The extremely high spatial resolution achievable by comparing the
carrier phases of the up- and downlinks (differential movements as small as a fraction of
a millimetre over million kilometres distances have been demonstrated), opens many
new research areas. These include the search for experimental evidence of gravitational
waves, tests of General Relativity, determination of the masses of the bodies encoun-
tered by the spacecraft (the icy satellites, and also Saturn and Titan) by measuring the
deflection of the spacecraft trajectory due to their gravitational field, and the analysis of
the structure and size distribution of “occulted” bodies (for example the rings of Saturn
or the atmosphere of Titan).
This technique has recently shown its power for dramatically improving the naviga-
tion accuracy during adverse receiving conditions, for example, when in the conjunction
geometry with the Sun, when the radio link is almost aligned with it. The Cassini space-
craft, in particular, has three transponders of such good quality across five frequency
bands from 2 to 34 GHz, and has given exciting new results in this field. Further mis-
sions are planned for the future: SMART-1, Bepi Colombo, etc. As a by-product, the
Cassini observations are the best ever made in separating the different contributions to
the up and downlinks due to the solar wind.
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 43

3.9. Passive Remote Sensing of the Earth’s Atmosphere

The passive frequency bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service are also used
for other scientific purposes. The following section introduces passive remote sensing of
the Earth’s atmosphere.
Monitoring terrestrial chemical constituents is essential in the Earth’s middle atmos-
phere, corresponding to the stratosphere and the mesosphere. At altitudes higher than the
tropopause (10 - 18 km from the pole to the tropics), ozone molecules play an important
role by absorbing the ultraviolet, UV, radiation of the Sun, which is harmful to
humankind, flora and fauna, and in general to any terrestrial life if the radiation reach-
ing the ground is sufficiently strong. For more than 50 years, we have imprudently used
chlorofluorocarbons (Freons), and allowed them to go up into the stratosphere where
they are destroyed by UV radiation, freeing large quantities of chlorine monoxide, the
most dangerous destroyer of ozone molecules.
To survey some key components of the atmosphere, various techniques of remote sens-
ing have been developed in the last 20 years using different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum, including UV, optical and infrared spectrometers, lidars (light detection and
ranging), and ground-based microwave sensors which have now been operational for
many years. The rapid evolution of microwave technology has allowed the development
of new instrumentation with lower receiver temperature and improved sensitivity. For the
same scientific purposes, satellite-borne microwave experiments have been used for more
than 10 years using the technique of Microwave Limb Sounding, MLS, as aboard the
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, UARS, by NASA from 1991, Odin (Sweden,
France, Finland and Canada) from 2001 and more recently Aura/MLS (NASA) in 2004.

3.9.1. Microwave Remote Sensing Radiometry

The microwave remote sensing technique involves making high spectral resolution
measurements of optically thin pure rotational lines in atmospheric emission. The fre-
quency range covered is 22 - 1000 GHz, the lower limit being the rotational line of
water vapour at 22 GHz. The atmospheric thermal emission is detected by microwave
radiometry, which is a passive remote sensing technique, i.e. with no transmitters
involved. This microwave technique offers advantages over observations in other spec-
tral regions. The sensitivity to atmospheric aerosol scattering is low and can be neglect-
ed in most applications. The thermal emission depends linearly on the temperature but
an average profile is sufficient in most cases. Because the measurements are made in
emission, observations can be carried out both day and night, and daily time evolution
can thus be measured. As rotational transitions are pressure-broadened in the middle
atmosphere, this effect permits retrieval of the vertical distribution of the molecular
species from the shape of the spectral line.
The retrieval of vertical profiles of the atmospheric molecule concentration requires
the use of an inversion process involving a “forward model” which describes the phys-
ical relationship between the atmospheric state and the observed quantity, instrumental
and spectroscopic parameters, as well as atmospheric parameters (pressure and temper-
44 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

ature). Synthetic theoretical spectra are computed, based on an a priori profile of the
molecule being considered, followed by an “inversion” code, which uses in most cases
the Optimal Estimation Method proposed by C. Rodgers (1990), which provides an
estimation of the error budget.

3.9.2. Ground-based Radiometry

In 1989, under the aegis of the World Meteorological Organization, a Network for
the Detection of Stratospheric Change, NDSC, was set up in Geneva. The NDSC has
six primary stations located in the Arctic, at European middle latitudes, at tropical north
and south sites, middle south latitudes and in the Antarctica, as well as a large number
of complementary stations distributed around the world. In the primary stations and in
some complementary ones, ground-based microwave radiometers are permanently
operational to measure ozone, chlorine monoxide, water vapour, nitric acid, carbon
monoxide and some other minor atmospheric constituents.
The main frequencies used for these ground-based microwave measurements are
22.235 and 183 GHz for water vapour, 111, 142, 208 and 273 GHz for ozone, 204 and
278 GHz for chlorine monoxide, 201 and 276 GHz for nitrous oxide (N2O), 203 GHz
for hydroperoxyl radical (HO2), 203.4 GHz for isotopic water vapour (H218O), 206 and
269 - 270 GHz for nitric acid, 115 and 230 GHz for carbon monoxide and 266 GHz for
hydrogen cyanide (HCN).
These frequencies are used because of their location in a transparent region of the
atmospheric transmission or opacity, as shown in Figure 6, for ground-based measure-
ments below 275 GHz. Figure 7 shows the zenith opacity above that limit (from 275 to
1000 GHz).

3.9.3. Satellite-borne Radiometry

Humankind’s influence on the atmosphere of planet Earth has expanded in recent
decades from the local scale of urban pollution to the global scale of effects such as the
ozone hole. This is also indicated by more and more comprehensive evidence of the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Global problems require global monitoring which is pro-
vided by experiments located onboard satellites with the ability to scan the atmosphere
at altitudes from 10 to 120 km. Microwave experiments working at frequencies higher
than 275 GHz are convenient for monitoring a large number of atmospheric molecules
which present emission lines in the frequency range 275 - 1000 GHz. Such combined
techniques are named Microwave Limb Sounding, MLS. The first MLS experiment
was located onboard the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite launched by NASA in
1991. More recently the Odin satellite was launched on 20 February 2001. It is a
Swedish-led project with contributions from France, Finland and Canada. The
microwave instrument is the Sub-Millimetre Radiometer, SMR. NASA has recently
launched the EOS-Aura satellite having a new MLS experiment, on 15 July 2004.
Other projects in the future will include the JEM/SMILES experiment
(Superconducting Sub-Millimetre Wave Limb Emission Sounder) to be installed on the
Japanese Experimental Module aboard the International Space Station and the
Characteristics of Radio Astronomy 45

Figure 6. Zenith opacity of the atmosphere between 1 and 275 GHz (ATM code by Pardo,
provided by Guy Rochard at Météo-France, CMS, 22302 Lannion, France, [email protected]).

Figure 7. Zenith opacity of the atmosphere between 275 GHz and 1000 GHz (ATM code by Pardo,
provided by Guy Rochard at Météo-France, CMS, 22302 Lannion, France, [email protected]).
46 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange And climate Monitor (STEAM) satellite project

for the study of chemical, dynamics and radiative processes in the upper
troposphere/lower stratosphere and their relationship with the evolution of the Earth’s
climate and stratospheric ozone.
Many atmospheric species can be monitored on a global scale during the lifetime of
such satellites. Most common are ozone (O3) and isotopes at a large number of frequen-
cies, chlorine monoxide (ClO) at 347, 501, 575, 612 and 650 GHz, water vapour (H2O)
at 321, 325, 488, 557, 620 GHz and isotopes as H217O (552 GHz), H218O (489, 548
GHz), HDO (491 GHz), nitric acid HNO3 (345, 495, 544, 607, 637 GHz) and many
more molecules as CO (346, 576 GHz) and isotopes, BrO (498, 500, 549, 574 GHz),
N2O (502, 552, 578, 628 GHz), NO2 (570 GHz), HO2 (569, 577, 580 GHz), H2O2 (572
GHz), HCl (625 GHz), H2CO (577 GHz), HOCl (305, 323 GHz), CH3Cl (345, 505
GHz). The sulphur dioxide molecule SO2 (571, 575 GHz) may also be detected after
powerful volcanic eruptions such as the Pinatubo event in June 1991.
Data of the measured atmospheric constituents can be assimilated by using model
computations in order to get a picture of the constituent distribution over the globe.
Such global measurements are important for several scientific goals, such as studying
the stratospheric ozone depletion and prediction of recovering, stratosphere/tropo-
sphere exchange, upper troposphere-lower stratosphere studies, radiative forcing and
effects on the global change of climate.
4.
Radio Astronomy Frequencies
48 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

4.1. Considerations on Radio Astronomical Frequency Allocations

Some key-problems of the Radio Astronomy Service are summarised below (here
specific frequencies actually refer to frequency bands).

4.1.1. General Considerations

• Strong efforts must be made to protect radio astronomy bands from adjacent band
interference from air or space-to-ground transmissions. Satellites in geostationary
orbits especially cause a significant problem for Radio Astronomy, since they block
out certain portions of the sky for long periods. The large number of Low Earth
Orbiting, LEO, systems planned and already in orbit act as a curtain which is drawn
in front of the field of view of the radio telescopes and closes the radio window. In
some cases it may be possible to increase radio astronomy band allocations at the
same time that the adjacent band interference problem is solved. Table 3 summaris-
es the potential interference situation from air- or space-to-ground transmissions
adjacent to the primary radio astronomy bands.
• The most important spectral lines are listed in Recommendation ITU-R RA.314.
Protection of all of these lines and some others either by footnotes or through an
exclusive allocation would be desirable.
Multitransition observations of some carefully selected molecules (CO, CS, HCN,
HCO+, H2CO, NH3) together with theoretical model-fitting is the only way to accu-
rately determine the physical and chemical conditions (the distributions of mass,
density, temperature, ionisation, and chemical concentration) in the otherwise
invisible interstellar and circumstellar molecular clouds. In this way we will better
understand the initial conditions for star formation at small as well as large scales
(in galactic molecular clouds and in galaxies, respectively) and also stellar evolu-
tion processes.
Observations of the much weaker lines from rarer isotopic variants (isotopomers)
of these molecules (13CO, C18O, 13CS, C34S, H13CN, H13CN, H13CO+, HC18O+,
DCO+, H213CO) are necessary for the correct interpretation of the main isotopomer
lines. Moreover, they provide accurate information on chemical concentrations in
the molecular clouds and on stellar nucleosynthesis.
• We expect that increasing pressure on the spectrum will in future lead to a worsen-
ing of interference throughout the spectrum, so it is highly desirable to increase the
current bandwidth allocations wherever possible in order to preserve the levels of
sensitivity at which current research is taking place. In general, a 1-2% bandwidth
is the minimum practical allocation; a 5% bandwidth is generally desirable for con-
tinuum bands.
• In the last decade radio astronomical studies have demonstrated the presence of
ever-more-complex molecules in interstellar space. These discoveries have been
one of the most fascinating and puzzling developments in the field. The complexi-
ty of the largest molecules already exceeds that of simple alcohols or amino acids.
It is anticipated that during the next decade still more complex molecules will be
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 49

found. Identification of complex molecules requires the detection of a number of

characteristic lines.
Complex molecules tend to have many lines distributed through the radio frequen-
cy spectrum so no request for protection for specific frequencies is being made
here. Rather, the requirement is essentially the same as for continuum studies: a
number of relatively wide, well-protected bands. While the same probability that
an arbitrary new line will fall in some protected band could be obtained with an
appropriate number of narrow bands centred on known lines rather than with a few
wide bands, the former bands would be “contaminated” by the relatively strong
known lines being protected. Thus, the effort to find new lines would be greatly
impeded.
• The continuum bands above 80 GHz now allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service
are particularly useful because they have practical bandwidths and are situated in
regions of the spectrum where atmospheric windows exist.
• Radio Astronomy observations are very sensitive to spurious and out-of-band emis-
sions. They are in particular vulnerable to airborne and satellite transmissions. A
major effort to modernise and upgrade engineering standards should be made,
especially with regard to unwanted emissions. Modernisation of these standards
would be useful to other services as well as to Radio Astronomy.

4.1.2. Specific Considerations

• Decametric radiation from the planet Jupiter and solar activity at metric and deca-
metric wavelengths cover a spectrum far wider than the bands allocated to the
Radio Astronomy Service. Jupiter is the only radio-planet observable from the
ground at decametric wavelengths, and its study is a unique means of developing
theoretical models for the radio emissions of all the other planets. The interesting
Jovian phenomena can cover the entire spectrum from 3 - 40 MHz. Most solar
bursts occur in the frequency range 100 - 3000 MHz continually, and a comprehen-
sive analysis of solar phenomena that are closely linked to the terrestrial environ-
ment requires observation frequencies outside the few narrow bands allocated to
Radio Astronomy. Solar radio astronomy is an essential tool for solar activity fore-
casts and especially for the prediction of perturbations caused by the Sun which
affect terrestrial radio transmissions.
• There will be strong pressure, internationally, for increased protection of the 322 -
328.6 MHz band. This band serves both narrowband (or line) and broadband (or
continuum) observations, since it includes the hyperfine transition from the cosmo-
logical important deuterium atom. As detector technology improves, activity in this
band is increasing and as discussed below, there are many valid reasons for such an
allocation.
• The 608 - 614 MHz band has different detailed allocations for each region. The
band should be consolidated into a single worldwide exclusive band.
• The 1400 - 1427 MHz band is the most important band for studies of the hydrogen
line and for continuum observations and allocation should be maintained at the
50 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

level of ITU RA 5.340. In bands immediately below this band guidelines should be
given to avoid allocations to certain particularly damaging services. This band is
used worldwide for Very Long Baseline Interferometry.
• Both the 11-cm (2695 MHz) and the 6-cm (4994 MHz) bands are among the impor-
tant ones for the Radio Astronomy Service, but their bandwidths (0.37% and
0.20%, respectively) are too small relative to their importance to the Service as con-
tinuum bands. Virtually all the other continuum bands have at least 1% bandwidths.
Proposed national arrangements should partly alleviate this problem.
• Pulsar research, a topic of the utmost importance for cosmology and relativity
studies, and the subject of one of the recent Nobel Prizes in physics, requires wide
band observations in the decimetric range and the lack of a radio astronomy allo-
cation between 614 and 1420 MHz is a serious handicap for pulsar workers.
• Studies of hydrogen, OH or CH lines in highly redshifted radio sources lead extra-
galactic radio astronomers to observe most of the time outside the allocated bands,
which cover only 1% or so of the possible range of observable redshifts.
• These specific considerations imply that a large fraction (sometimes up to 70%) of
radio astronomy observations are performed outside the bands allocated to the
Radio Astronomy Service, therefore local protection against the power level of sur-
rounding transmitters in all bands and an efficient management of adjacent bands
are also urgently needed.

4.2. Table of Frequency Bands Allocated to the Radio Astronomy

Service and Adjacent Band Allocations

Table 3 summarises the frequency allocations to the Radio Astronomy Service and
the allocations to other services in bands adjacent to radio astronomy bands. It has been
extracted from the ITU Radio Regulations. Following the practice in the ITU Radio
Regulations, the primary services are indicated by the CAPITAL letters (see also foot-
notes to Table 3).
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 51

Table 3: Summary of Broadcast, Spaceborne and Airborne/terrestrial Allocations Adjacent to Radio

Astronomy Bands (status WRC-03)

Status Allocation RAS 2 Brdcst 3 Spaceborne Airborne/

ITU RR Terrestrial
13.26 - 13.36 MHz AERONAUTICAL5
MOBILE (R)
1 13.36 - 13.41 MHz PRIMARY FIXED 5.1494
13.41 - 13.60 MHz FIXED/Mobile
25.21 - 25.55 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
2 25.55 - 25.67 MHz PRIMARY 5.149 5.149
25.67 - 26.10 MHz PRIMARY
30.01 - 37.5 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
3 37.5 - 38.25 MHz secondary FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
38.25 - 39.986 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
72.0 - 73.0 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
6
4 73.0 - 74.6 MHz PRIM.R2 FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
74.8 - 74.8 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
149.9 - 150.05 MHz MOBILE
Earth → space
RADIONAVIG.
5 150.05 - 153.0 MHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
153.0 - 154.0 MHz FIXED
315.0 - 322.0 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
6 322.0 - 328.6 MHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
328.6 - 335.4 MHz AERONAUTICAL
RADIONAVIG.
406.0 - 406.1 MHz MOBILE
Earth → space
7 406.1 - 410.0 MHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
410.0 - 420.0 MHz MOBILE MOBILE
470.0 - MHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
PRIM.R3
sec.R2
8 608.0 - 614.0 MHz PRIM.R2 PRIM.R1/R3
sec.R1/R3
5.149
- 790.0 MHz PRIMARY
52 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

1300.0 - 1350.0 MHz AERONAUTICAL

RADIONAVIG.
RADIOLOCAT.
RADIONAVIG.
SATELLITE
5.149 5.149
9 1330.0 - 1400.0 MHz notificat. passive
of use
1350.0 - 1400.0 MHz FIXED/MOBILE
R1
RADIOLOCAT.
5.149
10 1400.0 - 1427.0 MHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE
5.340 5.340
1427.0 - 1429.0 MHz SPACE OPER. FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
1559.0 - 1610.0 MHz RADIONAVIG. AERONAUTICAL
SATELLITE RADIONAVIG.
space → Earth
space ↔ space
1610.0 - MHz AERONAUTICAL
11 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz PRIMARY MOBILE RADIONAVIG.
Earth → space
- 1626.5 MHz 5.149
5.372
RADIODET.SAT.
Earth → space
R2 5.372
Mobile
space → Earth
5.372
1656.5 - 1660.0 MHz MOBILE
Earth → space
12 1660.0 - 1660.5 MHz PRIMARY MOBILE
Earth → space
5.149
5.376A
12 1660.5 - 1668 MHz PRIMARY PASSIVE Fixed/Mobile
5.149
5.379A
12 1668 - 1668.4 MHz PRIMARY PASSIVE Fixed/Mobile
MOBILE 5.379C
Earth → space
5.149 5.149
5.379A
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 53

12 1668.4 - 1670.0 MHz PRIMARY METEOROLOG. FIXED/MOBILE

AIDS
MOBILE 5.379C
Earth → space
5.149 5.149
1670.0 - 1690.0 MHz METEOROLOG. FIXED/MOBILE
AIDS
METEOROLOG.
SATELLITE
space → Earth
MOBILE
Earth → space
1710.0 - MHz FIXED/MOBILE
13 1718.8 - 1722.2 MHz secondary 5.149
5.385
- 1930.0 MHz
2520.0 - 2655.0 MHz SATELLITE FIXED/MOBILE
5.413
14 2655.0 - 2670.0 MHz secondary SATELLITE FIXED R2/R3 FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 passive 5.149
5.413
14 2670.0 - 2690.0 MHz secondary MOBILE FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
5.149
FIXED R2/R3
passive
15 2690.0 - 2700.0 MHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
2700.0 - 2900.0 MHz AERONAUTICAL
RADIONAVIG.
radiolocat.
3100.0 - MHz RADIOLOCAT.
16 3260.0 - 3267.0 MHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
5.149
- 3300.0 MHz
3300.0 - MHz
16 3332.0 - 3339.0 MHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
5.149
16 3345.8 - 3352.5 MHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
5.149
- 3400.0 MHz
4500.0 - 4800.0 MHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
space → Earth
17-19 4800.0 - 4990.0 MHz secondary FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
5.443
54 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

20 4990.0 - 5000.0 MHz PRIMARY passive FIXED/MOBILE

5.149 5.149
5000.0 - 5010.0 MHz RADIONAVIG. AERONAUTICAL
Earth → space RADIONAVIG.
5010.0 - 5030.0 MHz RADIONAVIG. AERONAUTICAL
space → Earth RADIONAVIG.
space ↔ space
5.443B
5030.0 - 5150.0 MHz AERONAUTICAL
RADIONAVIG.
5925.0 - MHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
21 6650.0 - 6675.2 MHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149
- 6700.0 MHz
10.55 - 10.60 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
22 10.60 - 10.68 GHz PRIMARY EARTH EXPL. FIXED/MOBILE
(passive)
PASSIVE
5.149 5.149 5.149
radiolocat.
22 10.68 - 10.70 GHz PRIMARY EARTH EXPL.
(passive)
PASSIVE
5.340 5.340 5.340
10.70 - 11.70 GHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
14.40 - 14.47 GHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
Mobile
Earth → space
space resear.
5.504A
23 14.47 - 14.50 GHz secondary FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
Mobile
Earth → space
5.149 5.149
5.504A
14.50 - 14.80 GHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
Space resear.
14.80 - 15.35 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
Space resear.
24 15.35 - 15.40 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE
5.340 5.340
15.40 - 15.70 GHz FIXED AERONAUTICAL
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 55

space → Earth RADIONAVIG.

5.511A
21.40 - 22.00 GHz SATELLITE FIXED/MOBILE
R1/R3
22.00 - GHz FIXED/MOBILE
25 22.01 - 22.21 GHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 5.149
- 22.21 GHz
26 22.21 - 22.50 GHz PRIMARY EARTH EXPL. FIXED/MOBILE
PASSIVE
5.149 5.149
22.50 - 22.55 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
22.55 - GHz INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
27 22.81 - 22.86 GHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 5.149
- 23.00 GHz
23.00 - GHz INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
28 23.07 - 23.12 GHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149 5.149
- 23.55 GHz
23.55 - 23.60 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
29 23.60 - 24.00 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
24.00 - 24.05 GHz AMATEUR AMATEUR
31.0 - 31.3 GHz space resear. FIXED
5.543A
MOBILE
5.149
30 31.3 - 31.5 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
31 31.5 - 31.8 GHz PRIMARY PASSIVE Fixed/Mobile
5.149
31.8 - 32.0 GHz SPACE RES. FIXED.
space → Earth RADIONAVIG
36.0 - GHz PASSIVE FIXED/MOBILE
32 36.43 - 36.5 GHz notific. of use 5.149 5.149
- 37.0 GHz
41.50 - 42.5 GHz FIXED FIXED
SATELLITE Earth → space BROADCASTING
Mobile
5.551H 5.551H
5.551I 5.551I
33 42.5 - 43.5 GHz PRIMARY FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
5.149 5.149
43.5 - 47 GHz MOBILE MOBILE
RADIONAVIG. RADIONAVIG.
56 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

47.0 - 47.2 GHz AMATEUR AMATEUR

47.2 - GHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
space ↔ space
5.555A
34 48.94 - 49.04 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 5.340
5.149 5.149
- 50.2 GHz
34 50.2 - 50.4 GHz 5.340 FIXED 5.340
Earth → space
PASSIVE
5.340
5.555A
50.4 - 51.4 GHz FIXED/Mobile FIXED/MOBILE
Earth → space
35 51.4 - 52.6 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
5.556
35 52.6 - 54.25 GHz 5.556 5.340 PASSIVE
5.340 5.340
54.25 - 58.2 GHz PASSIVE FIXED/MOBILE
INTER-SATL.
58.2 - 59.0 GHz notific. of use
59.0 - 64.0 GHz INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
RADIOLOCAT.
35 64.0 - 65.0 GHz 5.556
65.0 - 66.0 GHz EARTH EXPL.
SPACE RESEAR.
75.5 - 76.0 GHz FIXED FIXED
(space → Earth) MOBILE
BRDCST BRDCST
Space research
(space → Earth)
36 76.0 - 77.5 GHz PRIMARY RADIOLOCAT.
5.149 AMATEUR Amateur
Space research
(space → Earth)
36 77.5 - 78.0 GHz secondary AMATEUR AMATEUR
5.149 Space research
(space → Earth)
36 78.0 - 79.0 GHz secondary Amateur RADIOLOCAT.
5.149 Space research AMATEUR
(space → Earth)
36 79.0 - 81.0 GHz PRIMARY Amateur RADIOLOCAT.
5.149 Space research AMATEUR
(space → Earth)
36 81.0 - 84.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (Earth → space)
Space research
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 57

36 84.0 - 86.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED FIXED/MOBILE

5.149 (Earth → space)
36 86.0 - 92.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
36 92.0 - 94.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
36 94.0 - 94.1 GHz secondary EARTH EXPL. RADIOLOCAT.
(active)
SPACE RES.
(active)
36 94.1 - 95.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
36 95.0 - 100.0 GHz PRIMARY RADIONAVIG. FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
RADIONAVIG.
36 100.0 - 102 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
36 102.0 - 105.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
36 105.0 - 109.5 GHz PRIMARY SPACE RES. FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (passive)
36 109.5 - 111.8 GHz PRIMARY PASSIVE
5.340
36 111.8 - 114.25 GHz PRIMARY SPACE SERV. FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (passive)
36 114.25 - 116.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
116.0 - 119.98 GHz EARTH EXPL.
(passive)
INTER-SATL.
SPACE RES.
(passive)
122.25 - 123.0 GHz INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
Amateur
37 123.0 - 126.0 GHz secondary FIXED/MOBILE RADIONAVIG.
5.554 (space → Earth)
RADIONAVIG.
37 126.0 - 130.0 GHz secondary FIXED/MOBILE RADIONAVIG.
5.149 (space → Earth)
RADIONAVIG.
37 130.0 - 134.0 GHz PRIMARY EARTH EXPL. FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (active)
INTER-SATEL.
37 134.0 - 136.0 GHz secondary AMATEUR AMATEUR
37 136.0 - 141.0 GHz PRIMARY Amateur RADIOLOCAT.
5.149 Amateur
37 141.0 - 148.5 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
58 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

37 148.5 - 151.5 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340

5.340
37 151.5 - 155.5 GHz PRIMARY FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 RADIOLOCAT.
37 155.5 - 158.5 GHz PRIMARY PASSIVE FIXED/MOBILE
5.149
158.5 - 164.0 GHz FIXED/MOBILE FIXED/MOBILE
(space → Earth)
38 164.0 - 167.0 GHz PRIMARY PASSIVE
5.340 5.340 5.340
167.0 - 168.0 GHz FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
INTER-SATL.
39 168.0 - 170.0 GHz notific. of use FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
(space → Earth)
5.149 INTER-SATL.
39 170.0 - 174.5 GHz notific. of use FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
(space → Earth)
174.5 - 174.8 GHz INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
174.8 - 182.0 GHz PASSIVE
INTER-SATL.
182.0 - 185.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 5.340 5.340
185.0 - 190.0 GHz PASSIVE
190.0 - 191.8 GHz EARTH EXPL.
(passive)
5.340 SPACE RES. 5.340
(passive)
5.340
40 191.8 - 200.0 GHz notific. of use INTER-SATL. FIXED/MOBILE
MOBILE RADIONAVIG.
5.149 RADIONAVIG.
40 200.0 - 202.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
40 202.0 - 209.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
40 209.0 - 217.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (Earth → space)
40 217.0 - 226.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (Earth → space)
SPACE RES.
(passive)
40 226.0 - 231.5 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
231.5 - 232.0 GHz: FIXED/MOBILE
Radiolocation
240.0 - 241.0 GHz FIXED/MOBILE
RADIOLOCAT.
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 59

41 241.0 - 248.0 GHz PRIMARY RADIOLOCAT.

5.149 Amateur Amateur
41 248.0 - 250.0 GHz secondary AMATEUR AMATEUR
5.149
41 250.0 - 252.0 GHz PRIMARY 5.340 PASSIVE 5.340
5.340
41 252.0 - 265.0 GHz PRIMARY MOBILE FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (Earth → space) RADIONAVIG.
RADIONAVIG.
41 265.0 - 275.0 GHz PRIMARY FIXED FIXED/MOBILE
5.149 (Earth → space)
42 275.0 - 1000.0 GHz notific. of use
5.565

Notes:
1. The band number refers to the numbering used in Section 4.3 of this Handbook.
2. Radio Astronomy Service.
3. Broadcasting service.
4. Footnotes referring to the protection of the Radio Astronomy Service are indicated by number.
5. Primary services are indicated by CAPITAL letters.
6. Status and region indication.

4.3. Comments on Frequency Allocations

This section incorporates CRAF comments on current and requested radio astrono-
my frequency allocations. These have been arrived at through extensive discussion over
many years in the international scientific community.
The CRAF comments are interspersed with remarks on the scientific background to
some of the allocations.
The comments are ordered according to increasing frequency.

1. 13.36 - 13.41 MHz:

2. 25.55 - 25.67 MHz:
This band and the preceding band have worldwide shared primary allocations (see
also No. 5.149). These bands are used for observations of decametric radiation
from the planet Jupiter and from the Sun.

3. 37.5 - 38.25 MHz:

This band has worldwide a secondary allocation (see No. 5.149). Together with the
bands 13.36 - 13.41 MHz and 25.55 - 25.67 MHz this band is very important for
research of radiation from Jupiter. Jovian decametric radiation was discovered long
after all the decametric frequency bands had been allocated and widely used by active
services. The allocations to the Radio Astronomy Service are extremely narrow; how-
60 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

ever, the interesting Jovian phenomena can cover the entire spectrum from 3 - 40
MHz. Jupiter is the only radio-planet observable from the ground at decametric wave-
lengths, and its study is a unique means of developing theoretical models for the radio
emissions of all the other planets.
These three bands (13.36 - 13.41 MHz, 25.55 - 25.67 MHz and 37.5 - 38.25 MHz)
are also used for solar observations. Also for this research the allocations are
extremely narrow, but the interesting solar phenomena can cover the entire spectrum
up to 70 MHz. The Sun is the nearest star and its study enables a better understand-
ing of the radio emission mechanisms of all other stars.
The allocation of the band 37.5 - 38.25 MHz was modified only slightly by WARC-
79. On a worldwide basis the Radio Astronomy Service has a secondary allocation
shared with the Fixed and Mobile Services. In the United States the band 38.00 -
38.25 MHz is shared on a primary basis with the Fixed and Mobile Services. Despite
the secondary allocation, this band is often free of interference and is quite useful for
radio astronomy.

4. 73.0 - 74.6 MHz:

This band is used, among other things, for monitoring the interplanetary “weather”
structure in the solar wind by an international network of instruments that measure
interplanetary scintillation.

5. 150.05 - 153.0 MHz:

This is a shared primary allocation in Region 1. It falls near the middle of a wide
gap in continuum coverage. In the United States, a large amount of interference
occurs in this band. A clear continuum band is badly needed between the current
74 and 327 MHz allocations. This band is widely used in the United Kingdom and
is a major band for the Giant Metre-wave Radio Telescope, GMRT, in India.
Further worldwide consolidation would be most desirable.
This band is also used for pulsar observations and solar observations.

6. 322 - 328.6 MHz:

This band (see No. 5.149) is increasingly being used in all regions, because major
telescopes are operating or planned on these frequencies to study the structure of
radio galaxies. There will be strong pressure, internationally, for increased protec-
tion of this band, including especially the avoidance of transmissions from satellites
and aircraft.
This band has the desired octave-spacing relation with the 150.05 - 153 MHz and
608 - 614 MHz bands, which is needed for continuum observations and in addition
it contains a cosmologically important atomic spectral line: the hyperfine-structure
spectral line of deuterium at 327.4 MHz. The relative abundance of deuterium to
hydrogen is related to the problems of the origin of the universe and the synthesis
of the elements. A determination of the deuterium abundance in the universe will
certainly help in defining the most probable theory of the origin and evolution of
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 61

the universe. Recent ultraviolet observations of deuterium show that its abundance
is not uniform, suggesting that studies of its abundance may be of increasing
importance.
In Europe the frequency band 322 - 328.6 MHz is used by the Westerbork
Synthesis Radio Telescope in the Netherlands and for VLBI applications by radio
observatories in France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland and the United
Kingdom. As detector technology advances, activity in the band is increasing (see
Section 5.1).

7. 406.1 - 410 MHz:

This is an important band (see No. 5.149) for radio astronomy, but its usefulness is
decreased by interference from balloon-borne transmitters which nominally oper-
ate in the band 400.15 - 406 MHz. It would be desirable to reduce the interference
potential by lowering the upper limit of this meteorological aids band or by extend-
ing the radio astronomy band upwards by a few MHz so that emissions near the
lower end of the band could be avoided.

8. 608 - 614 MHz:

Various radio astronomy allocations are made nationally within this range, with var-
ious degrees of protection, to fit in with local television assignments, one television
channel usually being made available for radio astronomy (see Nos. 5.304, 5.305,
5.306 and 5.307). Radio astronomy attaches considerable importance to the main-
tenance of this allocation since without it, there would be a large gap between the
410 MHz and the 1400 MHz allocations, in one of the most interesting parts of the
spectrum. The band is of special value for (worldwide) VLBI observations. It is
requested that in those parts of the world in which the allocation to the Radio
Astronomy Service is on a temporary basis, greater security can be afforded and
radio astronomy given the maximum possible protection from both in-band and
adjacent band transmissions. Primary allocations with several MHz in common to
all regions are desired (see Section 5.2).

9. 1330 - 1400 MHz:

This band is needed for important observations of Doppler-shifted radiation from
hydrogen. No. 5.149 (note: No. 5.339) provides some protection to facilitate obser-
vations on more distant sources at those observatories with the largest antennas.
Such observations can often be made at frequencies shared with low-power ground
transmitters, but high power transmitters especially for radiolocation and any trans-
mitters on aircraft or satellites can cause interference. Especially in Europe this
band suffers bad sharing conditions (i.e. by radar). It is hoped that the temporary
use for radio navigation (No. 5.338) will be phased out.
A worldwide allocation to the Radio Astronomy Service at least from 1370 -
1400 MHz is desired.
62 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

10. 1400 - 1427 MHz:

This is the most important band for studies of the hydrogen line and for continuum
observations and should be maintained at the level of No. 5.340.
The 21 cm line (1420.4057 MHz) of neutral atomic hydrogen is the most important
radio spectral line. Since its discovery in 1951, observations of this line have been
used to study the structure of our Galaxy and other galaxies. Because of Doppler
shifts, the frequency range for observing this emission necessarily ranges from ~1330
to ~1430 MHz (see Section 5.3).
Numerous and detailed studies of neutral hydrogen distribution in our Galaxy and
in other galaxies are being made. The data are being used to investigate the state of
cold interstellar matter, the dynamics, kinematics and distribution of the gas, the rota-
tion of our Galaxy and other galaxies and to make estimates of the masses of other
galaxies.
The 21-cm neutral hydrogen emission is relatively strong and with modern instru-
mentation it is detectable in all directions in our Galaxy and from a very large percent-
age of the nearby galaxies.
The band is also used, with the same restriction as for radio astronomy, for a search
for emissions from extraterrestrial civilisations (see No. 5.341 and CCIR Report 700).

11. 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz:

12. 1660 - 1670 MHz:
13. 1718.8 - 1722.2 MHz:
The newest and one of the most exciting branches of astronomy is astrochemistry.
This subject involves the study of the OH radical and molecules in space. These
observational possibilities started in 1963 when the line emission from OH was
detected for the first time at radio wavelengths. This illustrates that radio astronomy
can study species which are difficult to obtain in the laboratory.
Today more than 100 different organic and inorganic molecular species have been
detected in space. Space chemistry is of vital interest in understanding the formation
of stars, planets and life. The OH radical can clearly be identified by observing the
principal ground-state-lines at 1665 and 1667 MHz and the “satellite” lines at 1612
and 1720 MHz. The OH lines have been observed both in emission and absorption
from several hundred different regions in our Galaxy. One of the most peculiar prop-
erties of OH is the extremely narrow and intense emission lines, which are observed
in the directions of many interstellar clouds. Such line emissions can originate only
from interstellar masers. The study of such phenomena is of great interest in under-
standing the physical processes for creating maser action. It is possible that such radi-
ation is associated with the formation of protostars and can give us important clues
to the initial stages of star formation (see Section 5.4).
Observations of OH maser sources using VLBI have shown that OH sources have
apparent sizes that are of the order of 0.01 arcsecond or smaller. These apparent sizes
correspond to linear sizes of the order of a few astronomical units (the mean distance
between the Earth and the Sun, 150 million kilometres) and suggest an association
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 63

with protostellar clouds in the process of collapse to form new stars. When the
European VLBI telescopes are combined with those in the USA, almost the maxi-
mum possible collecting area can be obtained as well as also the maximum angular
resolution currently achievable.
Observations of OH and other molecules can also be used for the study of the phys-
ical properties of more normal interstellar clouds. With very sensitive instrumenta-
tion, OH is detected in external galaxies. This opens new prospects for the study of
astrochemistry in other galaxies. OH maser action has also been observed in comets,
which stimulates studies of the clues to the origin of the solar system.
An additional interest in OH emission is the study of the relative abundance of the
isotopes 16O and 18O. Emission lines from 18OH and 16OH have been detected.
Investigations of the isotopic abundances of the elements are crucial to our under-
standing of the origin and synthesis of the elements in the universe and may assist in
our quest for the correct cosmological theory of the origin and evolution of the uni-
verse.

Comments on individual OH-bands:

1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz:

The OH line at 1612.231 MHz is characteristic of a special class of astronomical
object, the OH-IR sources. The 1612 MHz line is also used in conjunction with the
main OH lines in the next higher band. No. 5.149 gives some protection within the
band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz. This band suffers strong pressure by satellite systems.
Better protection is needed, excluding all but transmissions from the surface of the
Earth and with an extension of protection to a somewhat wider band of 1610 -
1614 MHz to take account of the larger Doppler shifts now being detected (see also
ITU-R Recommendation RA.314, Table 1).

1660 - 1670 MHz:

This radio astronomy band is used both for measurements of the OH lines at
1665.402 MHz and 1667.359 MHz and for continuum measurements. The present
allocation of the band 1660 - 1660.5 MHz to the Mobile Service may lead to its
serious degradation for Radio Astronomy. In addition this band is used for VLBI.
Successful use of this band will depend also on the avoidance of interference from
meteorological satellites having assignments in the adjacent band (see No. 5.149
and 5.379). Desired is an allocation for radio astronomy with improved sharing for
the total band (See also ITU-R Recommendation RA.314, Table 1).
The sub-band 1668 - 1670 MHz is also allocated to the Mobile Satellite Service.
No. 5.379C sets maximum (aggregate) pfd limits to protect Radio Astronomy in
this band. Calculations in preparation for WRC-03 have indicated that within
Europe, deployment of stations in the Mobile Satellite Service within about 500
km from a radio astronomy station operating in this band will cause harmful inter-
ference to these radio astronomy stations.
64 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

1718.8 - 1722.2 MHz:

This band is for observations of the OH line at 1720.530 MHz and protection
needs to be improved beyond No. 5.149 by excluding airborne and space transmis-
sions (See also ITU-R Recommendation RA.314, Table 1).

14. 2655.0 - 2690.0 MHz:

A general consideration for the study of the continuum emission of radio sources is
the requirement of sampled observations of these sources throughout a very wide fre-
quency range. Observations at many different frequencies help to define the shape of
the spectra of the emission from these sources, which in turn gives information on the
physical parameters of the radiating sources such as densities, temperatures and mag-
netic fields, while they also give information on their lifetimes. The knowledge of
these physical parameters is essential for our understanding of the physical processes
that produce radio radiation. Many extragalactic radio sources show a “break” in their
non-thermal spectrum in the region between 1 to 3 GHz and continuum measurements
at ~2.7 GHz are essential to define such a spectral characteristic accurately.
The spectral region 2655.0 - 2700.0 MHz is a good band for continuum measure-
ments partly because the galactic background radiation is low, and also because
radio astronomy receivers are of excellent quality and have very low noise at this fre-
quency.
The frequency band 2655.0 - 2700.0 MHz is also useful for galactic studies of
ionised hydrogen clouds and the general diffuse radiation of the Galaxy. Since at such
frequencies available radio telescopes have adequate angular resolutions (narrow
beams, of the order of 10 arc minutes for large telescopes), many useful surveys of the
galactic plane have been performed, including the galactic centre, which is invisible at
optical wavelengths because of the interstellar absorption by dust particles. The centre
of our Galaxy is perhaps its most interesting region and yet it can only be observed at
infrared and radio wavelengths, since these wavelengths are not affected by the dust
particles in the interstellar space (optical wavelengths are absorbed and scattered by
dust particles). The study of the nuclei of galaxies, including the nucleus of our own
Galaxy, is emerging as an extremely important and fundamental topic in astronomy.
Questions that can be studied in these objects include the state of matter and the pos-
sibilities of the existence of black holes in galactic nuclei; the explosive activities and
the production of intense double radio sources from galactic nuclei; the influence of
galactic nuclei on the morphological structure of galaxies; the formation of galaxies
and quasars; and many other and major astrophysical subjects.
An important study at radio wavelengths is the polarization of the radiation that is
observed from radio sources. It is often found that radio sources are weakly linearly
polarized, with a position angle that depends on frequency. This effect is due to the fact
that the propagation medium in which the radio waves travel to reach us is composed
of charged particles, electrons and protons, in the presence of magnetic fields. The
determination of the degree and angle of polarization gives us information on the mag-
netic fields and electron densities of the interstellar medium and in certain cases on the
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 65

nature of the emitting sources themselves. The frequency bands near 2700 and 5000
MHz are vital for polarization measurements.
This band is under pressure by Digital Sound Broadcasting from satellites (which
will also endanger the next bands upward). Use of this band for radio astronomy (No.
5.149) will become impracticable if it is shared with transmissions in the Broadcasting
Satellite Service. Exclusive use for radio astronomy to extend the adjacent higher band
to a 2% bandwidth is highly desirable, but sharing with services transmitting from the
ground only seems feasible (see also next paragraph).

15. 2690.0 - 2700.0 MHz:

This radio astronomy band needs to be widened, to a total bandwidth of at least 50
MHz preferably by an improvement of the sharing conditions in the band 2655.0 -
2690.0 MHz, and to be protected from interference by satellite transmissions with
assignments in adjacent bands (No. 5.340).

16. 3100.0 - 3400.0 MHz:

Three molecular lines of the CH molecule have been detected at 3263, 3335 and
3349 MHz. These frequencies are unfortunately only allocated to Radio Astronomy
by No. 5.149, however the study of interstellar CH is considered to be extremely
important in understanding the chemistry of the interstellar material. The presence
of CH suggests the existence of the molecule CH4 (methane) which is considered
one of the basic molecules for the initial stages of the formation of life.
3260.0 - 3267.0 MHz:
3332.0 - 3339.0 MHz:
3345.8 - 3352.5 MHz:
The protection of these bands (No. 5.149) for observation of CH is still desired
(See ITU-R Recommendation RA.314, Table 1).

17. 4800.0 - 4950.0 MHz:

18. 4825.0 - 4835.0 MHz:
19. 4950.0 - 4990.0 MHz:
The spectral region around 5 GHz has been one of the most widely used frequency
ranges in Radio Astronomy during the last decade. Astronomers have made use of
this frequency range in order to study the detailed brightness distributions of both
galactic and extragalactic objects. Detailed radio maps of interstellar ionised hydro-
gen clouds and supernova remnants have assisted our understanding of the nature of
such celestial objects. These radio maps define the extent and detailed morphology
of radio sources and enable us to draw conclusions concerning their structures and
dynamics and to derive physical parameters of the sources such as their total masses.
One of the most important uses of the band around 5 GHz is the study of the
formaldehyde (H2CO) interstellar clouds at 4829.66 MHz. The H2CO line at this
frequency is considered to be one of the most important radio lines in the entire
spectrum, primarily because it can be detected in absorption in almost any direc-
66 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

tion where there is a continuum radio source. The distribution of H2CO clouds can
give independent evidence of the distribution of the interstellar material and can
help in understanding the structure of our Galaxy. H2CO has also been observed in
absorption against the microwave cosmic 3 K blackbody background radiation.
H2CO lines from the carbon-12 isotopic and oxygen-18 isotope have been detect-
ed and studies of the isotopic abundances of these elements are being carried out.
There is a continuing use of the band 4800 - 4950 MHz by radio astronomy in
some countries.
The importance of the formaldehyde line at 4829.66 MHz is such that at least a
strong footnote is needed (see No. 5.149 and 5.443) to protect radio astronomy in
the band 4825 - 4835 MHz. A wide band (e.g. 4850 - 4890 MHz) is favourable for
continuum measurements in this part of the spectrum, chosen to include the
formaldehyde line (see ITU-R Recommendation RA.314 Table 1).
The band 4950.0 - 4990.0 MHz is used by radio astronomy as an extension of
the next higher band which is too narrow (see No. 5.149 and 5.443). Protection
would be improved if transmission from aircraft could be excluded.

20. 4990.0 - 5000.0 MHz:

This primary (exclusive in Region 2) radio astronomy band is narrow. A much-
needed improvement would be to extend the allocation downwards to 4950 MHz
by sharing with compatible services. To reduce the risk of interference from aero-
nautical services above 5000 MHz, exclusion of air-to-ground transmissions from
the band 5000.0 - 5010.0 MHz is strongly recommended. This band is used for
worldwide VLBI.

21. 6650.0 - 6675.2 MHz:

This band is important for observations of methanol (CH3OH) (see Section 5.8
Table 6). This transition of methanol is a very powerful cosmic maser found exclu-
sively in regions where massive stars form. It is widely observed in Europe using
single dishes, MERLIN interferometry and VLBI.

22. 10.60 - 10.70 GHz:

23. 14.47 - 14.50 GHz:
24. 15.35 - 15.40 GHz:
The frequency band 10 - 15 GHz provides some of the best angular resolutions (~2 arc
minutes) using many large and accurate radio telescopes. Many of the non-thermal
synchrotron sources are just detectable at higher frequencies, and this frequency range
gives us observational information at the highest frequency where these can be detect-
ed reliably. This high-frequency range is also important for monitoring the intensity
variability of the enigmatic quasars. These objects, which could be the farthest celes-
tial objects that we can detect and which produce surprisingly large amounts of ener-
gy, have been found to vary in intensity with periods of weeks and months. Such
observations lead to estimates of the sizes of these sources, which turn out to be very
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 67

small for the amount of energy they produce. The variability of quasars (and some
peculiar galaxies) is more pronounced at high frequencies and observations at these
frequencies facilitate the discovery and the monitoring of such events. The energy
emitted during any one burst from a quasar is equivalent to completely destroying a
few hundred million stars in a period of a few weeks or months. We do not yet under-
stand the fundamental physics that can produce such events – observations of the size
and variability of these sources are the only ways that can assist us in solving such
problems. Observations are now best performed in the frequency range 10 - 15 GHz.
The small sizes of the quasars are revealed from the VLBI observations mentioned
earlier. Observations are also being made in the frequency band 10.6 - 10.7 GHz and
observations at 15.40 GHz have been successful. The higher frequencies provide us
with better angular resolution and enable us to determine more accurately the sizes and
structure of quasars.
At 14.4885 GHz an important formaldehyde (H2CO) line exists, which has been
observed in the direction of many galactic sources. Since the line originates from the
upper levels of orthoformaldehyde its study gives valuable information on the physi-
cal conditions of the interstellar medium, because the excitation energies required to
produce the line are different from the energies required to produce the H2CO line
observed at 4829.66 MHz.
Radio astronomy stations on the territory of France, Italy, Spain and the United
Kingdom that are operating in the band 14.47 - 14.50 GHz are explicitly protected from
interference from the Mobile Satellite Service operating in the band 14.0 - 14.5 GHz.
The importance of the radio astronomy band at 10.60 - 10.70 GHz makes an exclu-
sive worldwide allocation desirable (since it is one of the most valuable bands used for
internationally coordinated observations over long baselines). In principle, the use of
the exclusive band 10.68 - 10.70 GHz with downward extension with the help of local
protection would be adequate. However, observations in the band 10.6 - 10.7 GHz in
Europe are degraded by interference from out-of-band emissions of the GDL-
6/ASTRA-1D satellites, which provide satellite television broadcasting while operat-
ing in the Fixed Satellite Service.
Furthermore, exclusion of aeronautical mobile from the band 10.60 - 10.68 GHz
is essential to safeguard this band.
The band 15.35 - 15.40 GHz is an important radio astronomy band in the continu-
um series and needs to be widened to 15.30 - 15.55 GHz by sharing with compatible
services. The possibility of moving it down in frequency to contain the above
formaldehyde line near 14.5 GHz has been discussed. A band at least 200 MHz wide
would then be sought, so located to avoid the risk of interference from radio naviga-
tion satellites below 14.4 GHz. This location would have the advantage of being with-
in a band currently allocated to Fixed and Mobile, rather than the present location
between bands available for Space Research (Space-to-Earth) and Aeronautical
Radio navigation, which makes an extension of the present band difficult. The Fixed
Satellite Service in the lower band is designated as Earth-space and should not be a
serious source of interference.
68 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

25. 22.01 - 22.21 GHz:

This band (No. 5.149) is used in conjunction with the adjacent band (22.21 -
22.5 GHz) for observations of redshifted H2O (See ITU-R Recommendation
RA.314, Table 1, and Section 5.5).

26. 22.21 - 22.5 GHz:

This “H2O- band” is one of the most important for spectroscopy in radio astronomy
(See ITU-R Recommendation RA.314 Table 1, and Section 5.5).

27. 22.81 - 22.86 GHz:

This band is used for studies of a non-metastable ammonia line and two lines of
methyl formate. Sharing with the other services should be possible in Region 1, when
the provisions of No. 5.149 are taken into account. But in Regions 2 and 3 the band
is (also) allocated to the Broadcasting Satellite Service. The Radio Astronomy
Service will no longer be able to use this band when this service starts operating in
this band. Radio astronomers are very much in favour of keeping the status in Region
1 and moreover wish that this allocation should become worldwide (see Section 5.5).

28. 23.07 - 23.12 GHz:

This band is of special importance for studies of ammonia lines. The present shar-
ing situation and the provisions of No. 5.149 should be sufficient to provide satis-
factory local protection for observatories, but there is a highly interesting methanol
maser line immediately above the protected band at 23.121 GHz. Extending the
allocation by a small amount to cover this line is considered useful with respect to
the increasing active use of this part of the spectrum (see Section 5.5).

29. 23.6 - 24.0 GHz:

This exclusive radio astronomy band is the main ammonia band and also important
for continuum observations and for observations of a number of other spectral lines
(see Section 5.5).

30. 31.3 - 31.5 GHz:

31. 31.5 - 31.8 GHz:
This is a continuum band of sufficient width. The allocations to other services in
the band 31.5 - 31.8 GHz should not lead to difficulties. The provisions of Nos.
5.149 and 5.340 should be sufficient to provide satisfactory local protection for
observatories.

32. 36.43 - 36.5 GHz:

This band is of importance for the search for HC3N and OH lines. The sharing sit-
uation as it is now and the provisions of No. 5.149 should be sufficient to provide
satisfactory local protection for observatories.
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 69

33. 42.5 - 43.5 GHz:

The J = 1 → 0 rotational lines of silicon monoxide (SiO) in different vibrational
states, at 42.820, 43.122, 43.425 and 42.519 GHz, are the subject of extensive radio
astronomy single dish and VLBI measurements. The lines of SiO often indicate
maser emission, the mechanism of which is not understood but which extends over
a wide range of excitation in the SiO molecule as evidenced by the detection of the
v = 3 transition at 42.519 GHz. The protection (incl. No. 5.149) should be main-
tained.

34. 47.2 - 50.2 GHz:

The region between 42.5 and 49 GHz contains important spectral lines of some
diatomic and other molecules.
The lines of CS and its less common isotopes C33S, C34S, 13CS, have been shown
to be constituents of both giant molecular clouds and cool dark clouds. Since the
J = 1→ 0 transition arises in the lowest possible energy levels of CS, this molecule
will become increasingly important in probing cool clouds. Other molecules with
detected transitions in this frequency range include H2CO, CH3OH and OCS.
The primary allocation of the band 48.94 - 49.04 MHz to Radio Astronomy
includes a line of carbon monosulphide (CS) (No. 5.149 and No. 5.340 apply).

35. 51.4 - 59.0 GHz:

In the bands 51.4 - 54.25 GHz, 58.2 - 59 GHz and 64 - 65 GHz, radio astronomy
observations may be carried out under national arrangements (No. 5.340 and No.
5.556 apply).

36. 76.0 - 116.0 GHz:

Since there is relatively little absorption from atmospheric O2 and H2O, the millime-
tre band between 86 and 92 GHz is perhaps the best high-frequency region for both
continuum and line observations of celestial objects. Eighteen molecules have been
detected in this frequency range and 25 different isotopic species. These include
such simple molecules as SO, SO2, SiO, SiS, HCN, HCO, HCO+, HC3N and
HC2 and such complex molecules as CH3CH2OH, CH3CH2CN and CH3OCH3.
The J = 2→1 transitions of SiO fall in this range; SiO is one of the few molecules
showing maser emission and the only one showing strong maser emission in an
excited vibrational state. HCN, HCO and HCO+ are vitally important participants in
the ion-molecule reactions believed to be important in the formation of many other
molecules in the interstellar gas. Furthermore, some molecules have several isotopic
species in this range so that isotopic abundance ratios and optical depth effects can
be studied. As an example, the basic molecule HCN has the isotopic species
H12C14N, H13C14N and H12C15N in the 86 - 92 GHz range and all have been
observed in the interstellar gas. Also important are isomeric studies (HCN/HNC)
with HNC at 90.663525 GHz. It is clear that this region of the millimetre spectrum
will remain one of the most used for Radio Astronomy.
70 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

86.0 - 92.0 GHz:

This is an important radio astronomy band for continuum measurements and con-
tains several natural lines, two of which are considered of special importance.
Transmissions from systems in the Fixed and Mobile Satellite Services in the con-
tiguous band 81.0 - 86.0 GHz are potential sources of interference in the long term.

92.0 - 95.0 GHz:

This band is specifically used for observations of the spectral line of diazenylium
(HNN+) (rest-frequency = 93.17 GHz).

95.0 - 105.0 GHz:

The primary allocation (No. 5.149) should be maintained for this band. Lines of
carbon monosulphide (CS, rest frequency 97.98 GHz), sulphur monoxide (SO, 99.30
GHz) and methyl acetylene (CH3C2H, 102.5 GHz) have been identified as being of
high priority.

105.0 - 116.0 GHz:

This band is one of the most important bands in the radio frequency spectrum, at
least equal in importance to the hydrogen line band 1400 - 1427 MHz. The band con-
tains many spectral lines, in particular the lines of carbon monoxide and its isotopes
(CO) at 109.78, 110.20, 112.36 and 115.27 GHz which are not only the most power-
ful tool in the study of isotope ratios, but are also essential in the study of cool clouds,
regions of star formation and structure of our Galaxy and other galaxies. The line at
115.27 GHz is currently given protection by No. 5.340. Other lines in this band are
due to the cyanogen radical (CN), methyl cyanide (CH3CN), isocyanic acid (HNCO),
carbonyl sulphide (OCS) and cyanoacetylene (HC3N). Very high priority is placed on
maintaining the protection of this band.
The discovery of interstellar carbon monoxide (CO) at 115.271 GHz has been of fun-
damental importance for the subject of astrochemistry. This is primarily because CO is
a relatively stable molecule compared with other molecules discovered in the interstel-
lar medium. In fact, CO is the most abundant interstellar molecule after H2, and is wide-
ly distributed in the plane of our Galaxy as well as in a number of other galaxies. These
studies have yielded new information on the distribution of gas in spiral galaxies.
Allowance for the Doppler shifts characteristics of nearby galaxies is essential.
The isotopically substituted species 13C16O, 12C18O and 12C18O have also been
detected from many regions in the Galaxy. The molecule CO seems to play an impor-
tant role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium. The large extent and high abun-
dance of CO may be due to efficient formation mechanisms that remain as yet
unknown.

Radio astronomy has invested heavily in this region of the spectrum because of the
unique insights spectroscopic studies provide into star formation, interstellar chem-
istry, the late stages of stellar evolution and the chemical composition of the Milky
Radio Astronomy Frequencies 71

Way and other galaxies. Radio astronomical use of frequencies above 100 GHz has
increased greatly in the last decades (see Section 5.6).

37. 123 - 158.5 GHz:

In this frequency range several bands are allocated on a primary basis to radio
astronomy and should be maintained for radio astronomy. Bands 300 MHz wide
centred on:
140.839 GHz Formaldehyde (H2CO)
144.827 GHz Deuterated Hydrogen cyanide (DCN)
145.603 GHz Formaldehyde (H2CO)
146.969 GHz Carbon monosulphide (CS)
150.498 GHz Formaldehyde (H2CO)
have been identified as having high priority.

38. 164.0 - 167.0 GHz:

This band is used for continuum observations.

39. 168.0 - 185.0 GHz:

This band contains useful lines for radio astronomy, for example at 174.6, 174.85,
177.26, 178.4 and 181.2 GHz for which frequency bands are identified in No. 5.149.
It also contains important lines of water at 183.5 GHz and ozone at 184.75 GHz.
These lines cannot be observed from the ground, but are accessible from aircraft,
balloons and spacecraft.

40. 191.8 - 231.5 GHz:

Rotational J = 2→1 lines of carbon monoxide (CO) at 219.560, 220.399 and
230.542 GHz need to be observed in conjunction with CO J = 1 → 0 lines in the band
105 - 116 GHz. This is an important Radio Astronomy requirement and a worldwide
primary allocation is currently valid (No. 5.340).
The frequency band 217 - 231 GHz is in the centre of the highest spectral region at
millimetre wavelengths where there is a useful atmospheric window. On each side of
the 200 - 300 GHz region atmospheric H2O absorption makes ground-based observa-
tions difficult or impossible.
The IRAM 30-m radio telescope on Pico Veleta in Spain is currently the most sen-
sitive radio telescope in the world at these frequencies. It is anticipated that in the next
few years, as instrumental capabilities improve, many additional molecular species
will be detected and studied at these high frequencies. Protection is needed for DCN,
13C16O and 12C18O lines as well as to provide coverage of Doppler-shifted 12C16O.

This band is extremely important for studies of the structure and evolution of galaxies.

41. 241 - 275 GHz:

This band allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service (No. 5.149) contains a very
important series of spectral lines of the molecules C2H (262.5 GHz), HCN hydro-
72 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

gen cyanide (265.9 GHz), HCO+, and formalyl (272.0 GHz). Protection should be
retained.

42. 275 - 1000 GHz:

For frequencies above 275 GHz radio astronomy is in need of continuum bands in
the atmospheric windows, e.g. around 415 and 500 GHz, bearing in mind the exis-
tence of many molecular line frequencies, the relative importance of which will be
clarified as work proceeds. Diazenylium (HNN+) at 279.5 GHz will need protec-
tion if allocations are extended to 300 GHz, and 12C16O (J = 3 → 2) at 345.814 GHz
if allocations are extended to even higher frequencies (see Section 5.7 and also
No. 5.565).
5.
Radio Astronomical Use
of Specific Frequency Bands
74 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

5.1. Radio Astronomical Use of the Band 322 - 328.6 MHz

A general argument for one or more low frequency bands is the fact that cosmic radio
sources tend to have a great variety of spectral energy distributions. Over a limited fre-
quency range, less than a factor 2, the spectra usually have a power law shape (S ∞ f α,
where S is the flux of the radio source and f is the frequency) but when viewed over a
broad range (say from 10 MHz - 100 GHz) spectra undulate and can be very complex.
The narrow band spectral index can vary from α = -2 to α = +2 or more. Even a factor
of two in frequency therefore can lead to differences of a factor 24 = 16 in radiated
power. The radio spectral index is a very important diagnostic tool for investigating the
physical conditions in the source. Young compact sources exhibiting internal absorp-
tion (due either to the radiating particles or to thermal ionised gas in the source, or in
front of the source) generally have positive spectral indices. Very old relaxed radio
sources with low surface brightness usually have (very) negative spectral indices.
The diffraction-limited performance of synthesis telescopes (the Westerbork
Synthesis Radio Telescope, the Netherlands; the Very Large Array, USA; MERLIN,
UK; and VLBI) working at low frequencies is used to great advantage for surveying
large regions of sky and for mapping extended low-brightness regions of emission.
Lower frequencies therefore also give a surveying speed advantage over high frequen-
cies which goes as (frequency)2, for the same dish size. Decreasing the dish size to
enlarge the field of view is not the solution because this sacrifices sensitivity.
Specific astrophysical problems that can be attacked only at low frequencies are
numerous. We mention only a handful:

Galactic radio astronomy

• Total intensity and polarization mapping of the very diffuse, generally low-bright-
ness, galactic non-thermal background emission. At low frequencies the polariza-
tion data are sensitive to very small amounts of intervening ionised gas, since the
Faraday rotation of the plane of polarization increases as the square of the wave-
length.
• Mapping of diffuse emission and absorption of ionised gas in radio recombination
lines. These lines are observable at many discrete frequencies but the change from
emission to absorption usually occurs in the range around a few hundred MHz.
• There are several classes of sources (flare stars, pulsars) which have very steep
spectra which are hard to observe at frequencies above 1 GHz.

Extragalactic radio astronomy

• With the great sensitivity of modern radio telescopes, the 21 cm (1420 MHz) line
due to neutral hydrogen is now observable out to large cosmic distances where, due
to the expansion of the universe, the line is shifted to lower frequencies. The most
distant quasars and radio galaxies have a redshift of seven, which means that neu-
tral hydrogen line is shifted to frequencies of about 180 MHz. Study of the emis-
sion and absorption (in the emission spectrum from background objects) therefore
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 75

enables astronomers to study the gaseous content of the early universe when galax-
ies were condensing out of the primordial material.
• The radio emission from the oldest parts of spiral galaxies and large radio galaxies
is often 108 years old or more. The energy losses of the radiating particles cause the
spectrum of the radio emission to steepen exponentially, requiring low frequencies
to map it. A factor of 2 in frequency often means the difference between a detec-
tion or an upper limit.
• A very specific reason for having a low-frequency band in the 327 MHz region is
the fact that many arrays have receiver/feed systems optimised/developed specifical-
ly for that band, the (historical) reason being that neutral deuterium has its
“1420 MHz equivalent” line at 327 MHz. The determination of the deuterium abun-
dance in the universe, and in the Galaxy in particular, is of great importance to cos-
mology.

Solar research
The band 322 - 328.6 MHz is globally used to monitor the integrated solar radio flux
at several stations including stations at Trieste and Nançay in Europe. These obser-
vations and the associated alerts are distributed worldwide in support to the forecast-
ing of solar disturbances affecting the Earth environment and human activities
(“space weather”).

5.2. Radio Astronomical Use of the Band 608 - 614 MHz

Extraterrestrial radio emission is used in astronomy to study the physical circum-

stances under which the radiation is generated. These conditions reveal a phase in the
evolution of distant galaxies and so this knowledge contributes to a broader understand-
ing of the universe. To completely understand the radiation mechanisms involved,
observation of the polarization properties of the radiation is essential. To study the
radio structure of extraterrestrial radio sources the wavelength-dependent beamwidth
of the mapping instrument is of prime importance for adequate angular resolution.
The band is one of the primary bands used for solar radio astronomy. The total radio
solar flux at this frequency is currently monitored by many stations around the world
including several stations in Europe. Most of those stations provide real time measure-
ments and alerts in support to the solar activity forecast centres of the International
Space Environment Service, ISES. Besides the primary long-term solar radio index at
2.8 GHz, the 608 - 614 MHz band also provides the longest quantitative record of solar
activity. This is essential for the understanding of the long-term contribution of chang-
ing solar activity to global climate change on the Earth.

5.2.1. Polarization Studies

Very often extraterrestrial radio emission is linearly polarized, because it is produced
by relativistic electrons in magnetic fields. The radiation is influenced by magneto-
76 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

ionic media (outer space and terrestrial ionosphere) on its way to the observer, where-
by the polarization characteristics change: the polarization angle varies as the square of
the observing wavelength. For an unambiguous determination of this change of polar-
ization angle, observations need to be made at a minimum of three not too widely
spaced but unequally separated frequencies. This is of vital importance to determine the
intrinsic physical circumstances in the extraterrestrial radio source, in particular the
intrinsic polarization angle and hence the magnetic field direction.
The band 608 - 614 MHz is used for measurement of linear polarization of emission
from extraterrestrial sources together with the band 322.0 - 328.6 MHz and the band
1400 - 1427 MHz. Using the 611 MHz band, the relative intervals in frequency are 1.9
to 325 MHz and 2.3 (or in frequency squared 3.6 : 5.4), which is a minimum require-
ment for polarization studies.

5.2.2. Beam Properties

The resolution of diffraction-limited imaging systems (which radio telescopes are)
directly depends on the observing wavelength: double the wavelength and you double
the beamwidth. For a radio interferometer like the Westerbork Synthesis Radio
Telescope (the Netherlands), WSRT, this fact has two major consequences:
• the maximum resolution of the synthesised beam decreases with increasing wave-
length;
• the field of view being imaged (determined by the size of the individual interfer-
ometer elements) increases with wavelength.

The 611 MHz capability is essential for reasons relating to both of these factors.
In the first place it is necessary to be able to bridge the gap in resolution between 325
and 1413 MHz. Although that constitutes a factor of about 4.5 in linear resolution, it is
a difference of nearly 20 times in beam area. For interpretation of many astronomical
images the beam area is more relevant than beamwidth. There the more modest jump
of a factor 4 - 5 in beam area from 1413 to 611 MHz and from 611 to 325 MHz is about
the maximum acceptable.
Astronomical objects vary in size from extremely compact (less than 1 arcsecond) to
very extended (many degrees). For the larger objects, mainly features in the Milky Way
(various types of diffuse nebulae), the optimum image is obtained when one can match
the field of view to the object’s size. Then one obtains the maximum resolution permit-
ted by the physical separation of the interferometer elements combined with a fully
sampled image of the object. Loss of the 611 MHz capability would mean for many
objects of about one degree angular size that they could only be fully observed at
325 MHz with the consequent loss of resolution and in some cases degradation of
image quality due to the presence of four times as many background sources in the field
of view.

5.2.3. International Cooperation

Ten European radio observatories participate in the European VLBI Network, EVN.
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 77

The VLBI technique enables widely separated (1 000 km and more) radio telescopes to
operate together with a consequent huge increase in angular resolution (see Section
3.7). The other major VLBI network is the VLBA in North America. Compared with it,
the EVN has the advantage of several very large telescopes, providing high sensitivity.
The arguments presented above about angular resolution apply equally to the EVN. An
additional factor is that the EVN at 611 MHz has an angular resolution (0.05 arcsec-
ond) very similar to the Hubble Space Telescope, HST. With the EVN at 611 MHz
European astronomers have the optimum instrument for producing radio images to
match optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope.

5.2.4. Allocation
The frequency allocation of the band 608 - 614 MHz differs in the three ITU regions:
In Region 2 the Radio Astronomy Service has a primary status whereas in Regions
1 and 3 a secondary status is allocated by No. 5.306. In western Europe the band (called
channel 38 in the broadcast band 470 - 790 MHz) has been kept free from strong inter-
ference in France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Without this
protection, the research outlined above would be severely hampered or impossible. Not
only could the local research programmes not be carried out but also the international
cooperation with the VLBI observing technique would be made virtually impossible.
Scientific interest in the use of this band is not expected to diminish with time, quite
the contrary. Among the next generation of giant radio telescopes planned by the world-
wide astronomical community, it is foreseen that the Square Kilometre Array, SKA,
will operate in the frequency band under consideration. SKA will have a collecting area
of 1 square kilometre (i.e., about 100 times that of a 100 metre diameter antenna, cur-
rently the largest size operational in Europe), distributed over a region some 3 000 km
in area. SKA is currently in the planning and R&D phase. It involves several major
European radio observatories, and it is planned to be operational by the year 2015.
Although its geographical location has not been decided yet, there is a reasonable
chance that (parts of) this giant interferometer will be located in Europe.
It should be noted that the new instrument will not replace the currently existing
radio telescopes.

5.3. Importance of the Redshifted 21 cm Hydrogen Line

Ninety percent of the atoms in the universe are hydrogen, and most of them are in
the ground state. Since its discovery in 1951, the 21 cm line (1420.4057 MHz) of neu-
tral atomic hydrogen, HI, has served astronomy as the most critical tracer of the spatial
structure in the Milky Way Galaxy, as an indicator of both redshift and the potential for
star formation in other galaxies, and as a probe of the intergalactic conditions at early
epochs in the history of the universe. Improvements in antenna, receiver and spectrom-
eter technology have allowed the number of extragalactic HI measurements to grow by
more than a factor 50 in the last decade, and the volume of the universe accessible to
78 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

21 cm HI line research is expected to expand further with future developments.

Because the universe is expanding, more distant objects appear to be moving away
from us with increasingly high velocities. Because of the Doppler effect, this motion
away from Earth causes the 21 cm line radiation from a distant galaxy to be shifted
from its rest frequency of 1420.4057 MHz to lower and lower frequencies (longer
wavelengths). The amount of this frequency shift – referred to as “redshift” – is an indi-
cator of the distance to the emitting source. For example, 21 cm line radiation typical-
ly is received from galaxies in the nearest cluster of galaxies, the Virgo cluster, at fre-
quencies around 1415 MHz; from the Perseus supercluster of galaxies at 1400 MHz;
and from the Coma cluster of galaxies at 1388 MHz.
These 21 cm line redshifts have provided the distance measures to more than 10 000
galaxies already and have contributed significantly to our understanding of large-scale
structure in the galaxy distribution, which itself holds vital clues to the history of the
early universe. Most of these galaxies emit 21 cm line radiation so that it is received at
Earth in the frequency range from 1330 to 1420 MHz, but recent technological
advances have opened up the range even down to 1300 MHz for routine studies.
Furthermore, since radio waves travel at the speed of light and the rate of expansion of
the universe is known, the frequency shift also provides an indication of the time in the
past at which the radiation was emitted. For large redshifts, this “look-back” time is a
significant fraction of the age of the universe. Thus astronomers can use the redshifted
hydrogen line to study the time evolution of the universe. For example, the 21 cm line
absorption detected in the spectrum of a quasar in 1991 at 323 MHz (redshifted into the
deuterium band) tells about physical conditions in the universe more than 10 billion
years ago!
Hydrogen line research in the frequency range from 1.0 to 1.4 GHz holds special
promise because of advances currently being made in radio astronomy technology. The
volume of the universe probed by the redshifted hydrogen line shifted to 1 GHz spans
6 billion years in the age of the universe. Over this time interval, galaxies and clusters
of galaxies have evolved significantly. Note that the Sun and Earth are estimated to be
roughly that old. It is critical to our understanding of the evolution of the universe to
be able to study galaxies and their environments over such look-back times.
As we look out to larger distances and back to earlier epochs, the Doppler shift car-
ries the 21 cm hydrogen line outside the frequency range protected for radio astrono-
my. Because of the importance of UHF for many vital services and commercial enter-
prises, radio astronomers recognise that such frequencies cannot be excluded from use
by active transmitters. Radio astronomers are developing techniques to identify human-
generated signals in scientific observations, and reject them, both in real-time and post-
detection. This interference excision may be possible if the interference has different
time and frequency characteristics from the cosmic 21 cm line radiation. However,
because human-generated transmissions are generally much stronger than those arriv-
ing from distant extragalactic sources, the regulation of frequency usage and its restric-
tion to well-defined narrow bands is critical so that radio astronomical 21 cm line
research can continue. Spurious, wide-band or time-varying signals whose presence
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 79

cannot be predicted or whose strength saturates radiodetectors will prohibit

astronomers from using this unique probe of history and evolution of the universe.
Beyond regulation, voluntary cooperation on the part of radio engineers and users to
limit unnecessary radiation below 1420.4057 MHz can help significantly to extent
humankind’s knowledge of the universe.

5.4. 1.6 GHz OH Emission Lines

5.4.1. OH Megamasers
OH-megamasers radiate in the ground state spectral lines of OH at 18 cm wave-
length, primarily in the OH main lines (1665.401 and 1667.358 MHz rest frequency).
They are the most powerful maser sources known, with outputs sometimes exceeding
1030 W. They occur in the nuclei of infrared-luminous galaxies whose central regions
are heavily obscured to optical telescopes by massive clouds of gas and dust. The
galaxies are usually violently interacting or merging systems. Megamasers are of great
value as a signpost to this rare type of activity, and also because they allow the active
nuclei to be studied with sub-arcsecond resolution.
Systematic searches for OH megamasers have been made of candidate galaxies
selected from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, catalogue on the basis of their
large infrared luminosity or their distinctive infrared colours. More than one hundred
megamasers have been found to date. The powerful OH emission can be detected to
great distances, prompting speculation that even more powerful gigamasers may exist.
The redshifts of the megamaser galaxies take the OH lines well out of the protected
band 1660.5 - 1670 MHz. The most distant megamaser presently known is redshifted
from 1.667 GHz to 1.315 GHz.
Transmissions from GLONASS and Iridium satellites cause particular disruption to
searches for OH megamasers because their signals are nearly always present, and
because they cover a wide range of frequency.

5.4.2. Uniqueness of the OH 1612 MHz Band

The band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz is used primarily for observations of the OH ground
state line at 1612.231 MHz rest frequency. This is one of four hyperfine transitions of
OH at 18 cm wavelength. OH is a widespread and abundant molecule which is
observed throughout the Galaxy and in other galaxies. Under special conditions one or
more of the OH 18 cm lines are greatly enhanced by stimulated emission to give com-
pact maser sources. The OH 1612 MHz maser is the characteristic emission from the
so-called OH-IR sources. These are long-period variable stars which are shedding
material rapidly and evolving towards the planetary nebula stage. The OH 1612 MHz
masers occur in the dusty circumstellar envelope built up as the star loses mass.
Observations of the 1612 MHz line give precise measurements of the stellar velocity
and the expansion velocity of the envelope; they provide estimates of the mass-loss
rate; and using interferometers they enable the structure of the circumstellar envelope
80 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

to be mapped. Well over one thousand OH-IR sources are currently known. Most have
been found by searching candidate infrared sources selected from the IRAS catalogue.
Search programmes which are continuing at several observatories are expected to find
many thousands more.
OH-IR sources are extremely important because their distances can be determined
entirely by radio means. The OH maser emission varies in phase with the infrared emis-
sion. However, because of the finite speed of light we see a phase lag between the OH
emission from the front and back sides of the circumstellar shell. Measurements of this
phase-lag give the linear angular size across the shell. Interferometer measurements
give the angular size of the shell. Together the linear size and the angular size give the
distance of the star. The technique is of fundamental importance to determining the
galactic distance scale. Lengthy monitoring programmes of several years are needed to
determine phase-lags. Transmissions from artificial satellites operating in adjacent and
nearby frequency bands presently cause harmful interference to measurements of the
OH 1612 MHz line worldwide.

5.4.3. Radio Astronomical Use of the OH 1612 MHz Band

The band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz is allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service to allow
observations of a spectral line of the hydroxyl radical OH which has a rest frequency
of 1612.231 MHz. The band has been used for more than 30 years. The increasing
astrophysical interest in this spectral line is reflected in the upgrade of the allocation to
primary status worldwide at WARC-92. The band is used regularly at 15 radio astron-
omy sites within Europe. These are listed in Table 6 (see Section 11.1).
The nature of the observations and the amount of use of the 1612 MHz band vary
from site to site. Some observatories schedule mainly single telescope measurements
(e.g. Nançay, Effelsberg, Yebes and Jodrell Bank). One of the most intensive users of
the band is Nançay, which devotes 30% of its observing time to this frequency band.
Spectral line observations usually consist of integrations of typically half an hour per
source.
All the sites make interferometric observations. The Westerbork Synthesis Radio
Telescope array is used for short baseline interferometry. The six radio astronomy sites
in England are connected to form a long baseline interferometer MERLIN (the Multi
Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network). Finally the European radio telescopes
are regularly operated together for Very Long Baseline Interferometry, VLBI.
Interferometric measurements usually involve continuous observations of 12 hours or
more per source to achieve Earth-rotation aperture synthesis. The European VLBI
Network, EVN, currently schedules four observing sessions per year, each of 3 to 4
weeks duration and each covering more than one frequency band. The 1612 MHz band
is scheduled frequently but irregularly.

5.4.4. Interference from Satellite Services

At the present time the Russian global navigation satellite system GLONASS is a
major source of interference to radio astronomical observations in the band 1610.6 -
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 81

1613.8 MHz, throughout the world. Negotiations between the radio astronomy commu-
nity, represented by the Scientific Commission on the Allocation of Frequencies for
Radio Astronomy and Space Science, IUCAF, and the GLONASS Administration, led
to a joint experiment in November 1992 which tested new frequency configurations for
the GLONASS satellites. These new configurations reduce the level of interference to
radio astronomy without compromising the operational capabilities of the navigation
system. The GLONASS-IUCAF Agreement, signed in November 1993, sets out a step-
by-step plan to reduce the level of interference to radio astronomy. The satellites are
now confined to centre frequencies below 1608.75 MHz, and will eventually be con-
fined to frequencies below 1605.375 MHz. The first of a new generation of satellites
fitted with filters was launched in 2003. These developments give confidence that a
technical solution to the GLONASS interference problem will be achieved.
A second source of interference is the downlink transmission from Iridium satellites,
operating in the Mobile Satellite Service, which also have global coverage. Under the
auspices of the CEPT Milestone Review Committee, MRC, CRAF and Iridium LCC
have negotiated agreements on operational criteria for the Iridium system adequate
to protect the radio astronomy service in Europe. These agreements foresee that by
1 January 2006, the Iridium satellite system will comply fully with the criteria to pro-
tect the Radio Astronomy Service in the band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz, as outlined in
ITU-R Recommendation RA.769. The CEPT conclusions are given in CEPT MRC
Recommendations 4, 6, 7 and 8. CRAF observed that Iridium LLC did not comply
with the agreements, specifically with a work plan, to work towards the goal set for
1 January 2006. Since March 2001, the Iridium satellite system operates under a new
operator, Iridium Satellite LLC. It is not yet clear to what extent the new operator will
comply with the conditions agreed under the CEPT MRC.
In the upper part of the band 1660 - 1670 MHz, the sub-band 1668 - 1670 MHz is
allocated to the Mobile Satellite Service. INMARSAT will use this allocation.
However, as explained in Section 4.2, No. 5.379C sets maximum (aggregate) pfd lim-
its to protect radio astronomy in this band. Calculations in the preparation for WRC-03
have indicated that within Europe, deployment of stations in the Mobile Satellite
Service within about 500 km from a radio astronomy station operating in this band will
cause harmful interference to the radio astronomy stations.

5.5. Spectral Line Observations in Bands around 20 GHz

In the past radio astronomers tried hard to obtain allocations of frequency bands for
a number of spectral lines. The most important spectral lines are contained in Table 1
and Table 2 of ITU-R Recommendation RA.314. Not all these lines received sufficient
protection in the ITU Radio Regulations.
The total number of observed spectral lines is far larger. In particular the band from
18 to 30 GHz is densely packed with observed lines. Lovas (1986) recorded a list of
173 transitions within this spectral range, only 37 of which are covered by the four
82 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

spectral lines that entered the ITU-R Recommendation RA.314. But also many other
lines are of continuous interest for the determination of astrophysical parameters of
celestial sources. Observations of these lines will become impossible with increasing
frequency usage of the bands, especially those which are going to be used for transmis-
sions from satellites to Earth.
Though scientists understand the general limitation for a major increase of frequency
allocations for radio astronomy, they claim that for lines outside allocated bands at least
occasional experimental observations should remain possible on a long-term basis.
These considerations are especially relevant for many lines in the band 21.5 -
22 GHz, which is already allocated for the Broadcasting-Satellite Service for HDTV in
Regions 1 and 3. They also apply to other nearby bands which are allocated for space-
to-Earth transmissions. Radio astronomers are willing to give information about pre-
ferred bands and sub-bands which should be kept free from satellite transmissions as
long as possible.
With regard to the need that experimental observations of special lines should be
possible even on a long term, regulations should be provided on the basis of ITU-R
Recommendation RA.314, which refers to this problem considering: “that astronomers
also study spectral lines outside bands allocated to radio astronomy, as far as spectrum
usage by other services allows;” and which recommends: “that administrations be
asked to provide assistance in the co-ordination of experimental observations of spec-
tral lines in bands not allocated to radio astronomy.”
According to this recommendation, radio astronomers wish to propose arrangements
for occasional spectroscopic observations on a time sharing basis such as where such a
band is used by the Broadcasting- Satellite Service, agreements could be made for
interruption of transmission during certain night hours. Or where such a band is used
by the Fixed Service for a down-link from a satellite, the change of transmitter chan-
nel usage for a certain time interval could serve for the benefit of radio astronomy.

5.6. Millimetre Wave Astronomy (30 - 300 GHz)

At millimetre wavelengths the non-thermal radiation studied at longer wavelengths

becomes weak and the cosmic signals are dominated by thermal radiation from cold mate-
rial. This is just the long wavelength component of the heat radiation produced by any hot
body. For example, the thermal radiation from a room temperature body peaks in the
infrared region at around 10 mm wavelength, and is relatively weak in the radio bands.
Thermal radiation from cold interstellar clouds at 10 K has a maximum in the sub-millime-
tre band near 300 µm (1 THz), while the background radiation left over from the Big Bang,
at an equivalent temperature of 2.7 K, has its maximum around 1 mm (300 GHz).
In the colder regions of space, matter can exist in molecular form if it is far away from,
or shielded from, the intense ultraviolet radiation from hot stars. Each type of molecule
radiates at a series of discrete frequencies or spectral lines that are characteristic of the
molecule. The relative intensities of the lines emitted by a given molecule depend on the
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 83

physical conditions such as density and temperature within the emitting region. Thus it
is usually necessary to observe several lines of a given molecule in order to estimate the
physical conditions. This is also true if one wants to unambiguously identify a molecule,
since in general the observed frequency depends on the often unknown velocity of the
object under study. Any given line or transition may be obscured by emission from some
other molecule. However, by studying the frequencies of several of the emitted spectral
lines we can deduce which molecules are present. So, spectroscopy is one of the main
tools of the mm-wave astronomer.
Some of the heavier molecules condense to form dust particles which radiate a con-
tinuum of frequencies. The study of this continuum radiation is the second tool available
to the mm-astronomer. It is much more difficult to deduce the composition of dust par-
ticles, as there are few if any characteristic lines which can be used to identify the con-
stituent molecules.
Thus, nature urges mm-astronomers to do spectral line as well as continuum observa-
tions. These spectral line observations serve, in particular, a new branch of astronomy:
astrochemistry.
The millimetre and sub-millimetre bands offer a unique window through which we
can “see” and study these components of the universe which are otherwise invisible. The
reasons for this are that they:
• contain over 3 000 radio spectral lines of interstellar and circumstellar molecules;
• are the only bands in which one can detect the emission of cool dust in space;
• are the only bands in which we can detect the emission from dust and molecules in
young galaxies at high redshift in the early universe;
• are also the only bands in which one can detect the low-temperature cocoons of pro-
tostars, via their dust and molecular-line emission;
• are probably the only bands in which we can derive kinematical information about
protoplanetary disks around young stars.

Millimetre-wave astronomy is thus the proper tool to study objects such as comets,
planets, interstellar clouds, stellar atmospheres, protostars, protoplanetary disks, galax-
ies, quasars and intergalactic clouds in which the material is largely molecular. One of
the most remarkable discoveries of mm-wave astronomy is that molecules and dust
were abundant in the early universe. CO has been detected at a redshift of 4.7, corre-
sponding to a “look back” time of nearly 13 billion years.
The very high density of spectral lines in the millimetre spectrum sets this region of
the spectrum apart from that studied at lower frequencies. Sensitive studies of molecu-
lar clouds have disclosed up to a hundred lines per GHz. In some sources the spectrum
is completely filled by line emission, each line blending with its neighbours. Figure 8
illustrates these results.
As of August 2004 a total of 125 molecular species had been detected in interstellar
and circumstellar gas clouds (Table 4). They include stable inorganic and organic mol-
ecules such as salt (NaCl), carbon monoxide (CO) and ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH),
reactive molecules such as the strange carbon chains HC11N, radicals such as OH, NH2
84 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Figure 8: Spectrum taken

towards a molecular cloud
[Sgr B2(N)] in the direction
of the Galactic centre. In this
bandwidth of 45 GHz about
1 700 lines have been found.
The observation was made with
a frequency resolution of 2 MHz
by A.Nummelin at the SEST
telescope (Chile). The three
strongest lines are due to
carbon monoxide (13CO and
12CO) and methyl alcohol

(CH3OH). Some lines are seen

in absorption (negative
features).

Table 4: Molecules Observed in Interstellar and Circumstellar Clouds (as of August 2004)

Diatomic molecules: AlF AlCl C2 CH CH+ CN CO CO+ CP

CS CSi FeO HCl HF H2 KCl NH NO
NS NaCl OH PN SO SO+ SiN SiO SiS SH
Triatomic molecules: AlNC C3 C2H C2O C2S CH2 CO2 H3+ HCN
HCO HCO+ HCS+ HOC+ H2O H2S HNC HNO
MgCN MgNC N2H+ N2O NH2 NaCN OCS
SO2 c-SiC2 SiCN
Four atoms: c-C3H l-C3H C3N C3O C3S C2H2 CH2D+
HCCN HCNH+ HNCO HNCS HOCO+ H2CO
H2CN H2CS H3O+ NH3 SiC3
Five atoms: C5 C4H C4Si l-C3H2 c-C3H2 CH2CN CH4
HC3N HC2NC HCOOH H2CHN H2C2O H2NCN
HNC3 H2COH+ SiH4
Six atoms: C5H C5O C2H4 CH3CN CH3NC CH3OH
CH3SH HC3NH+ HC2CHO HCONH2 l-H2C4 C5N
Seven atoms: C6H c-C2H4O CH2CHCN CH2CHOH CH3C2H
HC5N HCOCH3 NH2CH3
Eight atoms: C7H CH3C3N CH3COOH CH2CHCHO
CH2OHCHO HCOOCH3 H2C6
Nine atoms: C8H CH3C4H CH3CH2CN (CH3)2O CH3CH2OH
HC7N
Ten atoms: CH3C5N (CH3)2CO CH3CH2CHO NH2CH2COOH
Eleven atoms: HC9N
Thirteen atoms: HC11N

Note: c denotes cyclic molecules, l denotes linear molecules.

Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 85

and C2H, and ions like HCO+and HCCCNH+. Many of them are unstable on Earth.
Several were discovered in space before being found in the laboratory.
A growing number of organic molecules have been detected that are important for
life on Earth, including glycine (NH2CH2COOH), the simplest amino acid, detected in
2003 via 27 of its spectral lines. CH2OHCHO has been found in all three of its isomer-
ic forms, as acetic acid, glycolaldehyde (the first monosaccharide found in space) and
methyl formate. There is no consensus as to how such large complex molecules are
formed in space. A significant fraction of molecular lines are as yet unidentified and
may come from far more complex molecules than any we have identified so far. The
new discipline of astrobiology seeks, among other things, to understand the relation of
the interstellar molecules to the origin of life.

5.6.1 Techniques of Millimetre-astronomy

Observations at the shorter millimetre wavelengths are increasingly dominated by
considerations of the transparency of the Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric absorption
is highest at the transitions of water vapour at about 183 GHz, 325 GHz etc. and oxy-
gen at about 60 GHz, 120 GHz etc. These frequencies are impossible to observe from
sea-level and naturally divide the millimetre spectrum into a series of windows.
Astronomers therefore speak of the 7 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm etc. windows within
which ground-based astronomical observations are possible. This is illustrated by
Figure 9. As can be seen, within these windows the effect of atmospheric water vapour
is to reduce the transmission at higher frequencies. Millimetre wavelength observato-
ries are generally located at high elevation to reduce as far as possible the quantity of
water vapour lying above them. The three curves in Figure 9 represent observing con-
ditions at the very best high altitude sites.

Figure 9:
Zenith transmission of the
atmosphere for different levels
of atmospheric precititable
water vapour, showing millimetre-
and sub-mm-wave windows.
The upper curve (0.2mm)
corresponds to the best
transmission on Chajnantor in
Northern Chile, the middle curve
(0.5mm) corresponds to average
transmission on Chajnantor, while
the lowest curve corresponds
to 1mm. From Light Pollution:
The Global View (2003),
ed. H. Schwarz, p.230, Fig. 3
(Kluwer Academic Publishers),
with kind permission of Springer
Science and Business Media.
86 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

The radio emission from low temperature regions is naturally weak, and very sensi-
tive receivers are necessary for its study. For spectral line observations most observa-
tories use superconducting mixer elements as the first stage of their receivers. These
comprise a thin layer of insulating material sandwiched between two superconducting
pieces, hence the name “superconductor-insulator-superconductor” (SIS) junctions.
For minimum noise these are operated at the temperature of liquid helium. The radio
frequency signal and the local oscillator signal are beamed onto the SIS junction using
quasioptical techniques. The tunnelling properties of the junctions provide the non-lin-
ear element necessary for mixing and translating the radio frequency signal to interme-
diate frequency for subsequent spectral analysis. Present designs have almost no pre-
mixer frequency selectivity so as to permit tuning over a complete atmospheric window
with the lowest loss. At any tuning they can examine a slice of spectrum of width typ-
ically 500 MHz to 1 GHz. This is usually done by digital autocorrelation spectrome-
ters, filter banks or acousto-optical spectrometers. For continuum observations of dust
for example, very sensitive bolometer detectors of wide bandwidth have been devel-
oped. These are incoherent detectors, with no local oscillator. To attain the ultimate in
sensitivity the bolometer elements are frequently cooled to 0.1 K and their bandwidth
is several tens of GHz. Focal plane arrays of up to a 100 such bolometers are in use,
providing an instantaneous picture of a section of the millimetre sky.
Such equipment is extremely difficult to protect from interfering signals at nearby
frequencies. This vulnerability to interference arises because of the following:
• the equipment sensitivity is extremely high so that only very low levels of spurious
or out of band emissions from neighbouring bands can be tolerated.
An estimate of these limits is given in ITU-R Recommendation RA769;
• the SIS mixers used by most mm-observatories, need very small local oscillator
power. They are thus open to saturation by signals as weak as 1 nanoWatt
(–60 dBm), and could be destroyed if the mm-wave telescope were to point direct-
ly at a radio transmitter;
• at present there is no technology available to build high Q mm-wave filters of the
necessary extremely low loss. Such devices are needed to discriminate against quite
legitimate transmissions in adjacent bands. At the high frequencies used in millime-
tre radio astronomy a given bandwidth corresponds to a much higher Q value than
at lower frequencies. There are even serious reasons to doubt that the properties of
materials will ever allow adequate filters to be built.
• the IF (intermediate frequency) stages of a mm-wave receiver are vulnerable to
interference from powerful transmitters at frequencies far removed from the
observing frequency. The IRAM 30-m telescope on Pico Veleta and the SEST tel-
escope in Chile have both suffered interference of this kind from military radar.

As at lower frequencies, single dishes, connected element interferometers and VLBI

are all used at millimetre wavelengths. However mm-observatories must be placed at
high elevation, frequently on mountain tops, in an attempt to get above the atmospher-
ic water vapour which strongly attenuates mm-wavelength radiation. This has the dis-
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 87

advantage that such observatories often have clear line-of-sight paths extending to hun-
dreds of kilometres, so that they are open to terrestrial interference from a very large
area, much larger than for instruments operating at lower frequencies.
Millimetre radio astronomy is now one of the most dynamic fields of astronomy. In
Europe we mention the existence of single dish telescopes in Finland, France, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey, with important outstations in Hawaii and
Chile. An interferometer array is operating in southern France on the Plateau de Bure.
Worldwide plans are going ahead for the investment of several billion dollars in new
millimetre facilities. These include a 50 m diameter single dish in Mexico and several
large interferometer arrays. The Atacama Large Millimetre Array, ALMA, under con-
struction on the Chajnantor plateau in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile will com-
prise 64 × 12 m diameter dishes. ALMA is being built by a global consortium of coun-
tries. The site, at an altitude of 5 200 m, is arguably the best in the world for millime-
tre and sub-millimetre astronomy.

5.6.2. Frequency Protection at Millimetre Wavelengths

It is clear from the preceding sections that the whole of the mm-wave spectrum is
full of molecular line emission, each line potentially giving us information which is
often unavailable by other means. Many lines are still unidentified and may prove of
great interest in the future. The International Astronomical Union, IAU, produces a list
of important lines (see Section 5.8) which is an attempt to assign relative scientific pri-
orities, but at best it can only be a guide, as we cannot anticipate future discoveries or
needs. The situation becomes even more complex when one takes account of the
Doppler shift acting on the radiation from distant objects. Important lines may thus
appear at practically any frequency in the mm-bands. The difficulty of devising effec-
tive protection of mm-observations is reinforced by the requirement of very large band-
width needed for continuum studies by bolometer.
WRC-2000 made generous allocations of mm-wave bands to Radio Astronomy, giv-
ing astronomers access to most of the atmospheric windows in the frequency range
71 - 275 GHz. Figure 10 compares the allocation status before and after WRC-2000.
Most of the useable frequencies now have a primary allocation to radio astronomy.
Many of the radio astronomy bands are shared with active services on a co-primary
basis. Sharing with active services may be feasible at mm-wavelengths because there
are relatively few mm-wave observatories to be protected, and they are usually located
in isolated remote sites chosen for their extremely dry atmospheric conditions. The
transmitters of the active services are likely to be found at lower altitudes; hence atmos-
pheric attenuation and site shielding may provide the necessary protection to the obser-
vatory. The protection of mm-observatories is subject to ongoing investigation. The
way mm-observatories will be protected in future may differ from methods used for
“classical radio observatories” (i.e. operating at lower frequencies) and may be more
like the protection of optical observatories.
88 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Figure 10:
Allocations to the Radio
Astronomy Service before
and after WRC-2000.
The solid curve shows
the zenith attenuation
of the atmosphere at sea
level. Figure courtesy
of John Whiteoak,
Australia Telescope
National Facility.

5.7. Sub-millimetre Astronomy (>300 GHz)

Sub-millimetre astronomy is one of the newest fields in astronomy. Here the cosmic
microwave background is at its brightest. This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is
also rich in spectral lines from interstellar and circumstellar molecules. The sub-mm
region was originally considered to be part of the far-infrared, but sub-mm astronomy is
now regarded as part of radio astronomy since the instrumental techniques developed to
investigate it have more in common with radio astronomy than with infrared astronomy.
The Earth’s atmosphere puts major constraints on ground-based sub-millimetre
astronomy, limiting both the sensitivity and the imaging quality of radio telescopes and
interferometer arrays. Water vapour, oxygen and other molecules produce attenuation
and path delay through the atmosphere, while adding extra noise in the form of their
thermal radiation. In addition, the variations in path delay cause fluctuations in the
apparent brightness and position of compact radio sources, producing the radio equiva-
lent of “twinkling”. Even more than at mm-wavelengths it is essential to choose a high
and dry site for a sub-mm telescope. Prime sub-mm sites include Chajnantor in the
Atacama Desert of Northern Chile, Manua Kea in Hawaii, and the high regions of
Antarctica, especially Dome C. These sites can have as little as 0.2 mm of precipitable
water vapour, allowing observations in two atmospheric windows at 1.3 THz and
1.5 THz (see Figure 9) that are the final frontiers of ground-based sub-mm astronomy.
Observations that require extreme stability, or access to frequency bands where the
atmosphere blocks radiation severely, are undertaken using instruments on balloons or
satellites (see Sections 3.8 and 3.9.3).
The receivers employed are either superheterodyne (phase coherent) receivers using
devices such as SIS mixers, or non-heterodyne systems such as bolometers, which are
phase incoherent. The greatest sensitivity for continuum measurements comes from non-
heterodyne systems that ignore the phase of the electromagnetic wave but simply detect
its energy. In a bolometer, incoming radiation raises the temperature of the detector, the
temperature rise being measured by a change in the electrical resistance. Bolometric tech-
niques are used from the millimetre band through to the mid-infrared. Bolometers are
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 89

inherently broad band devices, so filters must be used to select the observing band. The
filter bands are usually chosen to match the atmospheric transmission windows. Usually
the noise entering from the cosmic source and the atmosphere dominates over the intrin-
sic noise of the device. As at millimetre wavelengths, bolometer arrays with over one hun-
dred elements are available.
There are no frequency allocations in the sub-mm region of the spectrum. However
No. 5.565 of the Radio Regulations lists frequency bands in the range 275 - 1000 GHz
that are used for radio astronomy and by other passive services. The footnote urges
Administrations to take all practicable steps to protect these passive services from harm-
ful interference until the date when the allocation Table is established in this frequency
range. Resolution 950 (WRC-03) allows Administrations to register systems that already
operate between 275 and 3000 GHz.
The ITU voted at its Plenipotentiary Conference in 2002 to encourage studies above
3000 GHz, and implicitly broadened its remit to regulate the spectrum without any spe-
cific upper limit. These developments are being driven by the growth of laser communi-
cations, including satellite communications. Perhaps in the future optical and infrared
astronomy may have to operate in a regulated environment.

5.8. Radio-Frequency Lines of the Greatest Importance to Radio

Astronomy

At the XXIst General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, IAU,

(Buenos Aires, July 23 - 1 August 1991) the astrophysically most important spectral lines
were carefully reviewed. The IAU revised list of spectral lines is reproduced in Table 5.
The IAU expressed the need to protect these frequency bands from in-band, band-edge
and harmonic emissions, especially from space-borne transmitters. Also included in
Table 5 are important spectral lines identified by the IUCAF mm-wave Working Group
in preparation for WRC-2000.

Table 5: Radio Frequency Lines of the Astrophysically Most Important Spectral Lines

Substance Rest Suggested Notes1

Frequency Minimum Bandwidth

Deuterium DI 327.384 MHz 327.0 - 327.7 MHz

Hydrogen (HI) 1420.406 MHz 1370.0 - 1427.0 MHz 2, 3
Hydroxyl radical (OH) 1612.231 MHz 1606.8 - 1613.8 MHz 3, 4
Hydroxyl radical (OH) 1665.402 MHz 1659.8 - 1667.1 MHz 4
Hydroxyl radical (OH) 1667.359 MHz 1661.8 - 1669.0 MHz 4
Hydroxyl radical (OH) 1720.530 MHz 1714.8 - 1722.2 MHz 3, 4
Methyladyne (CH) 3263.794 MHz 3252.9 - 3267.1 MHz 3, 4
Methyladyne (CH) 3335.481 MHz 3324.4 - 3338.8 MHz 3, 4
Methyladyne (CH) 3349.193 MHz 3338.0 - 3352.5 MHz 3, 4
90 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Formaldehyde (H2CO) 4829.660 MHz 4813.6 - 4834.5 MHz 3, 4

Methanol (CH3OH) 6668.518 MHz 6661.8 - 6675.2 MHz 3, 6
Ionized Helium Isotope (3HeII) 8665.650 MHz 8660.0 - 8670.0 MHz
Methanol (CH3OH) 12.178 GHz 12.17 - 12.19 GHz 3, 6
Formaldehyde (H2CO) 14.488 GHz 14.44 - 14.50 GHz 3, 4
Cyclopropenylidene (C3H2) 18.343 GHz 18.28 - 18.36 GHz 3, 4, 6
Water Vapour (H2O) 22.235 GHz 22.16 - 22.26 GHz 3, 4
Ammonia (NH3) 23.694 GHz 23.61 - 23.71 GHz 4
Ammonia (NH3) 23.723 GHz 23.64 - 23.74 GHz 4
Ammonia (NH3) 23.870 GHz 23.79 - 23.89 GHz 4
Sulphur monoxide (SO) 30.002 GHz 29.97 - 30.03 GHz 6
Methanol (CH3OH) 36.169 GHz 36.13 - 36.21 GHz 6
Silicon monoxide (SiO) 42.821 GHz 42.77 - 42.86 GHz
Silicon monoxide (SiO) 43.122 GHz 43.07 - 43.17 GHz
Dicarbon monosulphide (CCS) 45.379 GHz 45.33 - 45.44 GHz 6
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 48.991 GHz 48.94 - 49.04 GHz
Oxygen (O2) 61.1 (GHz 56.31 - 63.06 GHz 5, 6, 7
Deuterated Water (HDO) 80.578 GHz 80.50 - 80.66 GHz
Cyclopropenylidene (C3H2) 85.339 GHz 85.05 - 85.42 GHz
Silicon monoxide (SiO) 86.243 GHz 86.16 - 86.33 GHz
Formylium (H13CO+) 86.754 GHz 86.66 - 86.84 GHz
Silicon monoxide (SiO) 86.847 GHz 86.76 - 86.93 GHz
Ethynyl radical (C2H) 87.300 GHz 87.21 - 87.39 GHz 5
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 88.632 GHz 88.34 - 88.72 GHz 4
Formylium (HCO+) 89.189 GHz 88.89 - 89.28 GHz 4
Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) 90.664 GHz 90.57 - 90.76 GHz
Diazenylium (N2H) 93.174 GHz 93.07 - 93.27 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 97.981 GHz 97.65 - 98.08 GHz 4
Sulphur monoxide (SO) 99.300 GHz 99.98 - 100.18 GHz
Methyl acetylene (CH3C2H) 102.5 GHz 102.39 - 102.60 GHz 5
Methanol (CH3OH) 107.014 GHz 106.91 - 107.12 GHz
Carbon monoxide (C18O) 109.782 GHz 109.67 - 109.89 GHz
Carbon monoxide (13CO) 110.201 GHz 109.83 - 110.31 GHz 4
Carbon monoxide (C17O) 112.359 GHz 112.25 - 112.47 GHz 6
Cyano radical (CN) 113.5 GHz 113.39 - 113.61 GHz 5
Carbon monoxide (CO) 115.271 GHz 114.88 - 115.39 GHz 4
Oxygen (O2) 118.750 GHz 118.63 - 118.87 GHz 7
Formaldehyde (H213CO) 137.450 GHz 137.31 - 137.59 GHz 3, 6
Formaldehyde (H2CO) 140.840 GHz 140.69 - 140.98 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 146.969 GHz 146.82 - 147.12 GHz
Nitric oxide (NO) 150.4 GHz 149.95 - 150.85 GHz 5
Methanol (CH3OH) 156.602 GHz 156.45 - 156.76 GHz
Water vapour (H2O) 183.310 GHz 183.12 - 183.50 GHz 7
Radio Astronomical Use of Specific Frequency Bands 91

Carbon monoxide (C18O) 219.560 GHz 219.34 - 219.78 GHz

Carbon monoxide (13CO) 220.399 GHz 219.67 - 220.62 GHz 4
Cyano radical (CN) 226.6 GHz 226.57 - 227.03 GHz 5
Cyano radical (CN) 226.8 GHz 226.37 - 226.83 GHz 5
Carbon monoxide (CO) 230.538 GHz 229.77 - 230.77 GHz 4
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 244.953 GHz 244.72 - 245.20 GHz 6
Nitric oxide (NO) 250.6 GHz 250.35 - 250.85 GHz 5
Ethynyl radical (C2H) 262.0 GHz 261.74 - 262.26 GHz 5
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 265.886 GHz 265.62 - 266.15 GHz
Formylium (HCO+) 267.557 GHz 267.29 - 267.83 GHz
Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) 271.981 GHz 271.71 - 272.25 GHz
Dyazenulium (N2H+) 279.511 GHz 279.23 - 279.79 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 293.912 GHz 292.93 - 294.21 GHz
Hydronium (H3O+) 307.192 GHz 306.88 - 307.50 GHz
Carbon monoxide (C18O) 312.330 GHz 329.00 - 329.66 GHz
Heavy water (HDO) 313.750 GHz 313.44 - 314.06 GHz
Carbon monoxide (13CO) 330.587 GHz 330.25 - 330.92 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 342.883 GHz 342.54 - 343.23 GHz
Carbon monoxide (CO) 345.796 GHz 345.45 - 346.14 GHz
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 354.484 GHz 354.13 - 354.84 GHz
Formylium (HCO+) 356.734 GHz 356.37 - 357.09 GHz
Oxygen (O2) 368.498 GHz 368.13 - 368.87 GHz
Dyazenulium (N2H+) 372.672 GHz 372.30 - 373.05 GHz 7
Water vapour (H2O) 380.197 GHz 379.81 - 380.58 GHz 7
Hydronium (H3O+) 388.459 GHz 388.07 - 388.85 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 391.847 GHz 390.54 - 392.24 GHz
Oxygen (O2) 424.763 GHz 424.34 - 425.19 GHz
Carbon monoxide (C18O) 439.088 GHz 438.64 - 439.53 GHz
Carbon monoxide (13CO) 440.765 GHz 440.32 - 441.21 GHz
Carbon monoxide (CO) 461.041 GHz 460.57 - 461.51 GHz
Heavy water (HDO) 464.925 GHz 464.46 - 465.39 GHz
Carbon (CI) 492.162 GHz 491.66 - 492.66 GHz
Heavy water (HDO) 509.292 GHz 508.78 - 509.80 GHz
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 531.716 GHz 529.94 - 532.25 GHz 7
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 538.689 GHz 536.89 - 539.23 GHz 7
Water vapour (H218O) 547.676 GHz 547.13 - 548.22 GHz 7
Carbon monoxide (13CO) 550.926 GHz 549.09 - 551.48 GHz 7
Water vapour (H2O) 556.936 GHz 556.37 - 557.50 GHz 7
Ammonia (15NH3) 572.113 GHz 571.54 - 572.69 GHz 7
Ammonia (NH3) 572.498 GHz 571.92 - 573.07 GHz 7
Carbon monoxide (CO) 576.268 GHz 574.35 - 576.84 GHz 7
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 587.616 GHz 587.0 - 588.20 GHz 7
Heavy water (HDO) 599.927 GHz 599.33 - 600.53 GHz 7
92 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Water vapour (H2O) 620.700 GHz 620.08 - 621.32 GHz 7

Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 625.040 GHz 624.27 - 625.67 GHz
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 625.980 GHz 625.35 - 626.61 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 636.532 GHz 634.41 - 637.17 GHz
Carbon monoxide (13CO) 661.067 GHz 658.86 - 661.73 GHz
Carbon monoxide (CO) 691.473 GHz 690.78 - 692.17 GHz
Oxygen (O2) 715.393 GHz 714.68 - 716.11 GHz 7
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 734.324 GHz 733.59 - 735.06 GHz 7
Water vapour (H2O) 752.033 GHz 751.28 - 752.79 GHz 7
Oxygen (O2) 773.840 GHz 773.07 - 884.61 GHz 7
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 797.433 GHz 796.64 - 789.23 GHz
Formylium (HCO+) 802.653 GHz 801.85 - 803.85 GHz
Carbon monoxide (CO) 806.652 GHz 805.85 - 807.46 GHz
Carbon (CI) 809.350 GHz 808.54 - 810.16 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 832.057 GHz 829.28 - 832.89 GHz
Oxygen (O2) 834.146 GHz 833.31 - 834.98 GHz
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 880.899 GHz 877.96 - 881.78 GHz
Water vapour (H2O) 916.172 GHz 915.26 - 917.09 GHz 7
Carbon monoxide (CO) 921.800 GHz 918.72 - 922.72 GHz 7
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 929.723 GHz 926.62 - 930.65 GHz
Water vapour (H2O) 970.315 GHz 969.34 - 971.29 GHz 7
Carbon monosulphide (CS) 978.529 GHz 977.55 - 979.51 GHz 7
Water vapour (H2O) 987.927 GHz 986.94 - 988.92 GHz 7

Notes:
1. If Note 2 or Note 4 is not listed, the band limits are Doppler-shifted frequencies corresponding to
radial velocities of ±300 km/s consistent with line radiation occurring in our Galaxy.
2. An extension to lower frequencies of the allocation of 1400 - 1427 MHz is required to allow
for the higher Doppler shifts for HI observed in distant galaxies.
3. The current international allocation is not primary and/or does not meet bandwidth requirements.
See Section 4.2, Table 3 and the ITU Radio Regulations for more detailed information.
4. Because these line frequencies are also being used for observing other galaxies, the listed bandwidths
include Doppler shifts corresponding to radial velocities of up to 1000 km/s.
It should be noted that HI has been observed at frequencies redshifted to 323 MHz, while lines
of the most abundant molecules have been detected in galaxies with velocities up to 50 000 km/s,
corresponding to a frequency reduction of up to 17%.
5. There are several closely spaced lines associated with these molecules. The listed bands are wide
enough to permit observations of all lines.
6. This line is not mentioned in Article 5 of the ITU Radio Regulations.
7. These lines are observable only outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
6.
Effects of Radio Frequency
Interference on Radio Astronomical
Observations
94 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

6.1. The Vulnerability of the Radio Astronomy Service

The cumulative effect of various kinds of radio frequency interference has an increas-
ingly negative impact on observational radio astronomy. Why is this? It is because, as a
radiocommunication service, Radio Astronomy is a so-called passive service, since it only
receives radio signals (of natural, cosmic origin), and does not transmit radiation itself:
“Radio astronomy: astronomy based on the reception of radiation of cosmic origin”
(Article 1.13 of the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union).
The susceptibility of a passive service to interference from electromagnetic waves is
greater than that of active services, since a passive service can control only the receiver
side of its “communication system” – unlike the active services, which can control both
the receiving and transmitting sides of their systems. If, for example, the signal-to-noise
ratio in a communication link of an active service is not high enough, the signal power at
the transmitter can be increased to obtain the required ratio, whereas in the Radio
Astronomy Service the transmitter is set by nature and we can increase the signal-to-noise
ratio only by integrating longer or by increasing the sensitivity of our receivers.
Furthermore, the frequencies of the spectral lines, or characteristic features in the broad-
band emissions, are outside our control. This vulnerability is documented in, Report 852
of the CCIR “Characteristics of Radio Astronomy Service and preferred frequency
bands” and in the ITU-R Handbook on Radio Astronomy.

6.2. Local, Regional and Global Interference

The interference problems experienced at radio astronomical observatories can also be

categorised according to the distance of the interfering sources: local, regional and glob-
al. Strategic and political aspects of this distance-based categorisation are discussed fur-
ther in Section 8.
Local problems include things such as nearby industrial workshops, faulty radio equip-
ment, or mobile phone base stations. These local problems require a local solution, for
example fixing a faulty transmitter, or establishing a radio-quiet zone around the radio
astronomical observatory using local laws (see Section 6.3).
An example of a regional problem is TV broadcasting by adjacent channel or in-chan-
nel use of a radio astronomy band, according to a regional broadcasting plan. These prob-
lems, which are different for Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Australia, require region-
al consideration and solutions.
Global problems are potentially the most damaging for Radio Astronomy. Examples
are interference caused by satellites and satellite systems, against which no shielding on
the ground is possible (see for example Section 5.4.4). Therefore, solutions have to be
sought in proper filtering of the transmitters and choice of modulation techniques to
reduce spurious and out-of-band emissions (see Sections 6.5 and 7.2). It is also essential
to avoid spectrum allocations to active space services adjacent to, or otherwise too close
to frequency bands used by the Radio Astronomy Service.
Effects of Radio Frequency Interference 95

6.3. Radio-Quiet Zones

Great care must be taken in the design and construction of radio telescopes and their
associated equipment and electronics to minimise the risk of self-generated interfer-
ence. Computers and other electronics associated with telescope control, signal pro-
cessing etc., all radiate at microwave frequencies and have the potential to cause inter-
ference unless shielding and other measures are in place. Having established a quiet
zone in the observatory grounds, coordinated action is then needed to safeguard the
future of the site against outside interference, not only from radio transmitters, but also
from electrical or electronic equipment in the vicinity of the observatory. One approach
is to establish a radio-quiet zone, an area within which any electrical installation or
equipment is subject to control or coordination (not necessarily exclusion).
Most European radio observatories have radio-quiet zones a few kilometres in diam-
eter, implemented at local government level, for example via planning legislation, to
control interference from non-radio sources. This is in addition to any national coordi-
nation agreements for licenced transmitters. Further details can be found on the CRAF
website.
The Atacama Large Millimetre Array, ALMA, in which Europe is making a large
investment, is currently under construction (since 2003) in Northern Chile. The first
step towards a radio-quiet zone for ALMA was the establishment in 1998 of the Cerro-
Chascón Science Preserve, an area about 18 kilometres across that is protected from
mining in particular, and from other activities that might interfere with scientific proj-
ects. The Science Preserve was established by Chilean Government Supreme Decree
No. 185. The second step was taken in 2004, with the passing of Exempt Resolution
No. 1055, which provides protection for primary allocated radio astronomy bands, via
two zones: a 30-km radius Protection Zone within which no transmitters are allowed
in the Radio Astronomy bands used by ALMA, and a 120-km Coordination Zone
within which transmitters must be coordinated. The interference limits are taken from
ITU-R Recommendation RA.769.
The characteristics of existing radio-quiet zones are now under study within ITU-R
Working Party 7D. It is clear from history that such zones are most effective when they
are established early.

6.4. The Effect of Broadband Transmissions on Radio Astronomy

In recent years vast improvements in the sensitivity of radio receivers have been
achieved, making possible the improvement of existing services and the introduction of
new services which are dependent on sensitive receivers for their operation. At the
same time new methods of modulation have been introduced, many of which are broad-
band and even ultra-wideband in nature. Sensitive receivers and broadband and spread
spectrum modulation are on a collision course.
All transmitters sending information emit over a finite bandwidth. Most of the emit-
96 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

ted energy lies close to the nominal centre frequency and within the allocated band. A
small fraction, however, inevitably extends further away from the centre frequency, and
outside the frequency band necessary to ensure the transmission of the information at
the required rate and quality. These are termed “unwanted emissions.” Unless extraor-
dinary precautions are taken, wideband systems will produce significant unwanted
emissions far beyond the limits of their allocated bands. This presents a problem for
Radio Astronomy.
The existing regulations defining bandwidth, spurious emission and harmful interfer-
ence were adopted before the widespread use of broadband emission and sensitive
receivers developed.
Because of its impact on both Space Research and Radio Astronomy, CRAF has sup-
ported the decision made by the WARC-92 to ask the ITU-R Radiocommunications
Bureau to study, on a broad basis, the effects of the use by one service of broadband
modulation techniques on interference to other services using sensitive receivers and to
propose methods to alleviate the problem. Since 1992, these studies have taken place
in several ITU-R Task Groups, namely TG1/3, TG1/5, TG1/7 and since WRC-03 in
TG1/9 to complete the work. The results are reflected in updates of Recommendation
ITU-R SM.329 on spurious emissions and in WRC-03 Resolution 739 on
“Compatibility between the radio astronomy service and the active space services in
certain adjacent and nearby frequency bands”. In spite of the achievements of these
Task Groups, CRAF is concerned that the technological developments that could
enable the space industry to reduce unwanted emissions in frequency bands used by
Radio Astronomy are not always applied. Furthermore, the general limits on unwanted
emissions from satellites into passive bands are not mandatory, so there is little incen-
tive for an individual satellite operator to take extra care of passive bands.

6.5 Interference from Space Stations

Interference from satellites is a case of particular importance to the Radio Astronomy

Service, because of the global nature of its effects. Radio telescopes in many countries
can be affected, no matter how carefully sited they are and how well shielded from ter-
restrial transmitters. Two scenarios are considered here:
• interference from geostationary satellites
• interference from non-geostationary satellites.

The interference is assumed to come from unwanted emissions of the satellites into
frequency bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service.

6.5.1. Geostationary Satellites

The interference thresholds to Radio Astronomy are given in Recommendation ITU-
R RA.769 in several units. The conversion to spfd values assumes that the radio tele-
scope has 0 dBi gain in the direction of the interfering source. Interference from a geo-
Effects of Radio Frequency Interference 97

stationary satellite can therefore be assessed in terms of the spfd produced by the satel-
lite at the radio observatory in the relevant frequency band(s). However, as a conse-
quence of the 0 dBi assumption, interference above the levels of ITU-R
Recommendation RA.769 will be experienced whenever the gain of the radio telescope
in the direction of the satellite exceeds 0 dBi.
In general, it is not considered practicable to suppress the unwanted emissions from
satellites to levels low enough to allow a radio telescope to point directly at a satellite
without experiencing interference. Each satellite therefore effectively blocks a region
of sky whose extent depends on the level of unwanted emissions in the Radio
Astronomy band, and on the sidelobe pattern of the radio telescope. Satellite operators
can help reduce the sky blockage by controlling unwanted emission levels in the direc-
tion of radio observatories. There are also clear advantages to Radio Astronomy in the
design of new radio telescopes so as to minimise the gain of sidelobes near the main
beam. Unfortunately this can be done only at the expense of reducing the maximum
gain of the main beam.

6.5.2. Non-Geostationary Satellites

For coordination of a network of non-geostationary satellites with radio astronomy
observatories, the interference is nowadays estimated using the so-called equivalent
power flux density (epfd) methodology. This methodology was developed by the
Satellite Services for assessing mutual interference into each others networks, in a
time-varying dynamic situation. The epfd is a direction weighted average of the aggre-
gate interference produced at a radio telescope by a constellation of satellites, taking
into account the off-axis discrimination of the radio telescope in the direction of each
satellite transmitter, and the beam patterns and pointing directions of the transmitting
satellites and the victim radio telescope. The mathematical definition of epfd is given
in No. 22.5C1 of the Radio Regulations. Protection of the Radio Astronomy Service is
then specified in terms of an epfd level, calculated for specified reference antenna pat-
terns, which must not be exceeded for a given percentage of time. ITU-R
Recommendation RA.1513 recommends that “a criterion of 2% be used for data loss
to the RAS due to interference from any one network, in any frequency band which is
allocated to the RAS on a primary basis.”
Application of the full equivalent power flux density model is complex and time-
consuming. Monte-Carlo simulations need to be run for a representative range of
observing directions and satellite configurations, and the fractional data loss to Radio
Astronomy then needs to be assessed.
It is useful to avoid having to apply the efpd methodology when it may not be nec-
essary. A possible approach is to estimate the spfd of unwanted emissions in the vicin-
ity of the radio observatory under consideration, and compare these with the levels in
ITU-R Recommendation RA.769. It would only be necessary to pay more extensive
consideration to those cases where the ITU-R Recommendation RA.769 levels are
exceeded.
98 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

6.5.3. Distribution of Unwanted Emissions within the Radio Astronomy Band

In cases where the width of the radio astronomy band under consideration is larger
than the structure of the spectrum of unwanted emissions produced by the transmitter,
a suitable working method to ensure that radio astronomical observations will not suf-
fer detrimental interference is that the pfd of unwanted emissions across the entire radio
astronomy band shall not exceed the continuum pfd in ITU-R Recommendation
RA.769 and within any section of that band of width equal to the designated channel
bandwidth for spectral line observations, the pfd of unwanted emissions shall not
exceed the value in that ITU-R Recommendation RA.769 for spectral line observa-
tions. This method reduces the potential problem of narrow-band interference, and
addresses the need for criteria applicable at the band edges.
7.
Does Radio Astronomy need
Frequency Bands that are 100%
Free of Interference?
100 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

7.1. Allocations for Radio Astronomy

The ITU conference WARC 1959 had a special significance for Radio Astronomy for
two reasons. First, Radio Astronomy was recognised as a “radiocommunication serv-
ice”. Second, a series of frequency bands was allocated to the Radio Astronomy
Service, as radio-quiet “windows” through which radio astronomers could observe the
universe. These bands were reviewed by subsequent conferences, including WARC-92,
WRC-95 and WRC-2000. The results are shown in Table 3 (Section 4.2). The fraction
of the total spectrum allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service in the ITU Radio
Regulations can be summarised as follows:

< 30 GHz:
1.3% primary exclusive for passive frequency use
1.2% primary shared allocations
0.5% secondary allocations

30 - 275 GHz:
16.8% primary exclusive for passive frequency use
38.3% primary shared allocations
5.1% secondary allocations

All frequency bands <275 GHz:

15.1% primary exclusive for passive frequency use
34.2% primary shared allocations
4.6% secondary allocations

The recognition of Radio Astronomy as a service in the same way as broadcasting

and mobile communication, was an historic step, as it created a legal basis for Radio
Astronomy to seek protection against “harmful” interference. The ITU-R Radio
Regulations provide three levels of protection.
1. “Primary” allocations give legal protection from interference, but they are not nec-
essarily exclusive as indicated above.
2. “Secondary” allocations do not give protection from primary users in the same
band. Radio services operating in a frequency band in which they have a secondary
allocation shall not cause interference to services having a primary allocation in this
band, nor can they claim protection from harmful interference from stations of a pri-
mary service operating in the band.
3. “Footnotes” draw the attention to the use of a specific band by Radio Astronomy.
No. 5.149 urges Administrations to take all practicable steps to protect the Radio
Astronomy Service from harmful interference. It notes that emissions from spaceborne
or airborne stations can be particularly serious sources of interference to the Radio
Astronomy Service.
However, the passive nature of the Radio Astronomy Service needs to be considered
Frequency Bands 100% Free of Interference? 101

here. Radio Astronomy cannot cause interference! Hence secondary allocations are, in
practice, the same as mentioning Radio Astronomy in a footnote and provide no legal
protection. Thus, in frequency bands in which the Radio Astronomy Service does not
enjoy primary status, protection is at the discretion of Administrations that are willing
to take the appropriate practical steps to achieve this protection.
The highest level of protection is provided by the exclusively passive bands.
No. 5.340 of the Radio Regulations lists frequency bands in which “all emissions are
prohibited.” These frequency bands are allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service, the
Earth Exploration Satellite Service, EESS, and the Space Research Service, SRS, for
exclusively passive use. There are no allocations to active services in these frequency
bands. These frequency bands are the most important bands for one or more of the pas-
sive services to which they are allocated. The text of the footnote is very short and clear
and difficult to misinterpret.

5.340: All emissions are prohibited in the following bands:

• 1400.0 - 1427.0 MHz,
• 2690.0 - 2700.0 MHz except those provided for by No. 5.422,
• 10.68 - 10.70 GHz except those provided for by No. 5.483,
• 15.35 - 15.40 GHz except those provided for by No. 5.511,
• 23.60 - 24.0 GHz,
• 31.3 - 31.5 GHz,
• 31.5 - 31.8 GHz in Region 2,
• 48.94 - 49.04 GHz from airborne stations,
• 50.2 - 50.4 GHz1,
• 52.6 - 54.25 GHz,
• 86 - 92 GHz,
• 100 - 102 GHz,
• 109.5 - 111.8 GHz,
• 114.25 - 116 GHz
• 148.5 - 151.5 GHz,
• 164 - 167 GHz,
• 182 - 185 GHz,
• 190 - 191.8 GHz,
• 200 - 209 GHz,
• 226 - 231.5 GHz,
• 250 - 252 GHz.
Even an exclusively passive primary allocation of a particular band does not guaran-
tee complete freedom from interference, however, since No. 4.6 of the ITU-R Radio
Regulations states that “protection from services in other bands shall be afforded to the

1. 5.340.1 The allocation to the Earth Exploration-Satellite Service (passive) and the Space
Research Service (passive) in the band 50.2 - 50.4 GHz should not impose undue constraints on
the use of the adjacent bands by the primary allocated services in those bands.
102 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Radio Astronomy Service only to the extent that such services are afforded protection
from each other”.
In practice, Radio Astronomy sometimes has to operate as if it has a secondary allo-
cation worldwide, comprising the whole radio spectrum. And, in fact, many observa-
tions are being made outside frequency bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy
Service. Hence the question arises: does Radio Astronomy need protected frequency
bands that are 100% free of interference?

7.2. Human-generated Radiation from the Sky

Radio Astronomy studies radio sources in the universe and until 1957, when the first arti-
ficial satellite, Sputnik, appeared, there were only natural sources. Now there are thousands
of artificial satellites of the Earth, of which about 10% are geostationary. Their number is
still increasing and it is expected that many satellite networks will be implemented in the
coming years. They all contribute to the welfare of humanity and to further development of
science and culture. However, there is a price to be paid. With each new satellite launched,
another artificial “radio star” appears in the sky. At present these satellites mainly use fre-
quency bands around 137 - 144 MHz, 1.5 - 2.5 GHz, 4 - 6 GHz, 11 - 14 GHz, 20 - 30 GHz
and 40 - 50 GHz, but new allocations are sought in all parts of the spectrum, especially for
space services. In addition to signals in the allocated frequency bands necessary to perform
their functions, these satellites – as well as associated terrestrial transmitters – produce unin-
tended and undesired radiation in neighbouring and even in far remote frequency bands.
Although the constellation of artificial Earth satellites is still very small in comparison
with the natural radio sources in the universe, they can make Radio Astronomy measure-
ments on Earth impossible in some regions and at some times. The radiation received
from artificial satellites is relatively intense because of their very small distance (in astro-
nomical terms) from the Earth. Many systems currently under development apply mass
produced handheld Earth terminals with omnidirectional antennae, like GPS receivers
and mobile telephones. They require signal strengths at the receiver more than 108 times
stronger than astronomical radio sources. Therefore the unwanted emissions from satel-
lites, if they are not well suppressed by technical means, may appear stronger throughout
an increasing fraction of the radio spectrum.
If interference to Radio Astronomy is to be avoided, the unwanted emissions from
satellites will need to be suppressed by many tens of dB below the general spurious emis-
sion limits given in No. 3 of the Radio Regulations. Figure 11 shows a case where this
has been successfully done. The unwanted emissions from this broadcasting satellite, that
operates only 30 MHz above the passive band 1400 - 1427 MHz, have been suppressed
to a level below -260 dB(W/m2Hz), more than 50dB below the level required in No. 3.
This excellent performance of the satellite even caused doubts about whether the satellite
was active or at the correct position, but as Figure 12 shows, the unwanted emissions from
the satellite are easily detected in the frequency band 1660 - 1670 MHz that is allocated
to Radio Astronomy on a primary basis.
Frequency Bands 100% Free of Interference? 103

Figure 11: Radio map of the region of sky Figure 12: Radio map of the same region of sky
surrounding a geostationary broadcasting plotted in Figure 14, showing that the unwanted
satellite, showing that unwanted emissions from emissions from the geostationary broadcasting
the satellite into the (passive) frequency band satellite are easily detected in the frequency band
1401 - 1415 MHz are below -260 dB(W/m2Hz). 1660 - 1670 MHz that is allocated to the Radio
Measurements were made with the Effelsberg Astronomy Service on a primary basis, shared
100-m antenna (Klaus Ruf, private communication). with active services. Measurements were made
with the Effelsberg 100-m antenna (Klaus Ruf,
private communication).

7.3. The Threats to Radio Astronomy

When the ITU recognised Radio Astronomy as a radiocommunication service, it took

no account of the fact that this service is a passive service. In the ITU Radio Regulations
there is no definition of a passive service, so a distinction between passive and active
services is not yet possible.
In spite of the established use of the term “passive” with respect to Radio Astronomy,
the wider radio community often fails to grasp its true significance. It is after all quite
different to receive a broadcast say +20 dB above the receiver noise level than to detect
faint emissions at some - 60 dB below the receiver noise after long integration.
Consequently the unusual sensitivities obtained in radio astronomical measurements
obtained by integration are not always appreciated as the reason for the high vulnerabil-
ity to interference of this service. Also, the fact that the receivers are often very broad-
band makes the situation even more difficult. Finally there is the need for accurate cali-
bration of the sensitive instruments, which usually requires an interference-free band.
It is a given fact that the future will see only increasing demands on the use of the
radio spectrum by existing or new services.

7.4. Interference Mitigation

Some of the most fundamental problems of physics and the early history of the uni-
verse require access to large tracts of the radio spectrum for their solution. Radio
astronomers understand that it is unrealistic to request that all this extra spectrum be
104 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service on a worldwide basis. However, the contin-
uing development of research requires that more and more Radio Astronomy observa-
tions will need to be done outside frequency bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy
Service. Radio astronomers are, therefore, actively working on the development of
interference suppression techniques to enable access to frequency bands where no allo-
cation to Radio Astronomy exists.
This development does not mean that the protection of quiet frequency bands for
Radio Astronomy becomes less important: on the contrary, the dynamic occupancy of
the radio spectrum implies that Radio Astronomy observations outside the frequency
bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service can be done only at some price. This
price has at least three aspects:
1. much longer observing times are needed because a large fraction of the measure-
ment data is affected by interference and has to be rejected;
2. very intensive and interactive data processing has to be done to extract the astro-
nomical information from the data and separate this from unwanted human-gen-
erated transmissions; and
3. proper calibration of the observations and of the instruments may not be possible
when the data are affected by interference. (In some cases, however, it is possible
to do an approximate calibration using measurements taken in a nearby interfer-
ence-free passive band.).

Modern interference excision techniques based on digital signal processing can be

applied to Radio Astronomy observations, if noticeable interference is present, and par-
ticularly when observing outside allocated bands. There is, however, a danger associ-
ated with using these potentially useful mitigation techniques, because they may excise
the desired signals as well. It has been reported that at one observatory, pulsar emission
was detected but rejected as interference, and excised from the data, some years before
pulsars were “discovered”. Scientific research is always turning up new discoveries
with unexpected properties. Without prior knowledge of the cosmic source and the
interferer it can be impossible for mitigation techniques to distinguish between the two.
Current research addresses specifically the development of mitigation techniques for
radio interferometers: the differences between the interferometer characteristics for a
celestial source and a human-generated source contain information that can be used to
develop mitigation techniques. Today experiments are being done with mitigation tech-
niques that are able to suppress some interfering signals by a few tens of dB, but not
yet to the levels of Recommendation ITU-R RA.769, which are considered to be typi-
cal interference free levels acceptable to the Radio Astronomy Service.
CRAF is concerned about the argument that is occasionally put forward that passive
bands may be used by ultra-wideband, UWB, devices, if the UWB emissions are weak-
er than some of the permitted levels of unwanted emissions of transmitters operating
on other frequencies. Most celestial radio astronomical emissions are intrinsically
wideband, and this fact has been one of the powerful tools available to distinguish
between natural and artificial signals. Unfortunately, the UWB emissions being pro-
Frequency Bands 100% Free of Interference? 105

posed today in many ways mimic celestial wideband emission, being weak and noise-
like. This makes the task of mitigation against UWB much harder than mitigation
against other interfering signals.

7.5. Are Radiation-free Oases Necessary?

From our point of view the obvious answer is YES; but let us consider the practical
meaning of such an answer under the prevailing conditions. As stated previously, the
Radio Astronomy Service (in the sense of the ITU-R definition of a radiocommunica-
tion service) is not a single category of radio stations providing a standard service sim-
ilar to radiocommunication services. Radio Astronomy is a fundamental research sci-
ence, with no commercial profit, with a wide variety of scientific aims, using different
types of extremely highly sophisticated instruments, each having different observing
techniques, and different vulnerabilities to interference. Effectively Radio Astronomy
is a mixture of different services, with different aims, instruments and different vulner-
abilities to interference.
Those radio observations that intrinsically are sensitivity-limited because of very a
narrow bandwidth (e.g. spectral line searches) or a very short integration time (e.g. pul-
sar searches) are especially vulnerable to interference. So too are observations of tran-
sient phenomena that will not be repeated, such as the collision of comet Shoemaker-
Levi with Jupiter. So too are experiments that require simultaneous observations at
many radio observatories for their success. Without interference-free access to the pas-
sive bands, Radio Astronomy could not conduct such observations successfully. The
situation for other type of observations, such as map-making, may be less severe
because the level of sensitivity needed can be obtained by longer integration times pro-
vided the celestial radio source does not vary. However many cosmic sources do show
intensity variability (which can have any time scale). The practical situation is that the
contemporary limits, as recommended by ITU-R studies, are all given for this latter
type of observations, not for measurements that are at the limit of what is technically
possible.
Nowadays the situation gets even more complex. On the one hand Radio Astronomy
really needs radiation-free parts in the spectrum, on the other hand this comes at a time
when various new and existing communication services need wider use of the spec-
trum. Radio Astronomy is evolving more and more from a phenomenological science
to astrophysics and astrochemistry, and therefore the requirements for observations
increasingly go in the direction of those that are intrinsically limited in sensitivity. The
calibration that has to be the basis for quantitative analyses has to be done in an inter-
ference-free environment. In practice 10-50% of the observing time of an instrument
may be used for calibration.
106 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

7.6. Scientific and Cultural Value

Astrophysics goes much further than relating laboratory physics to the stars and
galaxies. Through our telescopes and particularly our radio telescopes we have access
to physical conditions that are impossible to attain in a laboratory. For example, when
the neutron was discovered there seemed no chance of testing the behaviour of a large
number of neutrons tightly packed together, yet we now regularly observe pulsars
which are stellar remnants consisting only of neutrons. Magnetic fields of some tens of
Tesla are available in the laboratory: in the same neutron stars the fields are as large as
millions of Tesla. Quasars provide another example of science that cannot be done on
the terrestrial scale. High-energy plasma physics on this scale may never be attainable
in our experimental fusion reactors, but it may at least be a target to understand and
possibly emulate the process on a more domestic scale.
So, astronomy, and especially Radio Astronomy, is not merely providing a descrip-
tion of the universe; it is testing the laws of basic, fundamental physics. The most
remarkable of these is the test of the General Theory of Relativity provided by the bina-
ry pulsars. General Relativity is concerned with the behaviour of space and time, and
the way they are affected by mass. The ideal test-bed is a binary pulsar system, in
which an accurate clock – the pulsar itself – moves in orbit around a massive star, its
partner in the binary system. The results of the tests confirm in great detail this theory,
ruling out several alternatives which were still allowable on laboratory evidence alone.
The discovery of the first double pulsar system in 2004 will allow even more sensitive
tests of relativity theory in future.
For all humankind, the overwhelming questions of our place in the universe provide
a background for our increasingly urgent concern with our place on Earth. It may not
be comforting to contemplate the rapid changes in the environment, the explosive
growth of world population, and the depletion of our resources, by pacing them against
cosmological evolution. It is nevertheless an essential contribution of science to pro-
vide a perspective. Radio Astronomy has contributed vitally to cosmology in two areas.
First, the realisation that observed sources included the most distant observable objects
in the universe. A second vital contribution by Radio Astronomy to cosmology can rank
as one of the greatest discoveries ever made. The occasion takes us back to the origins
of Radio Astronomy from within the science of radiocommunications. As these tech-
niques moved to even shorter wavelengths, it became again necessary to investigate the
natural noise sources which provide the basic limitation to long distance communica-
tions. The radio links analysed were between satellites and ground stations with wave-
lengths in the cm range. Again the pioneering observations were made at Bell
Laboratories. The result was the discovery in 1963 by Penzias and Wilson of the
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, CMB.
The cosmic microwave background is the most primitive radiation we can detect. It
arose when the universe was a dense expanding fireball less than one million years old.
In fact, the CMB is the best experimental evidence of the Big Bang theory. We see the
same radiation today redshifted to radio wavelengths. It is a uniform all-pervasive radi-
Frequency Bands 100% Free of Interference? 107

ation with the spectrum of a black-body of temperature 2.7 K. Radio telescopes detect
it as an excess noise contribution to the total receiver noise. It is a very low level noise
contribution, compared with “ambient” terrestrial temperatures of about 300 K, and it
is inherently very difficult to measure. Because the CMB radiation is almost isotropic
over the sky, the excess noise is the same, to within a milliKelvin, wherever the tele-
scope points.
There are also fluctuations of the CMB that are even more difficult to measure. From
them we learn about the phenomenology of the very early universe, including the
anisotropy of the mass condensation process and subsequent formation of galaxies and
clusters of galaxies. This will enable us to discriminate among several cosmological
models, which are still allowed on the basis of current knowledge.
Another interesting effect shows that the whole universe is filled with 2.7 K radia-
tion. The so-called Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect predicts a small variation of the spectrum
of the 2.7 K radiation, due to the absorption by the very thin and hot gas in clusters of
galaxies. The Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect is expected to be best observable in the fre-
quency range between 10 and 100 GHz. It is a sad reflection on progress that this sig-
nal could soon become swamped by a local background interference of human-gener-
ated emissions produced by spread-spectrum techniques, unwanted sidebands and spu-
rious emissions. In particular it is easy to anticipate that the combined effect of many
spread-spectrum transmitters will be to produce a noise floor which will mimic and
swamp these ancient signals from the beginning of our universe.
Radio astronomy has become a vital part of international scientific life in many
countries. It shows how science can contribute to our culture and to our understanding
of our history and our environment. We shall be immeasurably poorer if we use up the
remaining quiet portions of the radio spectrum and thereby we lose the ability to look
through the radio window at the universe.
108 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy
8.
Local, Regional and Global Policies
110 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

The interference problems in radio astronomical observatories can be divided into dif-
ferent categories according to the distance of the interfering sources. We distinguish prob-
lems at a local, regional and a global level (see Section 6.2).
The local problems occur on a scale ranging from the immediate surroundings of the
radio astronomical observatory to the borders of the country in which the observatory is
located. They can be due to due, for example, to spark-plugs of cars, computers, house-
hold equipment (particularly when faulty). They require a local solution such as a radio-
quiet zone around the radio astronomical observatory (see Section 6.3).
TV and audio broadcasting by adjacent channel or in-channel use of a radio astronom-
ical reception bands is regarded as a regional problem. These problems are different for
Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Australia. They require a regional consideration.
The worst for Radio Astronomy are the global problems, particularly those caused by
satellites and satellite systems.
In this section we discuss the different organisations and bodies that radio astronomers
need to deal with at all three levels.

8.1. Communication between Radio Astronomy and National

Administrations

Active spectrum users, usually originating from broadcast, industry, and telecommu-
nication companies, are one set of partners that radio astronomers have to coexist with
in the “electromagnetic society”. Another group is the Administrations, whether they
be national (of sovereign countries), regional (in Europe bodies such as the CEPT or
the European Union) or global (e.g. the United Nations and its organisations, one of
which is the ITU). The problem space is illustrated in Figure 13.
Quite often it is experienced that the interests of activities along each of the axes are
administrations

global

regional

local
“passive” service
(radio astronomy)

“active” service

Figure 13: Problem space for frequency management.

Local, Regional and Global Policies 111

orthogonal to each other. This implies that good communications and negotiation fora
are mandatory for adequate “living together in the electromagnetic society”.
Since Radio Astronomy is a purely scientific and usually a government-funded activ-
ity, it is obvious that communication between Radio Astronomy and the national
Administrations must be well organised. This is not least because the national Admin-
istrations are the voting members of the World Radio Conferences of the ITU, and at
regional European level of the CEPT and the EU. The national Administrations are
responsible for implementation of the ITU Radio Regulations and for providing protec-
tion where needed.
On the local scale, radio observatories communicate with the local authorities and/or
national Administrations and related bodies to alleviate the problems and search for
structural solutions within the internationally accepted agreements. The latter is of
course mandatory since electromagnetic waves do not stop at country borders. In the
USA the need for frequencies and interference protection for Radio Astronomy and
passive sensing are coordinated through the Commission on Radio Frequencies, CORF.
Established in 1960, CORF is under the aegis of the US National Academy of Sciences.
However, it sometimes also addresses regional issues.
On the regional scale in Europe, CRAF coordinates the European efforts for the pro-
tection of radio spectrum bands used by the Radio Astronomy Service and other pas-
sive applications (see Section 8.2). The Radio Astronomy Frequency Committee in the
Asia-Pacific region, RAFCAP, established in 2001, serves a similar purpose in the
Asia-Pacific region.
At the global level this work is done by IUCAF, the Scientific Committee on the
Allocation of Frequencies for Radio Astronomy and Space Science (under the auspices
of Unesco’s International Council of Scientific Unions, ICSU) (see Section 8.3).

8.2. CRAF and its European Role

The Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies of the European Science Foundation,

CRAF, was founded in 1988 and is made up of representatives of the major radio astro-
nomical observatories in Europe.
An important part of its work is to assist the Scientific Committee on the Allocations
of Frequencies for Radio Astronomy and Space Science, IUCAF. This body is a joint
commission of the International Union of Radio Sciences, URSI, the International Astro-
nomical Union, IAU, and the Committee on Space Research, COSPAR. These three are
amongst the many international scientific unions which, under the International Council
of Scientific Unions, ICSU, devolve from Unesco.
According to its Charter and Terms of Reference, the mission of CRAF is to:
• keep the frequency bands used for radio astronomical observations free from interfer-
ence;
• argue the scientific needs of Radio Astronomy for continued access to and availabil-
ity of the radio spectrum for Radio Astronomy within the European arena;
112 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

• support related science communities in their needs of interference-free radio frequen-

cy bands for passive use.

CRAF attempts to coordinate the representations made to the various national and
supranational radio regulatory bodies within Europe for the protection of the Radio
Astronomy Service. It operates both at an administrative and at a technical level. It is con-
cerned with setting up programmes of interference monitoring and seeks to develop tech-
nical means for the protection of radio astronomical observations. It has an educational
role in making other, particularly active radio spectrum users, aware of the sensitivity and
consequent need for protection of the RAS. This function is fulfilled in part by the pub-
lication of this Handbook for Radio Astronomy and a Handbook for Frequency Manage-
ment, which are intended to be made widely available, particularly to Administrations,
system designers and to spectrum managers. Furthermore, CRAF publishes a regular
Newsletter, and maintains a website (URL address: http://www.astron.nl/craf).
Since 1 January 1997, CRAF has employed a full time pan-European Radio Astrono-
my Spectrum Manager.
CRAF is a Sector Member of the ITU Radiocommunication Sector and it has formal
observer status within the CEPT.

8.2.1. Actions and Results

CRAF has acted on several fronts to protect the Radio Astronomy Service. Among
other things, its work has been to:
• Communicate and cooperate with the appropriate World and European bodies, the
ITU, the Radiocommunications Bureau, RB, (before 1993 this was the Comité
Consultatif International des Radiocommunications, CCIR) which is the technical
committee of the ITU, the International Frequency Registration Board, IFRB
(whose activities have also been incorporated in the ITU-R RB since 1993), the
Conférence Européenne des Postes et des Télécommunications, CEPT, and its off-
shoot the European Radiocommunications Office, ERO, to ensure the continued
good management of the radio spectrum.
• Participate in ITU-R study activities addressing issues relevant to the protection of
Radio Astronomy.
• Correspond with various Administrations and the CEPT concerning the possible
use of television channel 38 (608 - 614 MHz).
• Communicate at ministerial level with Administrations concerned on specific spec-
trum issues, such as MSS deployment at ~1.6 GHz, Short Range Radar develop-
ments at ~24 GHz and ~79 GHz, and power line communications. CRAF contin-
ues to make representations about such issues to the appropriate authorities.
• Work in close collaboration with IUCAF and with kindred bodies, towards the
preparation of a concerted Radio Astronomy position for the various World
Administrative Radio Conferences, which are held roughly every three to four
years. Despite fears to the contrary, the conference decisions and recommendations
Local, Regional and Global Policies 113

have as a result been often positively favourable to the Radio Astronomy Service.
For example, it was agreed to:
• Contribute to the NATO-Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, CCMS,
by investigating the possibilities for more alert administrative control of frequency
allocation and management, and possibly obtaining international judicial support.
Report No. 213 on The Passive Use of the Frequency Spectrum (published in 1996)
of this commission is a result of this effort.
• Draw attention, in various publications of its members, to the effects of human-gen-
erated interference on radio astronomical observations.
• Encourage participating Institutes to monitor interference. The Dwingeloo Radio
Observatory in the Netherlands maintains a European database on events of harm-
ful interference suffered by European Radio Astronomy observatories. European
radio observatories have completed a coherent monitoring campaign to monitor the
interference experienced from the Russian global navigation satellites system
GLONASS. These observations were of value in negotiations between IUCAF and
the GLONASS Administration and led to an agreement between GLONASS and
IUCAF on the long-term protection of Radio Astronomy at 1.6 GHz from
GLONASS interference.
• Participate in CEPT activities at various levels, including its Working Group FM and
various CEPT WGSE project teams.
• Communicate with the CEPT concerning the Detailed Spectrum Investigation, DSI,
which the European Radiocommunications Office is carrying out in preparation of a
European Common Allocation Table by 2008.
• Negotiate with Iridium LCC on arrangements to protect Radio Astronomy in the band
1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz. This work resulted in Recommendations of the CEPT
Milestone Review Committee which contain conditions for the Iridium satellite sys-
tem to assure Radio Astronomy adequate protection. These conditions are guidance
to Administrations for licensing the Iridium system.
• Communicate actively with industry and operators to work towards solutions for
compatibility problems:
– Société Européenne des Satellites in Luxembourg and the German Administration to
solve the problem of out-of-band emission from the GDL-6/ASTRA-1D satellite in
the Radio Astronomy band 10.6-10.7 GHz. The ASTRA satellite, which is operat-
ing in a Fixed Satellite Service band, causes harmful interference in the adjacent sub-
band 10.69-10.7 GHz. The band 10.6-10.7 GHz is heavily used by Effelsberg
observatory in Germany. This issue was also extensively discussed with in the CEPT.
– INMARSAT on the coordination with Aeronautical Earth stations near 1660.0 -
1660.5 MHz.
– GLOBALSTAR on the coordination with Mobile Earth stations affecting Radio
Astronomy operations in the band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz.
• Discuss with the Italian Administration the necessary improvement of communica-
tion and coordination between itself and the Radio Astronomy Service in Italy.
114 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

8.2.2. WRCs and Current Problems

Since 1993 World Radio Conferences, WRCs, are currently held every two to four
years. At the WRCs, specific problems concerning frequency allocations are considered
at an intergovernmental level. The Radio Astronomy Service being passive, academic and
non-commercial, inevitably encounters powerful – especially commercial – interests hun-
gry for spectrum ranged against it. Consolidating and defending its existing allocations is
an on-going educational and lobbying exercise. Although CRAF itself is not entitled to
send a delegation to these conferences and vote, nevertheless members of CRAF usually
attend the meetings as members of the IUCAF delegation or of their national delegations,
and contribute in no small measure to the favourable outcomes for the Radio Astronomy
Service.
One favourable result of the very last WARC, WARC-92, was the elevation of the sta-
tus of the Radio Astronomy Service in the band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz to CO-PRIMARY
worldwide. This band corresponds to one of the transitions of the important OH radical.
At present there is interference in this band from out-of-band transmissions from the
spread-spectrum signals from the Russian GLONASS satellites. Members of CRAF have
assisted IUCAF in technical discussions with the GLONASS Administration in a search
for means to enable radio astronomical work to be resumed in this OH band.
Another favourable result at the WARC-92 was that for the first time a WARC recom-
mended that ITU-R study, as a matter of urgency, the spurious emissions from space
transmissions in all bands, with a view to specifying spurious and out-of-band emission
limits in the ITU Radio Regulations, for the protection of the Radio Astronomy and other
passive services. The first such limits were set by WRC-2000.
The WRC-2000 also re-allocated the frequency bands between 71 and 275 GHz with
special attention to the passive services. The result was that within the atmospheric win-
dows essentially all frequency bands used by radio astronomers are now allocated to the
Radio Astronomy Service.
At WRC-03 an issue was raised concerning FSS feeder links near 1.4 GHz. This issue
is of great importance for Radio Astronomy, to which the band 1400 - 1427 MHz is of
prime importance. It is expected that WRC-07 will decide on regulations for this matter.

8.2.3. Long-term Problems

One urgent problem, which has not been fully studied by the ITU Radiocommunica-
tion Sector, ITU-R, and for which adequate recommendations are still lacking, was
touched on earlier. It is the matter of the increasing use of spread-spectrum or CDMA
(Code Division Multiple Access) systems. This technique is being introduced into com-
munication systems as a measure to maintain privacy and as a way of mitigating the effect
of interference from transmissions of the more traditional kind. It consists of modulating
carriers with very rapid non-information bearing modulation which increases the physi-
cal bandwidth of the signal to many times that required to convey the meaningful infor-
mation. It has the effect of spreading the energy of the transmission very thinly over a rel-
atively enormous spectral band. Since the Radio Astronomy Service is routinely con-
cerned with the measurement of signals many orders of magnitude weaker than other
Local, Regional and Global Policies 115

services, and often uses large bandwidths to improve sensitivity, this thin spreading of
interference which might indeed not be noticed by other services, is totally and immedi-
ately devastating in its impact. CRAF is concerned to expose the wrong thinking which
is leading to the use of spread-spectrum and to see that its use be subject to regulation and
that it be as far as possible eliminated.
The development of Short Range Radar, SRR, at ~24 GHz and ~79 GHz for automobiles
is monitoring by CRAF with great concern, most especially since the band 23.6-24.0 GHz
enjoys protection under No.5.340, which states that all emissions are prohibited in the band.
In 2004 regulations were developed in Europe to enable the deployment of SRR at ~24
GHz in spite of this footnote. For the protection of Radio Astronomy an automatic deacti-
vation mechanism is foreseen to switch off SRR devices when they come within a defined
separation distance from a Radio Astronomy station operating in the range 22-24 GHz. In
the longer term (before 1 January 2014), SRR should move from ~24 GHz to ~79 GHz.
Similar concerns apply to ultra-wideband, UWB, technology more generally. UWB is
expected to use bandwidths exceeding several GHz. Currently there are no adequate reg-
ulations to address the frequency management issues raised by UWB technology. CRAF
is actively participating in the relevant studies at CEPT and ITU-R level.
Looking to the distant future another concern is to preserve the far side of the Moon,
which is naturally and permanently screened from terrestrial transmitters, as an interfer-
ence-free zone for the benefit of future generations of radio astronomers. CRAF is
actively seeking to ensure appropriate conventions are adopted now to provide this pro-
tection before the region becomes subject to commercial and other interests.
Technological developments within the different active radio services force CRAF to
remain alert to their possible impact on the Radio Astronomy Service. This implies that
CRAF must adjust its strategy continuously and dynamically in order to cope with these
developments.

8.2.4. The European Science Foundation

The European Science Foundation, ESF, acts as a catalyst for the development of sci-
ence by bringing together leading scientists and funding agencies to debate, plan and
implement pan-European scientific and science policy initiatives.
The European Science Foundation is the association of 78 major national funding
agencies devoted to scientific research in 30 countries. It represents all disciplines:
physical and engineering sciences, life, earth and environmental sciences, medical sci-
ences, humanities and social sciences. The Foundation assists its Member Organisa-
tions in two main ways: by bringing scientists together in its scientific programmes,
EUROCORES, Forward Looks, Networks and ESF Research Conferences, to work on
topics of common concern; and through the joint study of issues of strategic importance
in European science policy.
It maintains close relations with other scientific institutions within and outside
Europe. By its activities, the ESF adds value by cooperation and coordination across
national frontiers and endeavours, offers expert scientific advice on strategic issues,
and provides the European forum for science.
116 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

8.2.5. Addresses

European Science Foundation

1 quai Lezay-Marnésia, B.P. 90015,
67080 Strasbourg cedex, France
Tel: +33 (0)3 88 76 71 07, Fax: +33 (0)3 88 37 05 32,
Email: [email protected]

Scientific Secretary
for Physical and
Engineering Sciences: N. Williams

Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies, CRAF

Chair: R. Ambrosini
Istituto di Radioastronomia C.N.R.,
Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
Tel: +39 051-6399361, Fax: +39 051-6399431,
Email: [email protected]
Secretary: T. A. Th. Spoelstra
Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy,
P.O. Box 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, Netherlands
Tel: +31 521-595100, Fax: +31 521-597332,
Email: [email protected]
Members: R. Ambrosini
Istituto di Radioastronomia C.N.R.,
Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
Tel: +39 051-6399361, Fax: +39 051-6399431,
Email: [email protected]
R. Bachiller
Observatorio Astronomico Nacional, IGN,
Apartado 1143, E-28800 Alcala de Henares, Spain
Tel: +34 1-885-5060 /+34 1-885-5061,
Fax: +34 1-885-5062, Email: [email protected]
E. Bervalds
Latvian Academy of Sciences,
19 Turgeneva Street, LV-1524 Riga, Latvia
Tel: +371 7228321, Fax: +371 7821153,
Email: [email protected]
Local, Regional and Global Policies 117

F. Clette
Observatoire Royal de Belgique,
Département de Physique Solaire,
Avenue Circulaire 3, B-1180 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: +32 23730233, Fax: +32 23730224
Email: [email protected]
R. J. Cohen
The University of Manchester, Jodrell Bank Observatory,
Macclesfield, Cheshire SK11 9DL, UK
Tel: +44 1477-571321, Fax: +44 1477-571618,
Email: [email protected]
L. M. dos Santos Rocha Cupido
Centro de Física dos Plasmas, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Avenida Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Tel: +351 234 187877, Fax: +351 234 315885,
Email: [email protected]
B. A. Doubinski
Scientific Secretary, Scientific Council on Radio Astronomy
of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow, centre, GSP-3, Marx Avenue 18, Russia
Tel: +7 095-2028286, Fax: +7 095-2038414,
Email: [email protected]
I. Fejes
FOMI Satellite Geodetic Observatory,
P.O.Box 546, H-1373 Budapest, Hungary
Tel: +36 27-374-980, Fax: +36 27-374-982,
Email: [email protected]
E. Fürst
Max-Planck Institut für Radio Astronomie,
Radioobservatorium Effelsberg,
D-53902 Bad Münstereifel, Germany
Tel: +49 2257-301-120, Fax: +49 2257-301-69,
Email: [email protected]
A. Jessner
Max-Planck Institut für Radio Astronomie,
Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
Tel: +49 228-525-127, Fax: +49 228-525-229,
Email: [email protected]
118 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

K. Jiricka
Astronomical Observatory,
25165 Ondrejov, Czech Republic
Tel: +420 204-620154, Fax: +420 204-620110,
Email: [email protected]
M. Lindqvist
Onsala Space Observatory,
SE-43992 Onsala, Sweden
Tel: +46 31-7725508, Fax: +46 31-7725590,
Email: [email protected]
I. Küçük
Erciyes University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department
of Astronomy and Space Sciences,
Talas Yolu, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey
Tel: +90 352-437-49-01/33110, Fax: +90 352-437-49-33,
Email: [email protected]
R. P. Millenaar
Netherlands Foundation for Radio Astronomy,
P.O. Box 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, Netherlands
Tel: +31 521-595100, Fax: +31 521-597332,
Email: [email protected]
C. A. Monstein
Radio Astronomy Group, Institute of Astronomy,
ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
Tel: +41 1-632 42 24, Fax: +41 1-6321205,
Email: [email protected]
D. Morris
Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimétrique, IRAM,
300 rue de la Piscine, Domaine universitaire de Grenoble,
38406 St-Martin-d’Hères cedex, France
Tel: +33 4 76 82 49 30, Fax: +33 4 76 51 59 38,
Email: [email protected]
J. P. V. Poiares Baptista
ESTEC,
Postbus 299, 2200 AG Noordwijk, Netherlands
Tel: +31 71-5656565, Fax: +31 71-5654999,
Email: [email protected]
J. Ritakari
Metsähovi Radio Observatory,
Metsähovintie 114, FIN-02540 Kylmaelae, Finland
Tel: +358 9-2564831, Fax: +358 9-2564531,
Email: [email protected]
Local, Regional and Global Policies 119

P. Scott
Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, Cavendish Laboratory,
Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK
Tel: +44 1223 337306, Fax: +44 1223 354 599,
Email: [email protected]
J. B. Usowicz
Toru Centre for Astronomy, Department of Radio Observatory,
Gagarina 11, 87-100 Toru, Poland
Tel: +48 56-62511651, Fax: +48 56-62511651,
Email: [email protected]
W. van Driel
Observatoire de Paris, GEPI,
5 place Jules Janssen, 92195 Meudon cedex, France
Tel: +33 1 45 07 77 31, Fax: +33 1 45 07 77 09,
Email: [email protected]
G. Wannberg
Deputy Director Technical, EISCAT Scientific Association,
Box 812, S-98128 Kiruna, Sweden
Tel: +46 980-79153, Fax: +46 980-79161,
Email: [email protected]
Frequency Manager: L. Alexe
Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy,
P.O. Box 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, Netherlands
Tel: +31 521-595100, Fax: +31 521-597332,
Email: [email protected]
Clearing house: Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy
P.O. Box 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, Netherlands
Tel: +31 521-595100, Fax: +31 521-597332,
Email: [email protected]
NSF liaison officer: T. E. Gergely
National Science Foundation, 4201 Wilson blvd, Rm 1045,
Arlington VA 22230, USA
Tel: +1 703-306-1823, Fax: +1 703-306-0525,
Email: [email protected]

WWW homepage CRAF: http://www.astron.nl/craf

ESF: http://www.esf.org
120 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

8.3. IUCAF and its Worldwide Efforts

At the 1957 General Assembly of URSI the problems of protecting Radio Astronomy
were pretty well defined. But radio astronomers could not define specifically what they
wanted to do. Actions taken by URSI resulted in representatives of URSI, the IAU and
COSPAR attending WARC-59 in Geneva.
In 1960 under the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions, ICSU –
a Unesco related body – the InterUnion-Commission on the Allocation of Frequencies,
IUCAF was formed to continue this work for all three bodies. Its parent organisations
are the International Union of Radio Science, URSI, the International Astronomical
Union, IAU, and the Committee on Space Research, COSPAR. In 2000, ICSU was
transformed into the International Council for Science and IUCAF became the Scientif-
ic Committee on the Allocation of Frequencies for Radio Astronomy and Space Science,
while retaining its original acronym IUCAF, and remaining under the auspices of ICSU.
IUCAF can participate in ITU conferences if it is invited. This holds for a union like the
IAU too. At the conferences IUCAF has observer status. IUCAF does not carry out stud-
ies as a group, but it invites individuals to do so.
In the 1950s and 1960s many things were different from today: many people recog-
nised the novelty and perspective of the science of Radio Astronomy. And the spectrum
was more or less open. The IAU President of the day, Jan Oort, could speak directly to
the 1959 WARC on the importance of the hydrogen 21-cm line and secure the first
radio frequency allocation for passive use. The first radio molecule, OH, could receive
immediate ITU recognition at the Space WARC-63.
Since 1979 there has been a growth of interference from satellites. The radio spec-
trum has become big business. The possibility of time-sharing has been raised. Radio
astronomy has sometimes found itself facing powerful political and economic forces.
IUCAF’s role has had to grow as a result, although its official mandate remains the
same.
The mandate of IUCAF is twofold:
1. to study and coordinate the requirements for radio frequency allocations for Radio
Astronomy and space science, and make these requirements known to the nation-
al and international bodies responsible for frequency allocations; and
2. to take action aimed at ensuring that harmful interference is not caused to Radio
Astronomy or space science, operating within the allocated bands, by other radio
services.
9.
The Protection of Radio Astronomy
and International Law
122 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

The allocation of frequency bands to the Radio Astronomy Service is regulated by

the International Telecommunication Union, ITU, in its Radio Regulations, RR. The
Radio Astronomy Service has been allocated a number of frequency bands (Table 3).
The status of the allocation can be primary-exclusive for passive frequency use
(i.e. Radio Astronomy and other passive applications), primary shared (with active
services), secondary, or “notification of use” by footnote urging Administrations to
protect Radio Astronomy (No. 5.149). In practice only a primary allocation has some
protection status. When the allocation has a lower status, coordination with the prop-
er Administration is required. The different natures of “active” and “passive” servic-
es lead to a compatibility problem, which may result in harmful interference being
suffered by the passive service. It should be noted that a passive service can never
cause interference. This is in particular a problem for Radio Astronomy, which uses
receivers with extremely high sensitivities.
Recognising the need to protect Radio Astronomy observations, the ITU-R has
adopted criteria for the protection of Radio Astronomy. These criteria have been docu-
mented in ITU-R Recommendation RA.769 and also published in the ITU Handbook
on Radio Astronomy. The policies of the national Administrations on frequency man-
agement, protection of services, etc., are based on the ITU Radio Regulations, which
have the status of an international treaty. The status of other ITU-R documentation is
that of “recommendation” or weaker. Usually, a national Administration has published
its view on the use of the radio spectrum in a national Frequency distribution plan. This
plan is only valid for frequency use within the territory of that sovereign State. Because
states are sovereign bodies, this national Frequency distribution plan may deviate from
the ITU Radio Regulations, but only within the limits explicitly imposed on the inter-
national level.
A national Administration gives licences to use part of the frequency spectrum, and
when necessary it seeks international coordination. For example, coordination between
Radio Astronomy stations operating in the band 608 - 614 MHz (channel 38 according
to the Stockholm 1961 Convention) and proposed broadcasting stations was done in a
number of countries to enable Radio Astronomy observations in this band.
This licensing, supervision over coordination, frequency distribution and manage-
ment is a public activity of a state, i.e. dealing with the rules in the relation between the
state and its citizens. Coordination itself is subject to the rights and duties of individ-
ual legal personalities. This activity is subject to private law.

9.1. Public, Private; Subject, Object

Public actors in the legal sense are states and their parts (e.g. a province). Intergov-
ernmental organisations are also counted in this category (e.g. the United Nations Orga-
nization). In public law, the legal subjects (see below) make their own rules.
Private actors in the legal sense are individual legal persons: individual people, non-
governmental organisations, companies, foundations.
The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 123

A legal subject not only has rights and duties under a particular legal regime, but can
also itself act on them. This is not the case for legal objects, such as animals, children,
or other categories of “disabled” people.

9.2. Going International

International Law deals with the mutual relations between sovereign states. States are
considered as legal subjects. International law is public law. Individual persons, non-gov-
ernmental organisations, companies, and foundations under international law are legal
objects, not subjects. For example, if a person of one state suffers from a problem in
another state, this problem becomes a public case between the states in terms of interna-
tional law. The abstract idea of personality of a state is the leading principle.
A treaty rests on an agreement between states as “legal persons”. A treaty has a public
status, not a private one.
Non-governmental organisations are private actors (= not public) in the legal sense. In
terms of international law, they are legal objects. However, there are also organisations
for which the legal status is deduced from the legal status of the actors forming them.
Such organisations can be recognised as public actors when they are powerful, e.g. the
European Union. Crucial in this respect is the recognition by the states which are not
members of that organisation.
Relations between legal person A of country K and legal person B of country L and an
event in which both play a role in country M are considered as private cases. Usually the
judge in country K and L will refer the case to country M. In that country the case is con-
sidered in accordance with local private law.
In international law there are basically two sources of international law: customary law
and treaties. Customary law rests on commonly observed practice. An example is the
extent of the territorial waters claimed by a country. If customary law has it at 20 km, that
becomes the rule.
A treaty is the result of explicit agreement between states. A treaty is binding only on
the treaty-partners, i.e. the states that ratified it. For treaty partners, national law has to
follow international law. This is observed in Europe, for example, where the European
Union prescribed unification and harmonisation of telecommunication regulations: the
national telecommunication laws have to conform to this prescription. Although in prac-
tice its role is rather limited, the United Nations Organization (or specifically for telecom-
munications, in principle at least, possibly the ITU) is potentially the global law-giver.

9.3. Evaluating and Judging

Treaties are developed on the basis of the following principles:

• good faith
• not to do any harm to any partner involved in the treaty.
124 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Events have to be judged and evaluated as to whether they conform to or are in con-
flict with the law given in a treaty. If a conflict with the international law is observed,
sanctions are needed.
However, sanctions are usually extremely difficult; except in a few cases, such as in
international policing operations or economic sanctions, they do not exist. Usually the
solutions of these problems are the result of political effort.
In terms of telecommunication, checking whether the ITU Radio Regulations are
violated, or harmful interference is suffered undeserved, is feasible and is done. But
sanctions are usually not possible, unless a private case can be made and referred to
action at a national level.

9.4. Protection of Radio Astronomy

On the global scale IUCAF (see Section 8.3) coordinates efforts for the protection of
radio spectrum bands used by the Radio Astronomy Service and other passive applica-
tions. In Europe, this work is done by CRAF (see Section 8.2). In the USA, radio
astronomers have found each other for this work in the Committee on Radio
Frequencies of the US National Research Council, CORF, and finally there is the Radio
Astronomy Frequency Committee in the Asia-Pacific region, RAFCAP. .
Although IUCAF is an ICSU commission it has no public status. This is because
ICSU itself is not a public actor. The UNO and the ITU are public actors in internation-
al law. The ITU is a public actor since only sovereign states are full members (= capi-
tal-M Member, or Treaty Members).
The same distinction holds at a regional level. The European Science Foundation is
not a public actor, nor is CRAF. Note that CORF is a private actor within the USA.
This implies that an agreement between IUCAF or CRAF with an active spectrum
user or users (e.g. an MSS operator) has no legal status in terms of international law.
Such an agreement has only a private character. Only when such an agreement is used
as a model for an agreement between a national Administration and the active frequen-
cy user(s) can it obtain a status in international law. An agreement between a radio
observatory and an active spectrum user or users has a private status and its legal sta-
tus depends on the nature of the agreement and national legislation only. A local agree-
ment has no international status.
An example: in 1993 IUCAF and the GLONASS Administration came to an agree-
ment which implied that the GLONASS operations respect the radio astronomical use
of the frequency band 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz in such a manner that the transmission fre-
quencies of the GLONASS satellites will have been moved away out of this band by
the year 2005. This agreement has no status in terms of international law by itself. It
acquires this status only when it has been taken over by a national Administration as a
model for an agreement between this Administration and the Russian one.
What possibilities do radio astronomers have to claim protection at the local, region-
al or global level? And to what extent?
The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 125

In close cooperation with national Administrations it may be possible to achieve

something, either locally or regionally (via regional public actors) and globally (via
global public actors or related organisations, such as the ITU and its sectors).
Radio astronomers request protection against terrestrial interference, Earth-to-space
interference, space-to-Earth interference and space-to-space interference. The latter
two cases are the most difficult to address and to resolve.
In terms of international law, radio astronomers can refer to treaties to claim protec-
tion. The national Administrations play a key role in this respect. In some local situa-
tions in which coordination between the Radio Astronomy Service and other services
is required or desired, agreements between radio astronomers and active spectrum users
can be obtained. These agreements should be reached in good coordination with the
national Administration, otherwise radio astronomers undermine their case.
Furthermore, these agreements or “memoranda of understanding” should obey the
legal principles as given above (see Section 9.3) and conform to the current national
and international legislation, i.e. the ITU Radio Regulations. The legal status of such
agreements is very limited and absent in terms of international law.
As mentioned above, the ITU Radio Regulations have the status of a treaty, since
they are an explicit agreement between states. That is not the end-of-story, particularly
when spaceborne systems cause interference to the Radio Astronomy Service. And
given the increasing threat from spaceborne systems to Radio Astronomy this requires
accurate consideration:
A treaty with a status prior to the ITU Radio Regulations is the 1967 Treaty on
Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, usually known by its short title,
the Outer Space Treaty, OST. This is a United Nations treaty and it is accorded a high-
er status on the basis of it being formulated within the most fundamental world organ-
isation, and seen as the “Magna Carta” for space. But this interpretation is subject to
dispute.

9.4.1. Outer Space Treaty 1967, OST

Some articles of the OST are relevant for the protection of Radio Astronomy:

Article I:
The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial
bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irre-
spective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the
province of all mankind.
Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be free for explo-
ration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind, on a basis of equali-
ty and in accordance with international law, and there shall be free access to all areas
of celestial bodies.
There shall be freedom of scientific investigation in outer space, including the
126 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

moon and other celestial bodies, and States shall facilitate and encourage internation-
al cooperation in such investigation.

Comments to Article I:
This article is supposed to represent the “common interests” principle. The “com-
mon interests” principle refers to the theory of the equitable sharing of whatever ben-
efits may be gathered from the exploration and use of outer space – equitably, that
is, not only between states operating in outer space, but also taking into account
those states not so advanced technologically.
The question as to what “equitable sharing” means in the context of the discus-
sions regarding the utilisation of the geostationary orbit is still a matter of continu-
ing political negotiations between the Treaty members of the ITU. Apart from the
utilisation of outer space by the specific category of telecommunication satellites, as
regulated in the 1992 ITU Convention, there are other forms of utilisation of outer
space not so well covered by international agreements: e.g. remote sensing satellites
and direct broadcasting satellites. A customary rule of international law is in devel-
opment.
The term “exploration” has primarily a scientific meaning. In its turn, “use” is not
the equivalent of “appropriation” in the legal sense (OST Article II) though it may be
so in the scientific sense.
The rationale of the provision “... shall be the province of all mankind...” is to aim
at equitable sharing of the benefits to be derived from outer space. Outer space is
considered to be the “common heritage of mankind”, on the basis of which rule of
law the benefits to be gathered from outer space must be equally shared (Reijnen,
1992, p.88).

Article VI:
States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international responsibility for national activ-
ities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such
activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities,
and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provi-
sions set forth in the present Treaty. When activities are carried on in outer space,
including the moon and other celestial bodies, by an international organisation,
responsibility for compliance with this Treaty shall be borne both by the internation-
al organisation and by the States Parties to the Treaty participating in such organisa-
tion.

Comments to Article VI:

This international responsibility applies to states, governmental agencies, non-
governmental entities and international organisations alike, and is, in the context of
the OST, restricted to national activities in outer space. The topic of “state responsi-
bility” has, from the beginning of discussions on the matter in the UN International
The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 127

Law Commission, ILC, been located in the field of environmental harm (Reijnen,
1992, p.110).
Non-governmental entities in outer space are defined as those entities which are
not funded by and not acting on behalf of their respective governments. Such enti-
ties can be private, commercial enterprises, or e.g. scientific communities either of
national or international composition. Assuming internal consistency of the UN
space treaties, there is evidence that “the appropriate State Party” is the state of reg-
istry (OST Article V). However, it can also be the state which launches or procures
the launching (OST Article VII). By definition a launching state is a state which
launches or procures the launching of a space object, or a state from whose territory
or facility a space object is launched. The launching state need not necessarily be the
state of registry. Within the context of OST it is considered that a correct assumption
might be that the “appropriate State Party” is the state of nationality of the non-gov-
ernmental entity. In the case of a multinational private enterprise it would mean that
the various national partners of the multinational private enterprise choose, by com-
mon agreement, domicile in one of the constituting partner countries of the enter-
prise. This stipulation bears evidence of the fact that, in space law as a branch of
international law, it is the state that has been accorded a central position, and that, in
the matter of the utilisation of outer space, the general principles of international law
apply (Reijnen, 1992, p.113f).

Article VII:
Each State Party to the Treaty that launches or procures the launching of an object
into outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and each State Party
from whose territory or facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for
damage to another State Party to the Treaty or to its natural or juridical persons by
such objects or its component parts on the Earth, in air or in outer space, including
the moon and other celestial bodies.

Comment to Article VII:

This article is, in matters of liability, the counterpart of Article VI on responsibility.

Article VIII:
A State Party to the Treaty on whose registry an object launched into outer space
is carried shall retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and over any person-
nel thereof, while in outer space or on a celestial body. Ownership of objects
launched into outer space, including objects landed or constructed on a celestial
body, and of their component parts, is not affected by their presence in outer space
or on a celestial body or by their return to the Earth. Such objects or component parts
found beyond the limits of the State Party to the Treaty on whose registry they are
carried shall be returned to that State Party, which shall, upon request, furnish iden-
tifying data prior to their return.
128 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Comments to Article VIII:

From the text of this article, the central position of the state of registry in space
law is evident. Only in this Treaty does one find the obligation (“shall”) of a state to
exert jurisdiction and control over an object launched into outer space if that object
is registered in that state’s register (Reijnen, 1992, p.116).
The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space states in its Item 7 in addition:
“The State on whose registry an object launched into outer space is carried shall
retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and any personnel thereon, while in
outer space. Ownership of objects launched into outer space, and of their component
parts, is not affected by their passage through outer space or by their return to the
Earth. Such objects or component parts found beyond the limits of the State of reg-
istry shall be returned to that State, which shall furnish identifying data upon request
prior to return.”

Article IX:
In the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bod-
ies, States Parties to the Treaty shall be guided by the principle of cooperation and
mutual assistance and shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding interests of all
other States Parties to the Treaty. States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of
outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of
them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the envi-
ronment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and,
where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose. If a State Party to
the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment is planned by it or its
nationals in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, would cause
potentially harmful interference with activities of other States Parties in the peaceful
exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, it
shall undertake appropriate international consultation before proceeding with any such
activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an
activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with
activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and
other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

Comments to Article IX:

States parties to the Treaty have an obligation (“shall”) to undertake appropriate
international consultations if any planned activity or experiment would cause poten-
tially harmful interference with activities of other states utilising outer space. The
formulation entails that, in such cases, the consultations take place prior to the
planned activity or experiment. There is, so far as known, no example in over thirty
years of space-flight that such consultation has ever been undertaken. Though that
The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 129

conduct (or lack of it) may be attributed to the absence of experiments deemed suffi-
ciently potentially harmful, the history of space-flight – as far as known – shows many
examples of factually harmful activities in space.
In spite of this, there is, neither in general international law nor in space law to be
found any norm more specific than the one of Article IX, which obliges states to con-
sult each other prior to the planning of activities in space of a potentially harmful
nature.
The last full sentence of Article IX is slightly different: it contains possibly a per-
mission (“may request”) not an obligation on, to states to request consultation should
the activities or experiment(s) planned by a state party entail potentially harmful inter-
ference with similar activities of another state (Reijnen, 1992, p.130f).

9.4.2. Liability Convention 1971

A second specific convention based on the Outer Space Treaty 1967 is the Conven-
tion on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, known by its short
title as the Liability Convention 1971. This convention was based in particular on OST
Articles VI and VII, as regards international responsibility and liability of states for
their national activities in space.
Articles of this Liability Convention relevant for the protection of Radio Astronomy
frequencies are:

Article 1:
For the purpose of this Convention:
(a) the term “damage” means loss of life, personal injury or other impairments of
health; or loss of or damage of property of States or of persons, natural or
juridical, or property of international intergovernmental organisations;
(b) the term “launching” includes attempted launching;
(c) the term “launching State” means:
(i) A State which launches or procures the launching of a space object;
(ii) A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched;
(d) the term “space object” includes component parts of a space object as well as
its launch vehicle and parts thereof.

Article 2:
A launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage
caused by its space object on the surface of the Earth or to aircraft flight.

Comment to Article 2:
The concept of absolute liability may be supposed to follow that of general inter-
national law, as Article III of OST stipulates that states parties to the Outer Space
Treaty shall carry on activities in outer space “in accordance with international law”
(Reijnen, 1992, p.184).
130 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Article 5.1:
Whenever two or more States jointly launch a space object, they shall be jointly
and severally be liable for any damage caused.

Article 5.3:
A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched shall be regard-
ed as a participant in a joint launching.

9.4.3. Registration Convention 1974

The second specific convention based on the Outer Space Treaty 1967 is the
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1974 (known by its
short title as the Registration Convention) in particular its Articles VIII, X and XI. These
articles deal, respectively, with the obligation of states on whose registry an object is
launched into outer space is carried, to retain jurisdiction and control over such object and
over any personnel thereof (Article VIII); the opportunity to observe the flights of space
objects (Article X); to inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the public and
the international scientific community, of the nature, conduct, location and results of such
activities (Article XI).
On 20 December 1961, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1721
(XVI), in which it is stated that “the United Nations should provide a focal point for inter-
national cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space”. This Assembly,
furthermore,
1. Calls upon States launching objects into orbit or beyond to furnish information
promptly to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, through the
Secretary-General, for the registration of launchings;
2. Requests the Secretary-General to maintain a public registry of the information fur-
nished in accordance with paragraph 1 above;
3. Requests the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, in cooperation with
the Secretary-General in making full use of the functions and resources of the
Secretariat:
(a) to maintain close contact with governmental and non-governmental organizations
concerned with outer space matters;
(b) to provide for exchange of such information relating to outer space activities as
Governments may supply on a voluntary basis, supplementing but not duplicat-
ing existing technical and scientific exchanges.

The exchange of data started during the International Geophysical Year in 1959. After
1959, the rocket satellite data centres became the responsibility of the Committee on Space
Research, COSPAR, of the ICSU. COSPAR distributes the information via Spacewarn.
The Spacewarn Bulletin can be found on the World Wide Web under: http://nssdc.
gsfc.nasa.gov/spacewarn/spacewarn.html. The format of the information is given in the
Manual 1958 and COSPAR Information Bulletin 1962 (Reijnen, 1992, p.213f).
The Protection of Radio Astronomy and International Law 131

9.4.4. Additional Comments

Given the increasing threat of harmful interference to Radio Astronomy by transmis-
sions by satellites and that satellites used for international direct broadcasting con-
tribute significantly to this, it is interesting to know that in the Principles Governing the
Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broad-
casting (1972) it is stated clearly that:

In order to promote international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of

outer space, States conducting or authorising activities in the field of international
direct television broadcasting by satellite should inform the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, to the greatest extent possible, of the nature of such activities. On
receiving this information, the Secretary-General should disseminate it immediately
and effectively to the relevant specialised agencies, as well as to the public and the
international scientific community (item 12).
And:
With respect to the unavoidable overspill of the radiation of the satellite signals, the
relevant instruments of the International Telecommunication Union shall be exclusive-
ly applicable (item 15).

The ITU itself, its Constitution and Convention, and the ITU Radio Regulations are
considered “Related International Agreements”. This implies that international law at
its “highest level” should in the context of the current problem be OST, while the ITU
documents, treaties and agreements, act as an appendix to this law. Therefore, the ITU
Radio Regulations and related documents should be read in the context of OST as far
as space applications are concerned.
For the protection of Radio Astronomy frequencies the key articles are Articles VI
and VII of the OST. It should be noted that in OST “damage” is a generic term and
understood in the sense that the victim defines its damage, just like the patient tells the
doctor that he has pain (not the other way around). However, the definition of damage
is subject to the general interpretation as intended by the drafters and the participating
states, subject to reason and ultimately also subject to a decision of a judicial body
called upon to judge a particular case.
In the case of Radio Astronomy this may imply that the definition of “harmful inter-
ference to Radio Astronomy” and “level of harmful interference to Radio Astronomy”
needs to be included in the ITU Radio Regulations (which is at present not the case).

9.5. Consequences

Working on the protection of Radio Astronomy observations, radio astronomers rep-

resented by IUCAF, CRAF and CORF, should not only be basing their arguments on
the RR and related ITU documentation, but they should be aware of the protection on
the basis of the OST. The OST contains no restriction concerning the kind of explo-
132 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

ration of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies: this can be done
by launching space vehicles, but also done by radio astronomical techniques. It uses the
term “exploration” only in a generic way. The same holds for “damage”. However, it is
relevant that IUCAF is working on the inclusion of the definition of “harmful interfer-
ence to the Radio Astronomy Service” in the ITU Radio Regulations. At present this
term is not defined.

For IUCAF, CRAF and CORF this situation should be kept in mind and wherever
appropriate, Administrations should be made aware of their responsibilities regarding
the OST.
10.
Recommendations

Based on the material presented in this Handbook, a number of recommendations

should be considered for the protection for the Radio Astronomy Service:

• To protect the bands allocated to the Radio Astronomy Service on a primary basis
to the levels given in ITU-R Recommendation RA.769. Explicit reference to
this recommendation should be included in the ITU Radio Regulations.

• To adopt a definition of a “passive service” in the ITU Radio Regulations.

• To improve Article 29 of the Radio Regulations in order to make passive frequency

use better understood.

• To define in the ITU Radio Regulations the term “detrimental interference”,

which is used in ITU-R Recommendation RA.769.

• To improve communication/contact between the radio astronomical institutes

and Administrations on the one hand and “industry” on the other hand.

• To pay attention in frequency allocation procedures that detrimental interference

is avoided in existing passive bands.

• To avoid “passive” bands being shared with “active” services.

134 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy
11.
Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric
Remote Sensing Observatories
in Europe
136 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Table 7 gives the locations of radio astronomy observatories in Europe, and Table 8
gives the locations of atmospheric remote sensing stations. In Section 11.1 the main
research programmes are indicated briefly, while the frequency bands used by the Radio
Astronomy Service in Europe are listed in Table 8.
Table 7: European Radio Astronomy Observatories

Country Place East Latitude Height Comment

Longitude above sea
level (m)
Austria Lustbühel 15°29'34" 47°04'03" 483
Belgium Humain 05°15'19" 50°11'31" 293
Czech Rep. Ondrejov 14°47'01" 49°54'38" 533
Finland Metsähovi 24°23'17" 60°13'04" 61
Sodankyla 26°37'48" 67°21'36" 197 EISCAT
France Bordeaux -00°31'37" 44°50'10" 73
Nançay 02°12'00" 47°23'00" 150
Plateau de Bure 05°54'26" 44°38'01" 2552
Germany Effelsberg 06°53'00" 50°31'32" 369
Tremsdorf 13°08'12" 52°17'06" 35
Wettzell 12°52'39" 49°08'43" 648
Greece Pentele 23°51'48" 38°02'54" 509
Thermopyles 22°41'12" 38°49'27"
Hungary Penc 19°16'53" 47°47'22" 283
Italy Medicina 11°38'43" 44°31'14" 44
Noto 14°59'21" 36°52'34" 30
Sardinia 09°14'40" 39°29'50" 650
Trieste 13°52'30" 45°38'30" 400
Latvia Ventspils 21°51'17" 57°33'12" 15
Netherlands Borger-Odoorn 06°52' 52°55' 15
Dwingeloo 06°23'48" 52°48'48" 25
Westerbork 06°36'15" 52°55'01" 16
Norway Longyearbyen 16°03' 78°09' EISCAT
Ny Ålesund 11°55' 48" 78°55'12" 0 VLBI
Tromsø 19°13'48" 68°34'12" 85 EISCAT
Poland Kraków 19°49'36" 50°03'18" 314
Toruń 18°33'30" 52°54'48" 100
Portugal Espiunca -08°13'52" 40°59'57" 205
Russia Badari 102°13'16" 51°45'27" 832
Dmitrov 37°27'00" 56°26'00" 200
Kalyazin 37°54'01" 57°13'22" 195
Medveziy Ozera 37°57'06" 55°52'06" 239
Pushchino 37°40'00" 54°49'00" 200
Svetloe 29°46'54" 61°05' 80
Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric Remote Sensing Observatories 137

Russia Zelenchukskaya 41°35'32" 43°49'53" 1000

Zimenki 43°57'00" 56°18'00" 200
Spain Pico Veleta -03°23'34" 37°03'58" 2870
Robledo -04°14'57" 40°25'38" 761
Yebes -03°06'00" 40°31'30" 931
Sweden Kiruna 20°26'24" 67°52'12" 418 EISCAT
Onsala 11°55'35" 57°23'45" 10
Switzerland Bleien (Zürich) 08°33'06" 47°22'36" 469
Turkey Kayseri 36°17'58" 38°59'45" 1045
Ukraine Evpatoriya 33°11' 45°11'
Kharkov 36°56'30" 49°38'40" 150
Lvov 23°49'33" 51°28'32"
Odessa 30°16'24" 46°23'51"
Poltava 34°49'36" 49°37'57"
Simeiz 34°01'00" 44°32'06" 676
Zmiev 36°21'20" 49°39'50"
United Cambridge 00°02'20" 52°09'59" 24
Kingdom Darnhall -02°32'03" 53°09'22" 47
Defford -02°08'35" 52°06'01" 25
Jodrell Bank -02°18'26" 53°14'10" 78
Knockin -02°59'45" 52°47'24" 66
Pickmere -02°26'38" 53°17'18" 35

Table 8: European Stations for Atmospheric Remote Sensing

Country Place East Latitude Height Comment

Longitude above sea
level (m)
France Lannemezan -00°06'07" 43°02'13" 597 passive
Pic du Midi -00°08'42" 42°56'12" 2861 passive
Sodankyla 26°37'48" 67°21'36" 197 active
Italy Testa Grigia 07°42'28" 45°56'03" 3315 passive
(Plateau Rosa)
Norway Longyearbyen 16°03' 78°09' active
Ny Ålesund 11°55' 48" 78°55' 12" 0 passive
Tromsø 19°13'48" 68°34'12" 85 active
Sweden Kiruna 20°26'24" 67°52'12" 418 active and
passive
Switzerland Bern 07°26'19" 46°57'04" 577 passive
Gornergrat 07°56' 45°59' 3135 passive
Jungfraujoch 07°59'06" 46°32'51" 3584 passive
Payerne 06°56'38" 46°48'44" 498 passive
138 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

11.1. Main Research in European Radio Astronomy

Austria
Lustbühel: • Solar Radio Astronomy

Belgium
Humain: • Solar Radio Astronomy

Czech Rep.
Ondrejov: • Solar Radio Astronomy

Finland
Metsähovi: • Solar Radio Astronomy
• Active Galactic Nuclei monitoring
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Sodankyla (EISCAT): • Aeronomy

France
Bordeaux: • Galactic research (stellar envelopes, interstellar medium)
• Near extra-galactic research (molecules, star formation)
• Solar system (comets)
• Aeronomy and terrestrial atmosphere (H2O, O3, ClO)
Lannemezan • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere
Nançay: • Extra-galactic radio astronomy (large scale structure,
physics of galaxies)
• Galactic research (pulsar timing, circumstellar envelopes)
• Cometary research
• Solar and planetary radio astronomy (Sun, planets)
Pic du Midi • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere
Plateau de Bure: • Galactic research (circumstellar envelopes, interstellar
medium: molecules and dust)
• Near extra-galactic research (molecules and dust,
star formation)
• Solar system (comets)
• Aeronomy and terrestrial atmosphere (H2O, O3, ClO)
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry at mm wavelengths

Germany
Effelsberg: • Galactic and extra-galactic radio astronomy
• Pulsar research
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry
• Interstellar molecules
Tremsdorf: • Solar Radio Astronomy
Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric Remote Sensing Observatories 139

Italy
Medicina: • Very Long Baseline Interferometry: astronomy and geodesy
• Pulsar research and pulsar searches
• 22 GHz observations of masers
• Molecular spectroscopy
• Receiver development
Noto: • Very Long Baseline Interferometry [important node in the
geodynamic network]
• Technological research on correlators
Testa Griega • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere
Trieste: • Solar Radio Astronomy

Netherlands
Borger-Odoorn • LOFAR central core
• Galactic and extragalactic radio astronomy
• Pulsar and transition research
• Low frequency radio astronomy
• Epoch of reionization research
Dwingeloo: • Technological research for radio astronomy
instrumentation
Westerbork: • Galactic and extra-galactic radio astronomy
• Pulsar research
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry

Norway
Ny Ålesund: • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere, Very Long Baseline
Interferometry
Tromsø (EISCAT): • Aeronomy

Poland
Kraków: • Solar radio astronomy
Toruń: • Very Long Baseline Interferometry

Spain
Pico Veleta: • Galactic research (circumstellar envelopes, interstellar
medium: molecules and dust)
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry at mm wavelengths
• Near extragalactic research (molecules and dust,
star formation)
Robledo: • Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Yebes: • mm-wave spectroscopy of interstellar and circumstellar
matter
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry
140 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Sweden
Kiruna (EISCAT): • Aeronomy
• Interplanetary scintillation
Onsala: • Galactic and extra-galactic molecular line radio astronomy
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry

Switzerland
Bern: • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere
Bleien (Zürich): • Solar and stellar radio astronomy
Gornergrat: • Galactic research (circumstellar envelopes, interstellar
medium: molecules and dust)
Jungfraujoch: • Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere
Payerne: • Meteorology, Aeronomy, Earth atmosphere

Turkey
Kayseri: • Galactic research (monitoring SiO masers (86 GHz),
molecular clouds)
• Clusters of galaxies
• Pulsars and supernova remnants

United Kingdom
Cambridge: • Low frequency surveys
• Scintillation studies, solar wind
• Galactic and extra-galactic radio astronomy
• Pulsars
• Cosmic microwave background
• Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN)
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Darnhall: • Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN)
Defford: • Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN), Very Long
Baseline Interferometry
Jodrell Bank: • Galactic and extra-galactic radio astronomy
• Pulsars
• Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN)
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Knockin: • Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN)
Pickmere: • Long baseline interferometry (MERLIN)
Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric Remote Sensing Observatories 141

Table 9: Frequency Bands used by the Radio Astronomy Service in Europe

Band number Allocation Status Country

as used ITU- RR
in Section 4
1 13.36 - 13.41 MHz primary/active F1, NL25, UKR
2 25.55 - 25.67 MHz primary. excl. F1, NL25, UKR
3 37.5 - 38.25 MHz secondary F1, GB2, NL25, RUS
4 73.0 - 74.6 MHz notification of use F1, NL25, RUS
79.25 - 80.25 MHz - F3, GB2, NL25,
109.0 - 113.0 MHz CH4, NL25, RUS
5 150.05 - 153.0 MHz primary/active CH4, F3, GB, NL25, P, PL,
RUS
222.0 - 226.0 MHz - CH4, EC5, F3, NL25, P23
242.0 - 246.0 MHz - CH4, F3, GB6, NL25, P23
6 322.0 - 328.6 MHz primary/active CH, F3, GB, I, LT, NL, P,
PL, RUS
7 406.1 - 410.0 MHz primary/active B, CH, D, F3, GB, I, NL,
PL7, RUS
485.0 - 515.0 MHz - CH4, EC5, P23, PL7
8 608.0 - 614.0 MHz primary. in R2 B, CH4, D, F, GB, I, NL,
P23, PL7, RUS
secondary in R1/R3
926.0 - 934.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, F9, GB10, PL7
927.0 - 935.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, EC5, F9, PL7
962.0 - 970.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, F9, GB6, PL7
9 1330.0 - 1400.0 MHz notification of use CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, TR24
10 1400.0 - 1427.0 MHz primary: passive CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
exclusive NL, PL, RUS, S, TR24
1400.0 - 1800.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, RUS, TR24
11 1610.6 - 1613.8 MHz primary/active CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, SP, TR24
1640.0 - 1693.0 MHz -8 CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, S, TR24
12 1660.0 - 1660.5 MHz primary/active CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, SP, TR24
12 1660.5 - 1668.0 MHz primary/passive CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, SP, TR24
12 1668.0 - 1670.0 MHz primary/active CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, SP, TR24
13 1718.8 - 1722.2 MHz secondary CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB, I,
NL, PL, RUS, S, SP, TR24
2120.0 - 2620.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, RUS, TR24
142 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

2215.0 - 2240.0 MHz -8 CH4, CZ22, NL, SP, TR24

2290.0 - 2300.0 MHz -8 CH4, CZ22, D, E, F, GB3,
I, NL, RUS, S11, SP, TR24
14 2655.0 - 2690.0 MHz secondary CH4, CZ22, D, F, GB,
RUS, TR24
15 2690.0 - 2700.0 MHz primary: passive CH4, D, F, GB, RUS, TR24
exclusive
16 3260.0 - 3267.0 MHz notification of use CH4, CZ22, D, F12, RUS,
S, TR24
16 3332.0 - 3339.0 MHz notification of use CH4, CZ22, D, F12, RUS,
S, TR24
16 3345.8 - 3352.5 MHz notification of use CH4, CZ22, D, F12, RUS,
S, TR24
4300.0 - 4900.0 MHz - CH4, CZ22, D13, I14, TR24
17-19 4800.0 - 4990.0 MHz secondary D, GB15, I, NL, RUS16, S,
TR24
20 4990.0 - 5000.0 MHz primary/active D, F, GB15, I, NL, S, TR24
- 5670.0 - 5790.0 MHz - RUS, TR24
- 6000.0 - 6100.0 MHz -8 GB, NL, SP, TR24
21 6650.0 - 6675.0 MHz -8 D, GB, I, NL, S11, TR24
8180.0 - 8580.0 MHz - SP, TR24
8200.0 - 8700.0 MHz - RUS, TR24
8208.0 - 8313.0 MHz -8 F, RUS, TR24
8387.0 - 8443.0 MHz -8 D, GB, I, TR24
8498.0 - 8573. 0 MHz -8 D, GB, I, S, TR24
9600.0 - 9620.0 MHz - GB17, TR24
22 9.7 - 10.7 GHz - GB17, TR24
22 10.60 - 10.68 GHz primary/active D, GB, I, LT, RUS, S, TR24
22 10.68 - 10.70 GHz primary: passive D, GB, I, LT, RUS, S, TR24
exclusive
11.7 - 12.25 GHz - D13, GB, I, TR24
12.25 - 14.25 GHz - D13, TR24
14.5 - 15.5 GHz - D18, GB19, I, TR24
23 14.47 - 14.50 GHz secondary D, GB, RUS
24 15.35 - 15.40 GHz primary: passive D, GB, I, RUS, S
exclusive
25 22.01 - 22.21 GHz notification of use D, F, FIN, GB, S, SP
22.085 - 22.385 GHz - RUS, S
26 22.21 - 22.50 GHz primary/active8 D, F, FIN, GB, I, RUS, S,
SP
27 22.81 - 22.86 GHz notification of use D, F, GB, I, S, SP
28 23.07 - 23.12 GHz notification of use D, F, GB, I, S, SP
Radio Astronomy and Atmospheric Remote Sensing Observatories 143

29 23.60 - 24.00 GHz primary: passive D, F, GB, I, RUS, S, SP

exclusive
29.0 - 37.0 GHz - S, SP
30 31.2 - 31.5 GHz notification of use D, GB, RUS, S20
31 31.5 - 31.8 GHz primary: passive D, GB, RUS, S20
exclusive
35.0 - 37.0 GHz - RUS, S
32 36.43 - 36.5 GHz notification of use FIN, RUS, S
33 42.5 - 43.5 GHz prim/active D, F, FIN, I, RUS, S, SP
43.5 - 47.0 GHz - S, SP
34 47.2 - 50.2 GHz -8 D, S, SP
34 48.94 - 49.04 GHz primary: shared D, S, SP
35 51.4 - 54.25 GHz notification of use
35 58.2 - 59.0 GHz notification of use
35 64.0 - 65.0 GHz notification of use
36 76.0 - 77.5 GHz primary D, F, S, SP
36 77.5 - 78.0 GHz secondary D, F, S, SP
36 78.0 - 79.0 GHz secondary F, FIN, S, SP
36 79.0 - 81.0 GHz primary FIN, S, SP
36 81.0 - 84.0 GHz primary FIN, S, SP
36 84.0 - 86.0 GHz primary FIN, S, SP
36 86.0 - 92.0 GHz primary: passive F, FIN, RUS, S, SP
exclusive
36 92.0 - 94.0 GHz primary F, FIN, S, SP
36 94.0 - 94.1 GHz secondary F, FIN, S, SP
36 94.1 - 95.0 GHz primary F, FIN, S, SP
36 95.0 - 100.0 GHz primary F, FIN, S, SP
36 100.0 - 102.0 GHz primary: passive F, FIN, S, SP
exclusive
36 102.0 - 105.0 GHz primary F, S, SP
36 105.0 - 109.5 GHz primary F, FIN, S13, SP
36 109.5 - 111.8 GHz primary: passive F, FIN, S, SP
exclusive
36 111.8 - 114.25 GHz primary F, FIN, S, SP
36 114.25 - 116.0 GHz primary: passive F, FIN, S, SP
exclusive
37 123.0 - 126.0 GHz secondary SP
37 126.0 - 130.0 GHz secondary SP
37 130.0 - 134.0 GHz primary SP
37 134.0 - 136.0 GHz secondary SP
37 136.0 - 141.0 GHz primary F, SP
37 141.0 - 148.5 GHz primary F, RUS, SP, CH
144 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

37 148.5 - 151.5 GHz primary: passive RUS, SP

exclusive
37 151.5 - 155.5 GHz primary RUS, SP
37 155.5 - 158.5 GHz primary SP
38 164.0 - 167.0 GHz notification of use SP
39 168.0 - 170.0 GHz notification of use SP
39 170.0 - 174.5.. GHz notification of use SP
39 182.0 - 185.0 GHz primary SP, CH
40 191.8 - 200.0 GHz notification of use SP, CH
40 200.0 - 202.0 GHz primary: passive SP, CH
exclusive
40 202.0 - 209.0 GHz primary: passive SP, CH
exclusive
40 209.0 - 217.0 GHz primary SP
40 217.0 - 226.0 GHz primary SP
40 226.0 - 231.5 GHz primary: passive F, SP, I
exclusive
41 241.0 - 248.0 GHz secondary F, SP
41 248.0 - 250.0 GHz primary: passive SP
exclusive
41 250.0 - 252.0 GHz primary SP
41 252.0 - 265.0 GHz primary SP, I
41 265.0 - 275.0 GHz primary D, F, I, SP
42 275.0 - 1000.0 GHz notification of use D, F, I, SP

Notes:
1. used frequencies: 10 - 90 MHz 15. 4000 - 8000 MHz: used for MERLIN,
2. Cambridge only spectral line, Very Long Baseline
3. used frequencies: 150 - 450 MHz Interferometry, broadband interferometry,
4. used frequencies 100 MHz - 4 GHz cosmic background
(~ 500 selected channels) 16. in Russia: 4600 - 4800 MHz is used
5. frequencies used by EISCAT Scientific 17. cosmic background research
Association (EC) 18. in Germany the band 14.2 - 15.2 GHz is used
6. used for pulsar work 19. 14.5 - 15.5 GHz: used for cosmic background
7. the band 400 - 2000 MHz is used in Poland research
for solar radio astronomy (channel 20. in Sweden the band 31.0 - 31.3 is used
frequencies are: 650, 810, 980, 1350, 1450 21. the band 86.0 - 86.6 GHz is used for Very
MHz) Long Baseline Interferometry
8. used for Very Long Baseline Interferometry, 22. in Czech Rep.: 0.1 - 4.5 GHz is used
VLBI 23. in Portugal: 150 - 650 MHz is used
9. used frequencies: 910 - 950 MHz 24. in Turkey: 1 - 15 GHz is used
10. used for pulsar work/space probes 25. in the Netherlands: frequencies between 10
11. used for VLBI; in Sweden: and 250 MHz are used by the Low Frequency
2257 - 2313 MHz Array, LOFAR
12. used frequencies: 3200 - 3500 MHz
13. used for spectral line observations
14. in Italy the band 4700 - 5050 MHz is used
12.
Recommended Literature
146 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

12.1. Protection of Radio Astronomy Frequencies

• M. Bos, 2004, New dynamic spectrum management: the end of scarcity? -

the regulation of ultra-wide band, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen and Netherlands
Radiocommunication Agency.

• R. J. Cohen and W. T. Sullivan III, eds, 2001, Preserving the Astronomical Sky,
IAU Symposium No.196, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, San Francisco, USA.

• J. E. Flood, C. J. Hughes and J.D. Parsons, 1991, Radio Spectrum Management,

IEE Telecommunications Series 23, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, England.

• H. C. Kahlmann, ed., 1996, The Passive Use of the Frequency Spectrum,

NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society”, Report No.213.

• B. M. Lewis and D. T. Emerson, 2004, Spectrum Management for Radio

Astronomy, Proceedings of IUCAF summer school, National Radio Astronomy
Observatory, Greenbank, USA.

• A. K. Maitra, 2004, Wireless Spectrum Management – Policies, Practices,

and Conditioning Factors. McGraw Hill, New York, USA.

• D. McNally, ed., 1994, The Vanishing Universe, Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, England.

• B. C. M. Reijnen, 1992, The United Nations Space Treaties Analyzed, Edition

Frontières, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.

• T. A. Th. Spoelstra, ed, 2002, CRAF Handbook for Frequency Management,

European Science Foundation, Strasbourg, France.

• United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space, 1994, Office for Outer
Space Affairs, Vienna International Centre, P.O.Box 500, A-1400 Vienna, Austria.

• R. L. White and H. M. White Jr., 1988, The Law and Regulation of International
Space Communication, Artech House, Boston, USA.
Recommended Literature 147

12.2. ITU-R Texts

• ITU-R Handbook on Radio Astronomy, 2003, ITU-R Radiocommunications Bureau,

Geneva, Switzerland.

12.3. Introduction to Radio Astronomy

• B. F. Burke and F. Graham-Smith, 2002, An Introduction to Radio Astronomy,

2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

• F. Graham-Smith, 1974, Radio Astronomy, 4th edn, Penguin Books,

Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England.

• A. G. Lyne and F. Graham-Smith, 1990, Pulsar Astronomy, Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge, England.

• G. L. Verschuur, 1987, The Invisible Universe Revealed - The Story of Radio

Astronomy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

• G. L. Verschuur and K. I. Kellermann, eds, 1988, Galactic and ExtraGalactic Radio

Astronomy, 2nd edn, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
148
Appendices
150 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Appendix 1. List of Acronyms1

A AeRNSS ARC
AAC Aeronautical Radionavigation Administrative Radio
Aeronautical Administrative Satellite Service Conference
Communications AFSCN ARFA
AC/WPBX Air Force Satellite Control Allied Radio Frequency
Advanced Cordless/Wireless Network (USA) Agency
Private Branch Exchange ALMA ARIA
ADEOS Atacama Large Millimetre Advanced Range
Advanced Earth Exploration Array Instrumentation Aircraft
Satellite AmS (USA)
ADM Amateur Service ARSR
Administrative AMSAT Air Route Surveillance Radar
ADS Radio Amateur Satellite ASA
Advanced Digital System Corporation (USA) Austrian Space Agency (A)
ADS AMSC ASDE
Automatic Dependent American Mobile Satellite Airport Surface Detection
Surveillance (USA) Corporation (USA) Equipment
AeFS AMSS ASO
Aeronautical Fixed Service Aeronautical Mobile Australian Space Office
Satellite Service (AUS)
AeM
Aeronautical Mobile Service AmSS ATC
Amateur-Satellite Service Air Traffic Control
AeM(OR)
Aeronautical Mobile Service ANFR ATDRS
(off-route) Agence National des Advanced Tracking and Data
Fréquences Radioélectriques Relay Satellite
AeM(R)
(F) ATDRSS
Aeronautical Mobile Service
(route) ANS Advanced Tracking and Data
Air Navigation System Relay Satellite System
AeMS
Aeronautical Mobile Service AOC ATN
Aeronautical Operational Amateur Television Network
AeMSS
Control (USA)
Aeronautical Mobile Satellite
Service APC ATU
Aeronautical Public Arab Telecommunication
AeMSS(OR)
Correspondence = TFTS Union
Aeronautical Mobile Satellite
Service (off-route) APCO ATS
Association of Public Safety Air Traffic Services
AeMSS(R)
Communications ATV
Aeronautical Mobile Satellite
Officials-International, Inc. Amateur Television (USA)
Service (route)
(USA) AVI
AeRNS
APT Automatic Vehicle
Aeronautical Radionavigation
Asia-Pacific Telecommunity Identification
Service

1. Further acronyms can be found at the CRAF website (www.astron.nl/craf)

List of Acronyms 151

AVM CCITT CMTT

Automatic Vehicle Monitoring Comité Consultatif Interna- Joint Study Group for
AWACS tional de Télégraphe et des Television and Sound
Airborne Warning and Télécommunications (ITU) Transmission
Control System CCMS CNES
Committee on Challenges of Centre National d’Etudes
B Modern Science (NATO) Spatiales (F)
BAPT CCSDS CNET
Bundesamt für Post und Consultative Committee on Centre National d’Etudes des
Telekommunikation (D) Space Data Systems Télécommunications (F)
BAS CDMA CNIE
Broadcast Auxiliary Service Code Division Multiple Access Comision Nacional de
BDT CENELEC Investigaciones Espaciales
Telecommunication European Committee for CNRS
Development Bureau (ITU) Electrotechnical Centre National de
BER Standardisation Recherches Scientifiques (F)
Bit Error Ratio CEPT CODATA
BIPM Conférence Européene Committee on Data for
Bureau International de Poids des Postes et des Science and Technology
et Mesures Télécommunications COFDM
B-ISDN CERGA Coded Orthogonal Frequency
Broadband ISDN Centre d’Etudes et de Division Multiplex
BNSC Recherches Géodynamiques COMSAT
British National Space Centre et Astronomiques Communications Satellite
(UK) CGMS Corporation (USA)
BPSK Coordination on Geostationary COPUOS
Binary phase-shift keying Meteorological Satellites UN Committee on Peaceful
BS CICG Uses of Outer Space
Base Station Centre International des CORF
Conférences Genève Commission on Radio
BS
Broadcasting Service CIE Frequencies (NRC-USA)
Commission Internationale COSPAR
BSS d’Eclairage
Broadcasting Satellite Service Committee on Space
CIMO Research
BT Commission on Instruments
British Telecom (UK) COSPAS
and Methods of Observations Russian system of Satellite
(WMO) Search and Rescue
C
CISPR COSTED
CAST International Special Commitee Committee on Science and
Chinese Academy of Space on Radio Interference Technology in Developing
Technology (CN) Countries
CITEL
CB InterAmerican Conference CPEM
Citizen Band on Telescommunications Conference on Precision
CCIR [similar to CEPT, in America] Electromagnetic
Comité Consultatif (Conferencia Interamericana Measurements
International des de Telecommunicaciones)
Radiocommunications (ITU)
152 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

CPM DGPS EC
Conference Preparatory Differential GPS European Community
Meeting (ITU) DME ECA
CRAF Distance Measuring European Common Allocation
Committee on Radio Equipment (CEPT)
Astronomical Frequencies DRS ECC
(ESF) Data Relay Satellite Electronics Communication
CSA DRTS Committee (CEPT)
Canadian Space Agency Data Relay and Tracking ECP
(CDN) Satellite European Common Proposal
CSIRO DRTSS (CEPT)
Commonwealth Scientific Data Relay and Tracking ECTRA
and Industrial Research Satellite System European Committee
Organization (Australia) DSBS for Telecommunications
CSTG Digital Sound Broadcasting Regulatory Affairs
Commission for International Satellite EDRS
Coordination of Space DSCS European Data Relay Satellite
Techniques for Geodesy Defense Satellite (ESA)
and Geodynamics Communications System EDRSS
(USA) European Data Relay Satellite
D
DSI System
DAB Detailed Spectrum EES
Digital Audio Broadcast Investigation (CEPT) Earth Exploration Satellite
DBS DSN EESS
Digital Broadcasting Deep Space Network Earth Exploration Satellite
by Satellite Service
DSRR
DCS1800 Digital Short Range Radio EFTA
Digital Communication European Free Trade
System DSSS
Direct Sequence Spread Association
DCT Spectrum EGC
Discrete Cosine Transform Enhanced Group Call
Coding DTI
Department of Trade and EHF
DEC Industry (GB) Frequency range 3 - 30 GHz
ERC DECision (CEPT)
DW EIRP
DECT Deutsche Wetterdienst (D) Effective Isotropically
Digital European Cordless Radiated Power
Telecommunication System E EISCAT
DFVLR EARSeL European Incoherent Scatter
Deutsche Forschungs European Association Scientific Association
und Versuchsanstalt für of Remote Sensing
Luft und Raumfahrt (D) ELF
Laboratories Extremely Low Frequency
DG EAS (< 3 kHz)
Drafting Group European Astronomical EM
DGLR Society Electromagnetic
Deutsche Gesellschaft für EBU
Luft und Raumfahrt (D) European Broadcasting Union
List of Acronyms 153

EMC E-TDMA FSK

Electromagnetic Extended Time Division Frequency Shift Keying
Compatibility Multiple Access FSS
EMI ETNO Fixed Satellite Service
Electromagnetic Interference European Public FT
ENG Telecommunications Network France Télécom (F)
Electronic News Gathering Operators’ Association FX
EOS ETSI Fixed Service
Earth Observation Satellite European Telecommunication
EOSS Standards Institute G
Earth Observation Satellite EUTELSAT G/T
System European Telecommunication Ratio of gain to noise
EPFD Satellite Organization temperature
Equivalent Power Flux- EUMETSAT GEMS
Density (dB[W.m-2]) European Meteorological Global Environment
EPIRB Satellite Organisation Monitoring Systems
Emergency position-indicat- EVA GEO
ing radio beacon Extra Vehicular Activity Geostationary Orbit
EPP eVLBI GES
European Polar Platform VLBI over the internet Ground Earth Station
ERC EVN GLONASS
European European VLBI Network GLobal NAvigation Satellite
Radiocommunications System (Russia)
Committee (CEPT) F
GMDSS
ERMES FAA Global Maritime Distress and
European Radio Message Federal Aviation Safety System
System Administration (USA) GMPCS
ERO FAGS Global Mobile Personal
European Federation of Astronomical Communication by Satellite
Radiocommunications Office and Geophysical Services GMR
(CEPT) FAST General Milestone Review
ERP Fundamental Astronomy Committee (CEPT)
Effective Radiated Power (rel- by Space Techniques GNSS
ative to a half-power dipole) Consortium Global Navigation Satellite
ESA FCC System
European Space Agency Federal Communications GOES
ESF Commission (USA) Geostationary Operational
European Science Foundation FDD Environmental Satellite
ESOC Frequency Division Duplex GPS
European Space Operations FDMA Global Positioning System
Centre Frequency Division Multiple (USA)
ESR Access GRGS
EISCAT Svalbard Radar FEC Groupe de Recherches de
ESTEC Forward Error Correction Géodesie Spatiale (F)
European Space Research and FS GSM
Technology Centre Fixed Service Groupe Spécial Mobiles
154 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

GSM IAG IEE

Global System for Mobile International Association Institution of Electrical
Communications of Geodesy Engineers
GSO IAGA IEEE
Geostationary Satellite Orbit International Association Institution of Electrical
GVLS of Geomagnetism and Electronics Engineers
Global Verification and and Aeronomy IFL
Location System IAGC International Frequency List
International Association IFRB
H of Geochemistry and International Frequency
HAPS Cosmochemistry Registration Board
High Altitude Platform IAMAP IIASA
Station International Association of International Institute of
HDFS Meteorology and Atmospheric Applied Systems Analysis
High Density Fixed Service Physics IISL
HDFSS IATA International Institute
High Density Fixed-Satellite International Air Transport of Space Law
Service Agency ILS
HDTV IAU Instrument Landing System
High Definition TeleVision International Astronomical IMASS
HDTP Union Intelligent Multiple Access
Hoofddirectie IBCN Spectrum Sharing
Telecommunicatie en Post Integrated Broadband IMT-2000
van het Ministerie van Communications Network International Mobile
Verkeer en Waterstaat (NL) IBS Telecommunications-2000
HEO INTELSAT Business Service (ITU)
Highly inclined Elliptical Orbit ICAO IMO
HF International Civil Aviation International Maritime
High Frequency (frequency Organization Organization
range 3 - 30 MHz) ICAS INMARSAT
HFBC International Council of the INternational MAritime
High Frequency Broadcasting Aeronautical Sciences SATellite organization
HIPERLAN ICO INPE
High Performance Local Area Intermediate Circular Orbit Instituto de Psequisas
Network ICSTI Espaciais
HLC International Council for INTA
High Level Commitee (ITU) Scientific and Technical Instituto Nacional de Tècnica
Information Aerospacial
I ICSU INTELSAT
IAA International Council International
International Academy for Science Telecommunications Satellite
of Astronautics IDR Organization
IAF Intermediate Data Rate IRAM
International Astronautical IEC Institut de Radio Astronomie
Federation International Electrotechnical Millimétrique
Commission
List of Acronyms 155

IRT IUCAF LF
Institut für Rundfunktechnik Scientific Committee on the Low Frequency (30 - 300 kHz)
(D) Allocation of Frequencies LHC
ISAS for Radio Astronomy Left Hand Circular
Institute of Space and and Space Science LM
Astronautical Science IUGG Land Mobile Service
ISDN International Union for LMS
Integrated Services Digital Geodesy and Geophysics Land Mobile Service
Network IVS LMSS
ISL International VLBI Satellite Land Mobile satellite Service
Inter-Satellite Link IWG LMST
ISM Intersessional Working Group Light-Weight Multi-Band
Industrial, Scientific and (of the SFCG) Satellite Terminal
Medical Applications IWP LOFAR
ISO Interim Working Party Low Frequency Array
International Organization (ITU-R)
LPD
for Standardization Low Power Devices
J
ISR LSI
Incoherent Scatter Radar JCMT
James Clark Maxwell Large Scale Integration
ISRO
Indian Space Research Telescope
M
Organization JEM
Japanese Experiment Module MAS
ISS Meteorological Aids
Inter-Satellite Service JEWM Service
ITA Joint Expert Working Meeting
MAT
Industrial Telecommunication JIVE Mobile Aeronautical Telemetry
Association (USA) Joint Institute for VLBI in
Europe MDS
ITFS Multipoint Distribution
Instructional Television Fixed JIWP Service
Service Joint Interim Working Party
MERLIN
ITU JPL Multi-Element Radio Linked
International Jet Propulsion Laboratory Interferometer Network (UK)
Telecommunication Union JPOP MES
ITU-D Japanese Polar Platform Mobile Earth Station
International JSS MetA
Telecommunication Union - Joint Surveillance System Meteorological Aid Service
Telecommunication JTIDS
Development Sector METSAT
Joint Tactical Information Meteorological Satellite
ITU-R Distribution System
International MetS
Telecommunication Union - L Meteorological Satellite
Radiocommunication Sector Service
LAN
ITU-T Local Area Network MF
International Telecommunica- Medium Frequency
LEO (300 - 3000 kHz)
tion Union - Telecommunica- Low Earth Orbit
tion Standardization Sector
156 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

MIFR N NOAA
Master International NAIC National Oceanographic and
Frequency Register National Astronomy and Atmospheric Administration
MIT Ionosphere Center (USA) (USA)
Massachusetts Institute NARFA NRAO
of Technology (USA) National Allied Radio National Radio Astronomy
MLS Frequency Agency Observatory (USA)
Microwave Landing System NAS NRC
MM National Academy National Research Council
Maritime Mobile Service of Sciences (USA) (USA)
MMARC NASA NSF
Maritime Mobile Radio National Aeronautics and National Science Foundation
Conference Space Administration (USA) (USA)
MMS NASDA NTIA
Maritime Mobile Service National Space Development National Telecommunications
MMSS Agency of Japan and Information
Administration (USA)
Maritime Mobile Satellite NATO
Service North Atlantic Treaty NWS
MOB Organization National Weather Service
(USA)
Mobile (use in the designation NAVSTAR see GPS
of certain WARCs) NESS O
MPIfR National Environment
Max-Planck-Institut OB
Satellite Service (of NOAA)
für Radioastronomie (D) Outside Broadcasting
NEST
MRC OECD
Nuclear Emergency Search
Milestone Review Committee Organization for Economic
Team (USA)
(CEPT) Co-operation and Development
NFRA
MRN OFCOM
Netherlands Foundation for
Maritime Radionavigation Federal Office of
Research in Astronomy (NL)
Service Communications (Switzerland)
NGO
MRNS OFCOM
Non-Governmental
Maritime Radionavigation Office of Communications
Organization
Service (UK)
NGSO
MRNSS OFDM
Non-Geostationary Satellite
Maritime Radionavigation Orthogonal Frequency
Orbit
Satellite Service Division Multiplex
NIST
MS OFR
National Institute of
Mobile Service Off Frequency Rejection
Standards and Technology
MS (USA) OIR
Organisation internationale
Mobile Station NIVR
de radiodiffusion
MSS Nederlands Instituut voor
Mobile Satellite Service Vliegtuigontwikkeling en OQPSK
Ruimtevaart (NL) Offset QPSK
MVDS
Microwave Video Distribution NNSS ORB
System Navy Navigational Satellite Orbit (used in the designation
System (USA) of certain WARCs)
List of Acronyms 157

OSCAR PSTN RDS

Orbiting Satellite Carrying Public Switched Telephone Radiodetermination Service
Amateur Radio Network RDSS
OST PTT Radio Determination Satellite
Outer Space Treaty (UN) Post, Telegraph, Telephone Service
OTH (i.e. government ministry for -) Rec
Over-the-Horizon Recommendation
Q
RFI
P QAM Radio Frequency Interference
PC Quadratic Amplitude RFID
Plenipotentiary Conference Modulation Radio Frequency
(ITU) QPSK Identification
PCIA Quadratic Phase Shift Keying RHC
Personal Communications QPSK-C Right Hand Circular
Industry Association (USA) Quadratic Phase Shift Keying RIN
PCM Compatible Royal Institute of Navigation
Pulse Code Modulation (UK)
R
PCN RIS
Personal Communications RA Radiocommunication
Network Radiocommunication Information Systems
PCP Assembly (ITU) Department (ITU)
Private Carrier Paging RA RL
PCS Radio Astronomy Service Radiolocation Service
Personal Communications (ITU)
R-LAN
Service RADAR Radio Local Area Network
PDF Radio Detecting and Ranging
RLS
Probability Density Function RAFCAP Radiolocation Service
PFD Radio Astronomy Frequency
Committee in the Asia-Pacific RN
Power Flux Density Radionavigation Service
(dB[W.m-2]) Region
RAG RNS
PLC Radionavigation Service
Power Line Communications Radiocommunication
Advisory Group (ITU) RNSS
PLT Radionavigation Satellite
Power Line Transmissions RARC
Regional Administrative Service
PMP Radio Conference (ITU) RR
Point-to-multipoint Radio Regulations (ITU)
RAS
PMR Radio Astronomy Service RRB
Private Land Mobile Radio Radio Regulations Board
RAS
POFS Royal Astronomical Society (ITU)
Private Operational Fixed (UK) RSC
Service Radio Spectrum Committee
RB
PPARC Radiocommunication Bureau (EC)
Particle Physics and Astronomy (ITU) RSPG
Research Council (UK) Radio Spectrum Policy Group
RD
PSK Radiodetermination Service (EC)
Phase Shift Keying
158 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

RTAGS SHF T
Radio Tags Super High Frequency TACAN
RTT (3 - 30 GHz) Tactical Air Navigation
Road Transport Telematics SITE System
Satellite Instructional TAI
S Television Experiment Temps Atomique International
SARP SKA TAPC
ICAO Standards and Square Kilometre Array Terrestrial Aeronautical
Recommended Practices SMR Public Correspondence =
SARSAT Sub-Millimetre Radiometer TFTS
Satellite-Aided Search SNG T-DAB
and Rescue Project Satellite News Gathering Terrestrial Digital Audio
SAT SO Broadcasting
Satellite Space Operation Service TDD
SATCOM SOS Time Division Duplex
Satellite Communications Space Operation Service TDF
SCAR SPAC Télédiffusion de France (F)
Scientific Committee on Spectrum Planning and TDM
Antarctic Research Advisory Committee (USA) Time Division Multiplex
SCOPE S-PCS TDMA
Scientific Committee on Satellite Personal Time Division Multiple Access
Problems of the Environment Communications Services TDRS
SCOSTEP SPFD Tracking and Data Relay
Scientific Committee on Solar Spectral Power Flux Density Satellite
Terrestrial Physics (dB[W.m-2.Hz-1]) TDRSS
SCPT SPS Tracking and Data Relay
Single channel per transponder Spectrum Planning Satellite System
SES Subcommittee (USA) TDWR
Ship Earth Station SRD Terminal Doppler Weather
SESC Short Range Device Radar
Space Environment Service SRS TETRA
Center Space Research Service Trans European Trunked
SETI SSB Radio
Search for Extra Terrestrial Space Science Board TFTS
Intelligence (of the US NAS) Terrestrial Flight Telephone
SFCG SSC System = APC
Space Frequency Swedish Space Corporation TG
Coordination Group SSR Task Group (ITU)
SFS Secondary Surveillance Radar TSAG
Standard Frequency and Time SRR Technical Standardization
Signal Service (Vehicular) Short Range Advisory Group (ITU)
SFTSS Radar TTC
Standard Frequency and Time SWAS Tracking, telemetry, and
Signal-Satellite Service Submillimetre Wave command
SGLS Astronomy Satellite (NASA) TV
Space-Groundlink Subsystem TeleVision
List of Acronyms 159

U VLF WTPF
UAPT Very Low Frequency World Telecommunication
Union of African Post- (3 - 30 kHz) Policy Forum (ITU)
and Telecommunication VOR WTSC
UHF VHF Omnidirectional Range World Telecommunication
Ultra High Frequency VORAD Standardization Conference
(300 to 3000 MHz) Vehicle On-Board Radar (ITU)
UIC VQC WWW
International Union Vector Quatization Coding World Wide Web
of Railways VSAT
UMTS Very-Small Aperture Terminal
Universal Mobile VSOP
Telecommunication System VLBI Space Observatory
UNESCO Program
United Nations Education, VTS
Scientific and Cultural Vessel Traffic System (radar)
Organization
UNO W
United Nations Organization WAN
URSI Wide Area Network
Union Radio Scientifique WARC
International World Administrative Radio
UT Conference (ITU)
Universal Time WBDTS
UTC Wide Band Data
Coordinated Universal Time Transmission System
UWB W-HDTV
Ultra-Wide Band Wide HDTV
WHO
V World Health Organization
VGE WMO
Voluntary Group of Experts World Meteorological
(ITU) Organization
VHF WP
Very High Frequency Working Party (ITU)
(30 - 300 MHz) WRC
VLA World Radiocommunication
Very Large Array (USA) Conference (ITU)
VLBA WSRT
Very Long Baseline Array Westerbork Synthesis Radio
(USA) Telescope (NL)
VLBI WTDC
Very Long Baseline World Telecommunication
Interferometry Development Conference
(ITU)
160 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

Appendix 2. Vocabulary of Special Terms

Astronomy (general) equivalent power flux density (epfd)

abundance (of elements) the sum of the power flux densities produced
relative occurrence of chemical elements at a geostationary-satellite system receive
in the universe. station on the Earth’s surface or in the
geostationary orbit, as appropriate, by all the
astronomical unit (AU)
transmit stations within a non-geostationary-
mean distance between the Earth and the Sun
satellite system, taking into account the off-
(149.6 million km).
axis discrimination of a reference receiving
astrophysics antenna assumed to be pointing in its nominal
branch of astronomy dealing with physics direction (Radio Regulations No. 22.5C.1).
and chemistry of celestial bodies.
flux
Big Bang total radiant energy passing through a unit
a model of the universe which started with surface into the 2π solid angle of a
an initial singularity. The Friedmann model hemisphere.
of a homogeneous, isotropic universe
flux density
(composed of adiabatically expanding matter
flux of radiation through a unit surface; the
and radiation, as a result of a primeval
strength of an electromagnetic wave, defined
explosion) is the standard example.
as the amount of power incident per unit area.
cosmology In radio astronomy, the brightness temperature
theory of the origin, structure and evolution integrated over the solid angle of the source
of the universe. yields the flux density.
parsec (pc) flux unit
distance of a star having a parallax unit of flux density.
of 1". 1 pc ~ 3.26 light years = 3.1x1013 km.
hydrogen spectral line
spectral line of neutral hydrogen (rest
Calibration
frequency: 1420.4057 MHz).
redundancy
Jansky (Jy)
use of redundant measurement data to remove
unit of flux density. 1 Jy = 10-26 W m-2 Hz-1.
instrumental effects.
Named after K. G. Jansky, who discovered
self-calibration technique galactic radio waves in 1931.
calibration of measurement data without use
maser (microwave amplification by
of information external to the observation.
stimulated emission of radiation)
The microwave equivalent of a laser, in which
Emission
photons at the right frequency stimulate an
brightness temperature excited atom, ion or molecule to emit further
the temperature that a black body would have photons at the same frequency, travelling in
to have to emit radiation of the observed the same direction. Maser devices are used as
intensity at a given wavelength. amplifiers in some sensitive radio astronomy
continuum emission receivers. Hydrogen masers based on the
emission produced by the superposition of a hydrogen line at 1420.4057 MHz are used as
large number of interactions between ions and extremely stable clocks in VLBI. Naturally
electrons, or between electrons and cosmic occurring cosmic maser sources are the most
magnetic fields, that produce radio pulses of intense spectral line sources studied by radio
varying amplitude and narrowness (see also: astronomers. Cosmic masers are found in
non-thermal emission; synchrotron emission; comets, in supernova remnants, and in
thermal emission). association with star formation, stellar mass
Vocabulary of Special Terms 161

loss, and active galaxies. The most powerful The bandwidth is determined either by the
maser sources known are termed radiation itself, which may for instance, be
“megamasers”. confined to a narrow spectral line, or more
nonthermal radiation usually, by the antenna-receiver system which
radiation emitted by energetic particles for accepts signals only within a limited
reasons other than high temperature of the frequency range. The receiver is usually
source. The spectrum of non-thermal radiation designed to have a smaller bandwidth than the
is different from that predicted by Plank’s law radiation itself, so that information about the
for a blackbody. shape of the source spectrum is not lost
propagation effect through averaging over too great a frequency
change of characteristics of radiation due to interval.
the medium through which it propagates diffraction limited
(e.g. direction of propagation, effect on capable of producing images with angular
polarization characteristics). separation as small as the theoretical limit
redshift implied by diffraction effects.
shift of spectral line to lower frequencies due dynamic range
to motion of the emitting object away from ratio of peak intensity to the noise in a dataset
the observer. (usually expressed in dB).
spectral line integration time
discrete emissions or absorptions in used to indicate:
frequency, usually produced by atomic, • duration of the observation (often of the
nuclear, or molecular transitions. order of hours);
synchrotron emission • sampling time within the receiver (ranging
electromagnetic emission from relativistic from microseconds to seconds);
electrons moving in magnetic fields. The • time over which a series of samples are
acceleration of the particles causes them to averaged (ranging from seconds to minutes).
emit radiation. A characteristic of such sampling time
radiation is that it has a strongly polarized time interval during which a received signal is
power-law spectrum, and the wavelength integrated within the receiver before dumping
region in which the emission occurs depends the data to a storage medium.
on the energy of the electron e.g., 1 MeV spatial resolution
electrons would radiate mostly in the radio angular resolution converted to spatial
region, but GeV electrons would radiate dimensions.
mostly in the optical region. spectral resolution
thermal emission minimum frequency separation over which
blackbody radiation; radiation caused by the spectral lines can be distinguished separately
high temperature of the radiating objects, as from each other.
opposed to non-thermal radiation, which
typically is caused by energetic (not Instrumentation
necessarily hot) electrons. radio interferometry
the use of two or more antennas in
Instrumental parametres combination as a single instrument with
angular resolution an angular resolution determined by
smallest angular distance over which two the separation between the antennas.
objects can be observed separately. MERLIN
bandwidth Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer
range of frequencies over which the Network (UK)
measurements are made.
162 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

VLA Protection
Very Large Array (USA) active service
VLBI radiocommunication service in which
Very Long Baseline Interferometry transmitter, receiver and the communication
EVN channels is under human control.
European VLBI Network coordination area
eVLBI the area associated with an Earth station
VLBI over the internet outside of which a terrestrial station sharing
space VLBI the same frequency band neither causes nor is
VLBI network including space stations subject to interfering emissions greater than
a permissible level.
WSRT
Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (NL) coordination distance
distance on a given azimuth from an Earth
single dish
station beyond which a terrestrial station
single paraboloid, cylinder, or other kind
sharing the same frequency band neither
of receiving antenna system
causes nor is subject to interfering emissions
Space telescope greater than a permissible level.
Hubble Space Telescope, optical telescope
frequency allocation
in space
entry in the Table of Frequency Allocation
of a given frequency band for the purpose
Propagation
of its use by one or more (terrestrial or space)
Faraday rotation radiocommunication services or to the Radio
rotation of the plane of polarization of linearly Astronomy Service under specified
polarized radiation when the radiation passes conditions. This term shall also be applied to
though a plasma containing a magnetic field the frequency band concerned.
having a component in the direction of
harmful interference
propagation.
interference which endangers the functioning
ionosphere of radionavigation service or of other safety
the region of Earth’s atmosphere (80 - 1000 km) services or seriously degrades, obstructs, or
immediately above the stratosphere. The repeatedly interrupts a radiocommunication
medium is up to about 10% ionised due to service operating in accordance with the ITU
the influx of solar UV-radiation. Radio Regulations.
radio window level of harmful interference
the wavelength range between a few (for Radio Astronomy)
millimetres (even sub-mm) and about the interfering signals should produce
30 metres within which Earth’s atmosphere fluctuations in the detector output which
is transparent to radiation. do not exceed 10% of its noise fluctuations.
troposphere monitoring
lowest level of Earth’s atmosphere, from zero maintaining regular surveillance over
altitude to about 15 km above the surface. the frequency band of interest.
This is the region where most weather occurs.
passive service
Its temperature decreases from about 290 K to
radiocommunication service in which the
240 K.
operations can be done only by reception
of given signals. The user cannot manipulate
the transmitter or the communication channel.
Vocabulary of Special Terms 163

protection zone discrete radio source

area associated with an Earth station within celestial radio source with angular dimensions
which the minimum value of the wanted-to- small compared to the beam of the radio
unwanted signal ratio, usually expressed telescope used.
in decibels, at the receiver input determined flare star
under specified conditions, is such that a member of a class of dwarf stars that show
a specified reception quality of the wanted sudden, intense outbursts of energy. It is
signal is achieved at the receiver output. generally believed that flares in flare stars
Radio Astronomy Service have certain properties in common: rapid rise
astronomy based on the reception of radio to peak light followed initially by a rapid
waves of cosmic origin. It is a passive service, decline and later by a slower phase that
concerned only with the reception of data. occasionally does not return to a pre-flare
radio-quiet zone level within practical monitoring times
see: protection zone. (several hours). An increase in radio emission
separation distance is often detected simultaneously with the
distance on a given azimuth from an Earth optical burst.
station to the edge of the protection zone. galaxy
a large, gravitationally bound aggregate of
Radio sources stars and interstellar matter (108 - 1013 solar
comet masses).
a diffuse body of gas and solid particles (such Galaxy
as CN, CH, C2, NH2, and OH) which orbits the galaxy to which the Sun belongs.
the Sun. The orbit is usually highly elliptical interstellar medium
or even parabolic (the distance from the Sun in addition to dust, the material in the medium
ranges from about 1 - 104 astronomical units). between the stars consist of cold, dense clouds
Comets are unstable bodies with masses on (temperature ~ 50 K, density of hydrogen >
the order of 1015 kg whose average lifetime is 10 cm-3) with radii of a few parsecs and
about 100 passages around the Sun. Periodic clouds of neutral hydrogen, both immersed
comets comprise only about 4% of all known in a hot (temperatures > 104 K), dilute
comets. Comets are obviously related in some (density of hydrogen < 0.01 cm-3) intercloud
manner to meteors, but no meteorites from medium. Interstellar matter consists of
a comet have ever been recovered. Recent interstellar gas (99%) and dust (1%).
observations have established that a comet
is surrounded by a vast hydrogen halo. meteor
a “shooting star” - the streak of light in
compact radio source the sky produced by the transit of a meteoroid
one whose flux at an intermediate radio through the Earth’s atmosphere.
frequency is dominated by the contribution of
a single bright component less than ~ 1 kilo- meteoroid
parsec across. Compact sources usually a small particle orbiting the Sun in
exhibit flat X-ray spectra and radio variability. the vicinity of the Earth.
cosmic microwave background millisecond pulsars
isotropic radiation first detected in 1964 pulsar with rotating period as small
by Penzias and Wilson at a wavelength of as 1 millisecond.
7.35 cm (equivalent temperature about 2.7 K). nova
It has since been observed at radio and a star that exhibits a sudden surge of energy,
infrared wavelengths from 50 µm to 70 cm. temporarily increasing its luminosity by
The cosmic background radiation is as much as 104 or more. Unlike supernovae,
interpreted as relict from the primeval fireball; novae retain their stellar form and most
it represents a redshift of about 3 000. of their substance after the outburst.
164 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

neutron star supernova

very small and very dense star, with a a gigantic stellar explosion in which the star’s
diameter on the order of 10 km and densities luminosity suddenly increases by as much as
on the order of 1014 g/cm3. In this condition 108. Most of the star’s substance is blown off,
the neutrons align themselves and, if the star leaving behind, at least in some cases, an
is rotating, this gives rise to a very strong extremely dense core which may be a neutron
magnetic field of approximately 108 Tesla. star and a pulsar.
Electrons injected into this field will spiral
and decelerate giving rise to synchrotron Satellite systems
radiation. Neutron stars can be found in IRAS
supernova remnants. Infra-Red Astronomical Satellite
protostar GSO systems
a stage in the evolution of a young star after it Satellite systems in Geostationary Orbits
has fragmented from a gas cloud but before it HEO systems
has collapsed sufficiently for nuclear reactions Satellite systems in Highly inclined Elliptical
to begin. This phase may take from 105 to 107 Orbits
years, depending on the mass of the star.
LEO systems
pulsar Low Earth Orbiting Satellite systems in orbits
rapidly rotating neutron star which like between 150 and 1500 km from the Earth’s
a lighthouse, radiates a beam which sweeps surface:
across the observer at each rotation. little LEOs: operate at frequencies below
The width and shape of the pulse of 1 GHz;
electromagnetic emission depend on big LEOs: operate at frequencies above
the rotation speed and the angular width of 1 GHz.
the beam.
MEO systems
quasar Medium Earth Orbiting Satellite systems
an object with a dominant starlike (i.e. in orbits between 5 000 and 10 000 km
diameter less than 1”) component, with from the Earth’s surface.
an emission line spectrum showing a large
redshift. Many have multiple absorption Non-GSO systems
redshifts; a few have multiple emission Satellite systems in non Geostationary Orbits
redshifts. The light of most if not all quasars
is variable over time intervals between a few
days and several years, so their diameters
must not be much larger than the diameter
of the solar system. The energy output of
a typical quasar at “cosmological” distance is
of the order of 1047 ergs per second, which
would require a mass of 1010 solar masses if it
derives its energy solely from nuclear fusion.
radio source
a source of radiation at metre and centimetre
wavelengths outside the solar system.
spiral galaxy
a lense-shaped galaxy with luminous spiral
arms of gas, dust, and young stars that wind
out from its nucleus. Mass range 1010 - 1012
solar masses. On the average, spiral arms are
on the order of 2x104 pc long.
 165

Appendix 3. Keyword Index

abundance diatomic hydrogen, neutral –

60, 61, 63, 66, 69, 70, 75, 160 69, 84 62, 74, 160, 163
alcohol diffraction limited hydrogen line
48, 83, 84 74, 76, 161 10, 14, 49, 62, 70, 74, 77, 78,
angular resolution discrete radio source 160
13, 27, 29, 30, 36, 40, 41, 63, 29, 163 hyperfine-structure
64, 66, 67, 75, 77, 161 dynamic range 49, 60, 79
astronomical unit 28, 41, 161 integration time
62, 160 epfd 28, 32, 35, 105, 161
astrophysics/astrophysical 97, 153, 160 intensity
3, 12, 18, 64, 74, 80, 82, 89, EVN 11, 18, 23, 27, 28, 66, 74,
105, 106, 160 38, 76, 77, 80, 153, 162 105, 160, 161
atmospheric window evolution interferometer
11, 49, 71, 72, 86, 87, 88, 114 19, 24, 25, 43, 46, 48, 60, 63, see: radio interferometry
ASTRA 70, 71, 75, 78, 79, 106, 160, international law
67, 113 164 4, 7, 121-132
bandwidth Faraday rotation interstellar maser
10, 11, 14, 25, 27, 28, 31-35, 23, 74, 162 62, 63, 66-69, 79, 80, 139,
42, 48, 49, 50, 65, 84, 86-89, flare star 140, 160, 161
92, 95, 96, 98, 105, 114, 115, 74, 163 interstellar medium
161 frequency allocation 13, 14, 24, 25, 41, 64, 67, 70,
big bang 4, 5, 6, 10, 14, 22, 25, 33, 48, 138-140, 163
10, 20, 22, 82, 106, 160 50, 59, 77, 82, 89, 113, 114, ionosphere
coherence 120, 133, 162 19, 25, 26, 37, 76, 152, 162
36, 42, 88, fringe IRAS
comet 33-37, 39 79, 80, 164
25, 41, 63, 83, 105, 138, 160, Galaxy Iridium
163 22-26, 29, 62, 64, 66, 70, 75, 79, 81, 113
compact source 77, 79, 92, 163 LEO systems
26, 74, 163 GLONASS 48, 155, 164
compatibility 79, 80, 81, 113, 114, 124, 153 Liability Convention
5, 12, 26, 27, 96, 113, 122, 152 GPS 8, 129
coordination zone 102, 152 millisecond pulsars
95, 162 HALCA 24, 163
correlation 40, 41 mm-wavelength
33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 86, 134 harmful interference astronomy
cosmic microwave 3, 5, 11, 12, 28, 32, 35, 63, 80, 83, 85-88, 139
background 81, 89, 96, 100, 113, 120, 122, monitoring
22, 42, 88, 106, 140, 163 124, 128, 129, 131, 132, 162 20, 39, 43, 44, 60, 66, 67, 80,
cosmology HDTV 112, 113, 115, 138, 140, 151,
49, 50, 60, 63, 75, 106, 107, 82, 154 153, 162, 163
160, 164 hydrogen maser neutron star
deuterium 36, 160 24, 26, 106, 164
10, 49, 60, 61, 75, 78, 89
166 CRAF Handbook for Radio Astronomy

noise fluctuation redshift sub-millimetre astronomy

32, 162 6, 14, 18, 50, 68, 74, 77-79, 6, 42, 44, 46, 82, 83, 87, 88,
non-metastable 83, 92, 106, 161, 163, 164 158
68 redundancy superconductor-insulator-
Odin 37, 40, 160 superconductor (SIS)
41, 43, 44 Registration Convention junction
8, 130 46, 86, 88
Outer Space Treaty
125, 128-130, 157 self-calibration technique supernova
passive service 37, 40, 160 23, 24, 26, 30, 65, 140, 160,
163, 164
4, 5, 18, 89, 94, 101, 103, sharing
114, 122, 133, 162, 163 61, 63, 65, 66-68 synchrotron emission
phenomenological science 23, 160, 161
short range radar, SRR
105, 107 115, 158 system temperature
planet 27, 32
single dish
23, 24, 25, 28, 41, 44, 49, 59, 5, 28-31, 33, 34, 66, 69, 86, TDRSS experiment
60, 62, 79, 83, 138, 140 87, 162 36, 150, 159
polarization Tesla
Space Telescope
6, 12, 13, 23, 27, 29, 35, 64, 24, 106, 164
77, 162
65, 74-76, 161, 162 time resolution
space VLBI
propagation effect 12, 13, 28
6, 13, 36, 38, 40, 41, 162,
23, 28, 39, 64, 161, 162 total power
spatial resolution
protostellar cloud 31, 34, 40
12, 13, 42, 161
26, 63 (see also: angular resolution) transition
pulsar 25, 43, 48, 49, 66, 69, 79, 81,
spectral line
10, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 83, 85, 114, 139, 161
5, 6, 14, 18, 22-27, 31, 33,
28, 29, 50, 60, 74, 104, 105, 35, 41, 43, 48, 60, 62, 68-70, treaty
106, 138, 139, 140, 144, 147, 72, 79-83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 94, 122-130, 156, 157
163, 164 98, 105, 144, 160, 161 Ultra-Wide Band, UWB
quasar spectral resolution 104, 105, 115, 159
10, 13, 19, 23, 26, 30, 64, 66, 12, 13, 42, 43, 161 VLA
67, 74, 78, 83, 106, 164 34, 39, 159, 161
spectrum
radiocommunication 3, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, 22, VLBI
service 23, 25, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 43, 5, 6, 13, 14, 20, 26, 30, 34-42,
10, 11, 18, 94, 100, 103, 105, 48, 49, 60, 61, 64-66, 68-70, 61-63, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 77,
115, 120, 162 74, 75, 78, 82-89, 94, 95, 98, 80, 86, 136, 144, 153, 155,
radio interferometry 100, 102-105, 107, 110-115, 159, 160
13, 20, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37, 40, 120, 122, 124, 125, 146, 152, VSOP
50, 66, 80, 138, 139, 140, 155, 158, 161, 164 40, 41, 159
144, 159, 161, 162 spiral galaxy WARC
radio-quiet zone 70, 75, 164 10-12, 18, 60, 80, 96, 100,
94, 95, 163 spurious 114, 120, 156, 157, 159
Radio Regulations 12, 49, 78, 86, 94, 96, 102, WRC
10-12, 14, 18, 50, 81, 89, 92, 107, 114 7, 11, 12, 18, 51, 63, 81, 87-89,
94, 97, 100-103, 111, 114, 122,
star 96, 100, 114, 159
124, 125, 131-133, 158, 160, 162
22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 41, 48,
radio service 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74,
see: radiocommunication 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 102, 106,
service 138, 139, 160, 163, 164
Graphic design: Dans les villes – Strasbourg
Printer: Ireg – May 2005
ISBN: 2-912049-48-2
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