1-s2.0-S0956053X2300199X-main

Waste Management 161 (2023) 116–141
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman
On the use of plastic precursors for preparation of activated carbons and

their evaluation in CO2 capture for biogas upgrading: a review
S. Pérez-Huertas a, M. Calero a, *, A. Ligero a, A. Pérez a, K. Terpiłowski b, M.A. Martín-Lara a, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
b
Department of Interfacial Phenomena, Maria Curie Skłodowska University, M. Curie Skłodowska Sq. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In circular economy, useful plastic materials are kept in circulation as opposed to being landfilled, incinerated, or
Activated carbons leaked into the natural environment. Pyrolysis is a chemical recycling technique useful for unrecyclable plastic
Biogas upgrading wastes that produce gas, liquid (oil), and solid (char) products. Although the pyrolysis technique has been
Char
extensively studied and there are several installations applying it on the industrial scale, no commercial appli
CO2 capture
Plastic waste
cations for the solid product have been found yet. In this scenario, the use of plastic-based char for the biogas
Pyrolysis upgrading may be a sustainable way to transform the solid product of pyrolysis into a particularly beneficial
material. This paper reviews the preparation and main parameters of the processes affecting the final textural
properties of the plastic-based activated carbons. Moreover, the application of those materials for the CO2
capture in the processes of biogas upgrading is largely discussed.
1. Introduction of plastic to climate change starts from the phase of raw materials
extraction and is followed by plastic production, transport, use and
Waste generation and management is becoming a growing global disposal, as well as mismanaged waste and degradation. Additionally,
concern (Singh et al., 2014). In particular, the problem of handling plastic pollution also greatly affects the world economy. In 2028, the
plastic residues has attracted considerable attention during the last years costs of plastic pollution in tourism, fishing, aquaculture, and other
(Bishop et al., 2020). These account for 85 % of the wastes getting into activities such as clean-ups were estimated to be US $ 6–19 billion.
the oceans. By 2040 the amount of this material getting into the sea will Moreover, by 2040 there could be an annual financial risk of US $ 100
have almost trebled, with an annual amount of 23–37 million tons billion for companies if governments require them to cover the waste
(UNEP, 2021b). According to the comprehensive reports of the United management costs at the expected volumes (UNEP, 2021a).
Nations Environment Program (UNEP, 2021a), a drastic reduction of On the other hand, most plastic materials are manufactured from
unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic is crucial for handling fossil fuels that are non-renewable, finite resources. Interestingly, the
the global pollution crisis. Plastic pollution is a growing threat in all increase in fuel and energy prices has resulted in a greater pressure on
ecosystems, with terrible consequences for the economy, biodiversity, national economies. Thus, the scientific community must search for
and climate (Zheng and Suh, 2019). Human beings’ health is also renewable substitutes to ensure cleaner and more environmentally
vulnerable to pollution caused by plastic (Almroth and Eggert, 2019). friendly fuels (Ahmed et al., 2021). That is why the use of renewable
Plastics are found in seafood, drinks and even common salt, which re energies is continuously growing due to their minor environmental
sults in the plastic contamination of the human food chain. Moreover, it impact on the decarbonized energy market (Khan et al., 2021). In this
also penetrates the skin and can be inhaled when suspended in the air. context, the chemical recycling of plastics can play a crucial role in the
This might cause hormonal changes, developmental disorders, repro transition towards a circular economy and closed-loop recycling of
ductive abnormalities, and even cancer (UNEP, 2021a). Furthermore, plastic materials. Fig. 1 summarizes the main physical and chemical
plastic contributes to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the recycling methods used for plastic waste recycling. In particular,
beginning to the end of its life cycle (Ford et al., 2022). The contribution chemical recycling by pyrolysis enables the cracking of plastic wastes
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Pérez-Huertas), [email protected] (M. Calero), [email protected] (A. Ligero), [email protected] (A. Pérez), terpil@umcs.
pl (K. Terpiłowski), [email protected] (M.A. Martín-Lara).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.02.022
Received 5 August 2022; Received in revised form 17 February 2023; Accepted 20 February 2023
Available online 4 March 2023
0956-053X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Pérez-Huertas et al. Waste Management 161 (2023) 116–141
using thermal energy, which results in the production of solid (char), research. Therefore, there is a need to explore the associated benefits of
liquid (oil), and gas products. using CO2 adsorbents derived from plastic precursors for biogas
In the past decades much attention was paid to oil and gas products. upgrading. In this line, this research presents a comprehensive study
The produced liquid fraction can be refined into chemicals or fuels that looks into the published data about the activated carbons derived
(Qureshi et al., 2020; Scott et al., 1990). However, studies on char ap from plastic wastes and estimates their use as CO2 adsorbents for
plications, especially for the char derived from pyrolysis of plastic possible application in biogas upgrading. Hence, this review firstly
wastes, are more limited. Nevertheless, in recent years some researchers provides insights into and guidelines for the preparation processes for
have investigated their use as adsorbent materials or precursors to matching the CO2 adsorbent requirements; and secondly, it explores the
produce activated carbons (Jamradloedluk and Lertsatitthanakorn, potential of those materials for an alternative application and suggests
2014; Martín-Lara et al., 2021). further research directions.
Biogas is one of the most promising candidates in the renewable The review is organized as follows: (a) A summary of plastic-based
energies market. However, the raw gas contains a significant amount of char production and its physicochemical characteristics is provided;
CO2 and other gases that limit its application. Currently, the removal of (b) this is followed by a description and discussion of the most frequently
CO2 from biogas is performed industrially by many commercial biogas used strategies for preparing activated carbons with tailored pore
upgrading technologies, such as pressure swing adsorption, chemical characteristics and their formation mechanisms; (c) an estimation of the
scrubbing, water scrubbing, organic solvent scrubbing, membrane sep potential of these materials for the CO2 capture is presented; (d) biogas
aration or cryogenic separation (Golmakani et al., 2022). However, the upgrading by residue-based activated carbons is discussed; (e) an
use of these technologies involves large capital and operating costs, high overview of future avenues for research in the use of plastic-based
energy consumption, corrosion potential and a significant loss of activated carbons for biogas upgrading applications is given.
methane, leading to a lack of economic viability compared with natural
gas from fossil fuel sources. Recently, the adsorptive CO2 technology via 2. Production and activation of plastic-based char
solid porous adsorbents has become an attractive and promising tech
nique for separating CO2 from biogas because of its low energy demand 2.1. Production and properties of plastic-based char
and small capital investment compared to the conventional biogas
upgrading methods. The adsorption efficiency depends on several fac Pyrolysis is the main technique used for char production. It is a
tors such as the pore size of the adsorbent material, the partial pressure thermochemical process that degrades long-chain polymer macromole
of the adsorbate, the system temperature and interaction forces between cules into simpler ones (mostly aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons)
the adsorbate and the adsorbent material (Gunawardene et al., 2022). under a non-reactive atmosphere (Chen et al., 2020). High molecular
Different types of adsorbing materials are available for the separation of weight organic polymers are uniformly heated to a specific temperature
CO2 from CH4 in biogas. The adsorbents commonly used for the biogas range and turned into high-quality oils, chars and gases without burning
upgrading process are zeolite (Gholipour and Mofarahi, 2016; Moura plastic wastes. Several mechanisms can take place during the pyrolysis
et al., 2016) and carbon-based adsorbents (Álvarez-Gutiérrez et al., of plastic wastes: chain scission, depolymerisation, cross-linking and
2018; Balsamo et al., 2013). Furthermore, innovative materials such as chain stripping (Syamsiro et al., 2014). Char production by this recy
magnesium-based metal organic framework (MOF) silicalite (Li et al., cling technique is a promising method, since the process conditions such
2011; Xian et al., 2015), silicoaluminophosphate sorbents (SAPOs) or as the temperature, heating rate and residence time can be manipulated
polyethyleneimine-impregnated resins (Johnson et al., 2021) are also to tailor the resulting product based on preferences (Wang et al., 2019;
being considered for biogas upgrading. A careful analysis of the litera Zhang et al., 2020). According to these pyrolytic conditions, different
ture about biogas upgrading by adsorption on carbonaceous materials types of processes are mainly classified into slow, fast and flash pyrolysis
shows the following: a very few studies were carried out by dedicated (Jahirul et al., 2012). Slow pyrolysis is typically used when the solid
experimental runs in the binary mixture (CO2-CH4) with the typical fraction (char) is the desired product; it is conducted at moderate tem
biogas composition of 40 % CO2 / 60 % CH4; most of the available data peratures (400–500 ◦ C) during long residence times (5–30 min) and at
deal with the adsorption action of this mixture on a given adsorbent. slow heating rates (<10 ◦ C/s). Fast pyrolysis is a rapid thermal
Moreover, research on carbon-based adsorbents has been chiefly decomposition mainly used to obtain the liquid product (oil); it is con
focused on biomass-derived carbons for that purpose. ducted at moderate to high temperatures (400–650 ◦ C) during short
To our knowledge, no studies have been reported on biogas residence times (0.5–10 s) and at high heating rates (10–200 ◦ C/s). Flash
upgrading by adsorption on carbonaceous materials obtained from the pyrolysis is an extremely rapid thermal decomposition conducted at
pyrolysis and further activation of plastic wastes. Although the plastic- high temperatures (700–1000 ◦ C) during very short residence times
based activated carbons showed interesting results as CO2 adsorbents, (<0.5 s) and at very high heating rates (>1000 ◦ C/s); its major end-
they are largely untested in the upgrading of biogas and deserve further products are gases and bio-oil (Balat et al., 2009).
Fig. 1. Main physical and chemical recycling technologies for plastic waste recycling.
117
Different chemical reactors are currently used for the pyrolysis of kilns (Serrano et al., 2001), (f) microwave (Rosi et al., 2018) and (f)
plastic wastes. Several literature review manuscripts show the influence plasma reactors (Guddeti et al., 2000).
of those reactors on the product composition and distribution (Al-Salem The laboratory scale fixed-bed reactors usually have a low capacity
et al., 2017; López et al., 2017; Solis and Silveira, 2020); the most for the samples, generally not>500 g per batch. The volatiles usually
frequently used include (a) laboratory-scale fixed-bed (Miandad et al., pass through a condenser where the condensates are collected. The char
2016), (b) fluidized-bed (Jung et al., 2010), (c) spouted-bed (Elordi residue remains in the reactor and can be removed after cooling. The
et al., 2011), (d) horizontal tubular (Quesada et al., 2019), (e) screw reactor can be arranged horizontally or vertically, and heating is done
Fig. 2. Different pyrolysis reactors used currently for the pyrolysis of plastic waste: a) Laboratory scale fixed-bed (Singh et al., 2019a); b) Fluidized-bed (Kang et al.,
2008); c) Spouted-bed (López et al., 2010); d) Screw kilns (Wallis et al., 2008); e) Microwave-assisted (Ludlow-Palafox and Chase, 2001); f) Induction-coupled plasma
(Guddeti et al. 2000).
118
electrically, reaching temperatures of up to 900 ◦ C. A scheme of this type method for the treatment of mixed plastic wastes, integrating the con
of reactor is given in Fig. 2a (Singh et al., 2019a). These reactors are ditions of conventional pyrolysis with the properties of plasma. The
simple but have some important disadvantages such as long residence temperatures obtained are very high, and the process is extremely fast,
times and low heating rates, which results in a low heat transfer coef which is an advantage over the conventional system. However, the
ficient and a non-uniform temperature in the samples. Moreover, they operation cost poses a problem in its application on the industrial scale.
also present difficulties in removing the char. The fluidized-bed reactors Guddeti et al. (2000) describe in detail the operation of an induction-
consist of four parts: (1) a feeding system, generally by means of a screw coupled plasma reactor for the depolymerization of polypropylene
feeder; (2) the fluidized-bed reactor; (3) a cooling system by means of (Fig. 2f). In conclusion, there are a variety of reactor configurations for
condensers for oil collection; and (4) a solid particle separation system, plastic pyrolysis and these vary primarily in their solids handling, mix
frequently composed of a cyclone and either one or several hot filters. ing, and heat transfer mechanisms. Nevertheless, while the reactor
These reactors, which have a vertical layout, are heated electrically, design affects the yield of the obtained pyrolytic products, the main
reaching temperatures of up to 900 ◦ C. The feeding speed is variable, factors influencing the production of the char are those associated with
depending on the installation size and can vary from values of 100–200 the pyrolysis process. In any case, some other hybrid energy systems
g h− 1 to several kg h− 1. Fig. 2b shows the diagram of the fluidized-bed with renewable energy sources are needed to explore cost-effective and
plant (Kang et al., 2008). Although they have a simple design, are easy to energy-efficient pyrolysis reactors to solve the main disadvantages of
operate and suitable for large scale, small particle sizes are required. It is some promising pyrolysis reactors, such as microwave-assisted or
worth noting that this type of reactor is the best for catalytic pyrolysis of plasma pyrolysis reactors.
plastic wastes. The catalyst might be regenerated several times without Table 1 summarizes the pyrolytic conditions and the solid yield ob
discharging, which is worth considering especially when the catalyst is tained from different plastic wastes. In experimental conditions, the char
expensive (Sharuddin et al., 2016). yield varied considerably. As a matter of fact, in some cases no char was
The spouted-bed reactors have a conical geometry with a cylindrical obtained. For example, FakhrHoseini and Dastanian (2013) reported
upper section. The dimensions are variable depending on the installation solid yields of 0.0 % and 8.98 % for pyrolyzed polypropylene and
size and are designed to guarantee the stability of the bed in different polyethylene terephthalate, respectively, working under the same
operating regimes. The other elements accompanying the reactor are operation conditions. Similar findings were reported by Williams and
similar to the other installations, mainly a condensation system for oil Slaney (2007) using polystyrene and high-density polyethylene as the
collection and cyclones and/or filters to retain particles. The heating precursors. The authors reported a solid yield of 27 % for the former and
system is usually powered and the operating temperatures are similar to 0 % for the latter. Thus, the nature of the precursor influences the char
those of the other types of reactors. Before entering the reactor, the ni production. The pyrolysis temperature and heating rate are the most
trogen flow is preheated until it reaches the reaction temperature. determinant factors influencing the char yield. Higher pyrolysis tem
Plastic precursors with larger particles and different densities can be peratures result in increased devolatilization of volatile matter, which is
used in this reactor, avoiding the need for their separation. However, released from the plastic waste during the pyrolysis, producing a smaller
this has some disadvantages such as the collection of the solid and liquid char yield for the fixed heating rate (Peng et al., 2000). Demirbas (2004)
products. Fig. 2c presents the diagram of the pyrolysis installation with studied the char yields of municipal plastic wastes at different temper
the spouted-bed reactor (López et al., 2010). atures. The solid product yield decreased from 38 % to 5 % with the
In the screw kilns reactors, pyrolysis is conducted in a screw extruder increase of the pyrolysis temperature from 337 to 437 ◦ C. Moreover, no
with different heating zones (Fig. 2d) (Wallis et al., 2008). The plastic solid fraction was obtained at temperatures higher than 527 ◦ C. Mis
material is melted in the feed hopper, which is heated and nitrogen-fed kolczi et al. (2004) studied the char yields of HDPE waste at different
to keep the medium inert. The reaction zone is made up of a screw whose temperatures and found that the solid yields decreased with the
speed can be adjusted in different ranges by means of an electric motor increasing process temperature; at 400 ◦ C, the solid product yield was
to achieve the desired operating conditions. The different heating zones 93.5 %. However, as the temperature increased up to 450 ◦ C, the solid
are controlled by thermocouples. At the exit of the extruder there is a yield decreased to 19.7 %. Additionally, the authors also studied the
condenser to collect the condensable liquid fraction. This type of reactor effect of different catalysts, HZSM-5 and clinoptilolite, in the yield
is one of the most widely used for the pyrolysis of plastic wastes because products. It was found that the yields of both gas and liquid fractions
they are easy to operate and provide good temperature control. The were larger when using these catalysts. However, as far as the temper
stirrer enhances the heat transfer and its distribution and recovers the ature is concerned, the solid fraction yield was smaller. Therefore, the
char remaining from the walls, which would otherwise behave as heat main variables affecting the final plastic-based char yield are: (1) the
insulators (Butler and Devlin, 2011). Less favourably, these reactors nature of the precursor, (2) the pyrolysis operating conditions, and (3)
require frequent maintenance. the use of a proper catalyst. Furthermore, the pyrolysis conditions also
Microwave-assisted pyrolysis has several advantages compared to affect the resulting carbon properties and the subsequent application.
the conventional heating modes, such as fast and homogeneous heating Since they affect the cracking reactions, the temperature and heating
of the raw material and faster response to switching on and off. rate are the dominant parameters controlling the final textural charac
Generally, the reactor consists of a microwave oven inside which there is teristics of the char. Generally, fast pyrolysis produces carbons with
a container that is irradiated with microwaves and kept under agitation. larger pores than those obtained by slower pyrolysis; moreover, a higher
The reactor temperature, which can reach up to 1000 ◦ C, is controlled by carbon yield is obtained from the latter. Whilst low heating rates pro
thermocouples. The pyrolysis gases leave the reactor and pass through duce carbons with abundant micropores, higher heating rates induce the
the system of condensers using a system that is similar to that mentioned formation of macropores in the resulting material, due to a faster
above. Fig. 2e shows Ludlow-Palafox and Chase’s (2001) experimental devolatilization process (Cetin et al., 2004). Another concern of pro
microwave-assisted pyrolysis equipment applied for plastic waste py ducing char at a high heating rate is its tendency to quickly chemi-sorb
rolysis. The effectiveness of the microwave heating relies upon the large amounts of O2 when exposed to the air, which would reduce its
dielectric properties of the precursor. For instance, given that plastics surface area and active sites (Nsakala et al., 1978). Therefore, low
have a low dielectric constant, mixing them with carbon can enhance temperatures and low heating rates are the most appropriate pyrolytic
the energy absorbed to be transformed into heat in a shorter time (Lam conditions to produce CO2 adsorbents derived form plastic wastes.
and Chase, 2012). The most important disadvantages of this configu Proximate or elemental analyses are usually performed to determine
ration are the high operating costs and high electrical power the char composition (i.e., moisture, ash, volatiles, and fixed carbon); on
consumption. the other hand, chemical species (i.e. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro
Recently, plasma pyrolysis has been considered an appropriate gen, sulphur, or chlorine) are obtained through the elemental analyses
119
Table 1
Summary of studies on pyrolyzed plastic waste.
Type of Plastic Pyrolysis T. ◦ C Reactor Heating rate Holding time h Catalyst Solid Reference
◦
C min¡1 yield
(wt%)
LDPE 31.25 % + HDPE 31.25 % + PP 7.29 % 500 NA 0.02 – 2.82 (Williams and
+ PS 13.50 % + PVC 11.46 % + PET% 5.21 Fluidized-bed Williams, 1997a)
550 NA 0.02 – 5.87 (Williams and
Williams, 1997a)
600 NA 0.02 – 7.59 (Williams and
Williams, 1997a)
HDPE 700 Fixed-bed 25 Until no more gas – 0 (Williams and
was produced Williams, 1997b)
LDPE 700 25 Until no more gas – 0 (Williams and
PS 700 25 Until no more gas – 3.50 (Williams and
PP 700 25 Until no more gas – 0.15 (Williams and
PET 700 25 Until no more gas – 15.55 (Williams and
PVC 700 25 Until no more gas – 13.78 (Williams and
LDPE 31.25 % + HDPE 31.25 % + PP 7.29 % 700 25 Until no more gas – 2.87 (Williams and
+ PS 13.50 % + PVC 11.46 % + PET 5.21 % was produced Williams, 1997b)
Tyre 400 Unstirred batch NA NA – 50.10 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 NA NA – 37.15 (Mui et al., 2010)
600 NA NA – 35.43 (Mui et al., 2010)
700 NA NA – 34.93 (Mui et al., 2010)
800 NA NA – 33.71 (Mui et al., 2010)
900 NA NA – 32.34 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 5 1 – 38.45 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 5 2 – 37.15 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 5 3 – 37.05 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 5 4 – 35.66 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 1 2 – 38.7 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 5 2 – 37.15 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 10 2 – 37 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 15 2 – 36.9 (Mui et al., 2010)
500 20 2 – 36.8 (Mui et al., 2010)
Real sample: 500 20 0.5 – 5.3 (Adrados et al., 2012)
PE 35 %, PP 40 %, PS 19 %, PET 5 %, PVC 1 Unstirred semi-
% batch
Simulated sample: PE 40 %, PP 35 %, PS 18 500 20 0.5 – 0.8 (Adrados et al., 2012)
%, PET 4 %, PVC 3 % 500 20 0.5 Red mud 0.6 (Adrados et al., 2012)
PS + PE + PP 337 Fixed-bed 10 K/s NA – ≈ 38 (Demirbas, 2004)
427 10 K/s NA – ≈5 (Demirbas, 2004)
527 10 K/s NA – 0 (Demirbas, 2004)
627 10 K/s NA – 0 (Demirbas, 2004)
PE 58.6 %, PP 26.9 %, PS 8.8 %, PET 5.6 % 500 Fixed-bed 10 Non-isothermal 10 ± (Singh et al., 2019a)
1.2
500 20 Non-isothermal 8.5 ± (Singh et al., 2019a)
1.1
500 20 C/s
◦
Isothermal 2±1 (Singh et al., 2019a)
PE 58.6 %, PP 26.9 %, PS 8.7 %, PET 5.6 % 450 20 1 – ≈ 11.5 (Singh and Ruj, 2016)
500 20 1 – 9.5 (Singh and Ruj, 2016)
550 20 1 – ≈ 6.5 (Singh and Ruj, 2016)
600 20 1 – ≈ 3.8 (Singh and Ruj, 2016)
HDPE 400 Unstirred batch NA 1 – 93.5 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
400 NA 1 NCM 90.6 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
400 NA 1 FCC 78.9 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
400 NA 1 HZSM-5 73.7 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
420 NA 1 – 85.6 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
450 NA 1 – 19.7 (Miskolczi et al., 2004)
HDPE 430 Fixed-bed 3 NA – 9.0 (Uddin et al., 1997)
LDPE 430 3 NA – 7.5 (Uddin et al., 1997)
HDPE 430 3 NA SA-2 11.0 (Uddin et al., 1997)
LDPE 430 3 NA SA-2 9.0 (Uddin et al., 1997)
LDPE 500 Fixed-bed 6 NA – 0.16 (FakhrHoseini and
Dastanian, 2013)
(continued on next page)
120
Table 1 (continued )
Type of Plastic Pyrolysis T. ◦ C Reactor Heating rate Holding time h Catalyst Solid Reference
◦
C min¡1 yield
(wt%)
500 10 NA – 0.09 (FakhrHoseini and

Dastanian, 2013)
Dastanian, 2013)
PET 500 6 NA – 8.98 (FakhrHoseini and
Dastanian, 2013)
Dastanian, 2013)
Dastanian, 2013)
PP 500 6 NA – 0.12 (FakhrHoseini and
Dastanian, 2013)
Dastanian, 2013)
Dastanian, 2013)
LDPE 425 Pressurised 10 1 – 0.5 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
450 batch 10 1 – 1.75 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
500 10 1 – 15.5 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
PS 350 10 1 – 1 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
450 10 1 – 19.6 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
500 10 1 – 30.4 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
LDPE 70 % 400 10 1 – 0 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
PS 30 % 425 10 1 – 1.2 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
450 10 1 – 3.5 (Onwudili et al., 2009)
HDPE 500 Pressurised 5 1 – 0 (Williams and Slaney,
batch 2007)
PP 500 5 1 – 0 (Williams and Slaney,
2007)
PS 500 5 1 – 27 (Williams and Slaney,
2007)
PET 500 5 1 – 53 (Williams and Slaney,
2007)
PE 40 %, PP 35 %, PS 18 %, PET 4 %, PVC 3 % 500 Unstirred semi- 20 0.5 – 0.8 (López et al., 2011a)
batch
PE 40 %, PP 35 %, PS 18 %, PET 4 %, PVC 3 % 460 20 0.5 – 1.1 (López et al., 2011b)
500 20 0.5 – 0.8 (López et al., 2011b)
600 20 0.5 – 0.9 (López et al., 2011b)
500 20 0 min – 24.1 (López et al., 2011b)
500 20 0.25 – ≈1 (López et al., 2011b)
500 20 0.5 – ≈1 (López et al., 2011b)
500 20 2 – ≈1 (López et al., 2011b)
PET 725 Fixed-bed NA NA NA 22 (Parra et al., 2006)
(Saptoadi et al., 2016). Table 2 shows the elemental composition of the management of residues and the control of the CO2 emissions level. That
plastic-based char from a series of studies. Similarly to hydrocarbons, is why it is paramount to focus on the role played by activated carbon,
plastic char is characterized by a large carbon content, in most cases which can be produced, among others, after char activation. Carbon
over 70 % or even up to 99 % (Parra et al., 2006). The pyrolysis tem materials can be activated by either physical or chemical processes.
perature not only affects the char yield but also its composition. The Fig. 3 summarizes the general procedure used for both activation
higher the pyrolysis temperature, the higher the char carbon content. methods. In the chemical activation, the precursor is first subjected to a
However, the O and H contents decrease, since their respective func pyrolysis process to remove the non-carbon elements, producing the
tional groups are released as volatile matter during the decomposition char. Then, the char is mixed with a chemical agent (such as KOH,
reactions (López et al., 2011b). These transformations induce the NaOH, K2CO3 or H3PO4), whose main role is to degrade the precursor
development of porosity in the resulting carbon material. (Kaur et al., 2019b). At that point, the mixture is subjected to a new
The results from the proximate analysis of the plastic-based chars are thermal process in an inert environment. In some other cases, the
also given in Table 2. Their common characteristics include a small chemical activation is a single-step process, where the carbonization and
moisture and ash content with a larger content of volatile and fixed activation are performed simultaneously. In any case, once the thermal
carbon. According to Saptoadi et al. (2016), the contents of the plastic- treatment is over, the solid product is washed with deionized water and/
based char components are dependent on the nature of the precursor, or acid, depending on the chemical agent used (Namane et al., 2005).
the operating temperature, and the use of suitable catalysts. A low ash The washing process aims at removing the chemical components in the
content is favourable for developing efficient CO2 adsorbent materials. A remaining material (Singh et al., 2019b). Finally, the product is dried in
large ash content may cover the pores, reducing the surface area and an oven until its weight remains constant. The remaining material is an
creating internal heat and mass transfer limitations (Gray et al., 2002). activated carbon in which the size and number of pores are increased
significantly.
Physical activation can also be performed as a one-step or two-step
2.2. Preparation of activated carbons process. In the two-step process, as in the chemical activation, the ma
terial is first pyrolyzed in an inert atmosphere, producing carbon with a
It is well known that the use of plastic wastes to produce gaseous porous structure that is not very refined. In the activation stage, a second
pollutant adsorbents can solve two key environmental issues: the
121
Table 2
Summary of chemical properties of the plastic-based chars.
Type of Plastic Pyrolysis Reactor Moisture Volatile Fixed Ash C H N Cl O Reference
conditions matter carbon
HDPE Fast pyrolysis Fixed-bed 2.41 51.40 46.03 0.16 42.65 3.06 0.43 – 1.80 (Jamradloedluk and
400–450 ◦ C Lertsatitthanakorn,
2014)
LDPE 31.25 % + HDPE 500 ◦ C − 15 s – – – 96.92 1.73 0.07 0.05 – – (Williams and Williams,
31.25 % + PP 7.29 % Fluidised 1997a)
+ PS 13.50 % + PVC 600 ◦ C − 15 s bed – – – 77.86 2.35 0.08 0.02 – – (Williams and Williams,
11.46 % + PET 5.21 1997a)
% 700 C − 15 s
◦
– – – 53.81 34.53 0.51 0.77 – – (Williams and Williams,
1997a)
LDPE 31.25 % + HDPE 700 ◦ C – – – 4.23 87.73 1.99 0.13 – – (Williams and Williams,
31.25 % + PP 7.29 % until no more 1997b)
+ PS 13.50 % + PVC gas was
11.46 % + PET 5.21 produced Fixed-bed
%
PET 700 C
◦
– – – 5.86 84.93 2.48 0 – – (Williams and Williams,
until no more 1997b)
gas was
produced
PVC 700 ◦ C – – – 2.91 90.15 2.55 0.15 – – (Williams and Williams,
until no more 1997b)
gas was
produced
PE 450 ◦ C 5.80 55.46 15.15 23.57 – – – – – (Saptoadi et al., 2016)
PE 50 % + PP 40 % + Natural NA 10.36 17.12 43.00 29.50 – – – – – (Saptoadi et al., 2016)
PS 10 % Zeolite
catalyst
PE 500 ◦ C 9.28 24.68 24.97 41.05 – – – – – (Saptoadi et al., 2016)
Natural
Zeolite
catalyst
PE + Others (50:50) 450 ◦ C 4.68 6.23 52.56 36.50 – – – – – (Saptoadi et al., 2016)
PE + PS (50:50) Natural 4.39 63.67 9.89 22.03 – – – – – (Saptoadi et al., 2016)
Zeolite
catalyst
Real sample 35 % PE, 500 ◦ C − 30 Unstirred 2.3 – – 61.4 29.3 1.2 1.1 4.7 – (Adrados et al., 2012)
40 % PP, 19 % PS, 5 min semi-batch
% PET, 1 % PVC
Simulated sample 40 % 0.2 – – 2.3 93.7 3.5 – 0.3 – (Adrados et al., 2012)
PE, 35 % PP, 18 % Red mud 0.9 – – 80.8 13.9 0.7 – 3.7 – (Adrados et al., 2012)
PS, 4 % PET, 3 % catalyst
PVC
PET 700 ◦ C − 2 h – – – – 81.22 2.27 – – 11.71 (Kaur et al., 2019a)
500–800 ◦ C- 2 Fixed-bed – – – – 80.38 0.63 – – 18.99 (Kaur et al., 2019a)
h
+ KOH act.
500–800 ◦ C- 2 – – – – 65.10 0.57 – – 34.33 (Kaur et al., 2019a)
h
+ KOH act.
PE 40 %, PP 35 %, PS 460 ◦ C- 30 0.1 – – – 92.0 3.9 – 0.1 – (López et al., 2011b)
18 %, PET 4 %, PVC min Unstirred
3% 500 ◦ C − 30 semi-batch 0.2 – – – 93.7 3.5 – 0.3 – (López et al., 2011b)
min
600 ◦ C − 30 0.1 – – – 91.7 2.3 – 0.3 – (López et al., 2011b)
min
500 ◦ C − 15 0.4 – – – 94.4 3.7 – 0.2 – (López et al., 2011b)
min
500 ◦ C − 30 0.2 – – – 93.7 3.5 – 0.3 – (López et al., 2011b)
min
500 ◦ C − 120 0.3 – – – 94.1 3.5 – 0.1 – (López et al., 2011b)
min
PET 725 ◦ C − 1 h – – – – 96.6 1.8 – – 1.2 (Parra et al., 2006)
+ CO2 act. Fixed-bed – – – – 98.2 0.5 – – 0.9 (Parra et al., 2006)
− 1h
+ CO2 act. – – – – 98.8 0.3 – – 0.6 (Parra et al., 2006)
− 12 %*
+ CO2 act. – – – – 98.9 0.3 – – 0.6 (Parra et al., 2006)
− 35 %*
+ CO2 act. – – – – 98.7 0.2 – – 0.6 (Parra et al., 2006)
− 58 %*
+ CO2 act. – – – – 99.0 0.2 – – 0.5 (Parra et al., 2006)
− 76 %*
122
Type of Plastic Pyrolysis Reactor Moisture Volatile Fixed Ash C H N Cl O Reference
conditions matter carbon
PET 700 ◦ C –2h Fixed-bed – – – – ≈82 ≈2.5 – – 11.71 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
+ KOH act. – – – – 80 <1 – – 18.99 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
(1:1)
+ KOH act. – – – – ≈68 <1 – – ≈31 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
(2:1)
+ KOH act. – – – – 65.1 <1 – – 34.33 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
(3:1)
+ KOH act. – – – – ≈70 <1 – – ≈30 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
(4:1)
PET 500 ◦ C − 0.5 h Horizontal – – – – 81.3 2.7 – – 16.0 (Arenillas et al., 2005)
KOH act. tubular
+ Acridine – – – – 73.7 3.1 0.5 – 22.7 (Arenillas et al., 2005)
+ Carbazole – – – – 75.2 2.8 4.2 – 17.8 (Arenillas et al., 2005)
+ Urea – – – – 75.2 2.6 0.5 – 21.7 (Arenillas et al., 2005)
*Burn-off degree.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of activated carbon preparation from the plastic waste.
heating proceeds in the presence of such oxidizing agents as steam, that can be tailored by controlling the experimental variables involved
carbon dioxide, air or their binary mixture (Rodríguez-Reinoso and in the chemical activation process, e.g., the activation temperature and
Molina-Sabio, 1992). The gasification opens and develops the pores to time, chemical agent, impregnation ratio or flow rate.
the most convenient size and shapes, depending on the gas and the
operating conditions (Choma et al., 2016). 3.1.1. Activation with KOH
Besides the method selected for the preparation of activated carbon, Potassium hydroxide is the most frequently used agent for the acti
the choice of the precursor is also of great importance (Bhatnagar et al., vation of porous carbon obtained from plastic wastes. This chemical is a
2013). The nature of the precursor contributes to the final porous texture strong and corrosive base that melts without decomposition at 360 ◦ C
of the carbon materials. The use of different precursors to produce (Bailar and Trotaman-Dickenson, 1973). Moreover, at that temperature,
porous carbon has been extensively researched. These studies can be it can react with most carbon materials. The following possible reactions
classified into two groups: naturally occurring (cellulosic and lignocel between potassium hydroxide and pyrolyzed carbon occurring during
lulosic) and synthetic (polymers) precursors. The former is the most the activation have been reported so far (Wang and Kaskel, 2012):
investigated low-cost precursor (Ioannidou and Zabaniotou, 2007).
Interestingly, the use of polymer wastes as a precursor for the prepara 2KOH → K2O + H2O (Potassium hydroxide is dehydrated at ≈ 400 ◦ C)(R.1)
tion of CO2 adsorbents seems to provide a better control to achieve C + H2O → CO + H2 (Water-gas reaction)(R.2)
enhanced morphology, a tuneable pore system, functionality, and spe
cific surface chemistry as compared to those obtained from biomass CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (Water-gas shift reaction)(R.3)
wastes (Zhang et al., 2015).
CO2 + K2O → K2CO3 (Potassium carbonate formed at ≈ 400–500 ◦ C)(R.4)
3. The effect of the activation method on the textural 6KOH + 2C → 2 K + 3H2 + 2K2CO3 (Potassium hydroxide is consumed at ≈
parameters of plastic-based activated carbons 600 ◦ C)(R.5)
3.1. Effects under chemical activation conditions K2CO3 → K2O + CO2 (Potassium carbonate is decomposed at ≈ 700 ◦ C)(R.6)
CO2 + C → 2CO(R.7)
Obtaining a suitable pore structure is the main aim in the synthesis of
any effective CO2 adsorbent material. It should have a large surface area K2CO3 + 2C → 2 K + 3CO (Potassium oxide compounds are reduced at ≈ T
and abundant micropores of the appropriate size to match the CO2 > 700 ◦ C)(R.8)
molecules. The porosity of the activated carbons is the main parameter
123
Table 3
Summary of the operating conditions during the activation of plastic material precursors with KOH and their textural properties.
Precursor Pyrolysis Activation N2 Flow Rate mL Agent/ SBET Pore Vol. cm3 Reference
T/oC – t/ h T/ oC – t/ h min¡1 Precursor m2 g¡1
ratio g¡1
Polyacrylonitrile 800–2 800–2 60 2:1 1,513 0.65 (Singh et al., 2019c)

PAN 3:1 1,884 1.34
4:1 1,694 0.96
PAN 800–2 800–2 50 3:1 1,890 1.47 (Singh et al., 2019b)
Polyethylene terephthalate 600–1 700–1 200 2:1 1,812 0.75 (Yuan et al. 2020a)
PET 1,000–1 1,689 0.78
Polyurethane Foam 400–1 700–2 60 2:1 1,360 0.59 (Ge et al., 2019)
PU-F
PET 700–2 700–2 60 1:1 591 0.26 (Kaur et al., 2019b)
3:1 1,690 0.83
4:1 1,280 0.66
Polystyrene Foam 500–5 600–1 – 4:1 2,109 0.88 (De Paula et al., 2018)
PS-F 800–1 2,712 1.2
PU-F 400–1 700–2 80 1:1 1,516 0.64 (Ge et al., 2016)
2:1 1,430 0.59
4:1 1,420 0.58
PU-F 700–1 Single-step 80 2:1 1,077 0.70 (Ge et al., 2016)
Kevlar 500 – 0.5 700–0.5 900 3:1 1,830 1.26 (Choma et al. 2014)
4:1 2,660 1.54
5:1 2,450 1.41
PAN 850–2 Single-Step 50 2:1 780 0.39 (Shen et al., 2011)
500–2 850–1 2,231 1.16
PET 1) 400–1 Single-step 50 1:1 1,338 0.79 (Adibfar et al., 2014)
2) 800–1
PAN 800–1 Single-step 20 0.8:1 3,072 1.75 (Kamran et al., 2020)
pre-oxidized with ZnCl2
PAN 800–1 Single-step 20 0.8:1 1,167 0.59 (Feng et al., 2018)
pre-oxidized with ZnCl2 0.6:1 2,151 1.11
PAN 750–2 Single-step – 3:1 3,751 2.48 (Li et al., 2019b)
pre-oxidized with KNO3
PAN 750–2 Single-step – 1:1 2,568 1.15 (Li et al., 2019a)
pre-oxidized with KNO3 2:1 2,927 1.54
3:1 2,870 1.69
PAN 220–1.5 900–3 1,500 3:1 2,366 0.83 (Hsiao et al., 2011)
dissolved in 240–1.5 3,275 1.51
NN-dimethylacetamide 280–1.5 2,655 0.14
PET 600–1 850–1.5 – 2:1 2,831 1.68 (Lian et al., 2011)
Polyvinyl chloride 600–1 850–1.5 – 2:1 2,666 1.44 (Lian et al., 2011)
PVC
PS 700–2 770–1 – 2:1 1,566 1.05 (Wang et al., 2009)
3:1 1,708 1.19
4:1 2,022 1.35
PET 700–1 Single-step 100 1:1 454 – (Almazán-Almazán et al.,
2:1 1,026 2007)
3:1 1,308
200 1,055 2010)
300 959
700–4 1,727 2010)
700–8 1,539
PET 800–1 Single-step 300 1:1 1,884 – (Almazán-Almazán et al.,
800–4 1,971 2010)
800–8 2,157
PAN 800–1 Single-step – 2:1 1,565 0.74 (Chiang et al., 2019)
PS 530–5 800–1 – 3:1 2,562 1.21 (Machado et al., 2021)

Mixed Plastic+ 700–0.2 850–1 – 6:1 1,734 2.44 (Gong et al., 2014)
Montmorillonite
(1:5)
PVC 1) 300–3 750–1 100 1:1 400 – (Kakuta et al., 2009)
2) 600–2 3:1 1,740
5:1 550
PET 500–2 Single-step – 4:1 353 0.29 (Djahed et al., 2015)
CD and DVD Waste 500–1 700–1 1,800 2:1 1,620 0.78 (Choma et al., 2015)
4:1 2,710 1.27
6:1 2,480 1.17
1) 520–1 800–1 – 4:1 2,815 1.45 (Czepirski et al., 2013)
PET 2) 850–1

800–4 1,023 2007)
124
Precursor Pyrolysis Activation N2 Flow Rate mL Agent/ SBET Pore Vol. cm3 Reference
T/oC – t/ h T/ oC – t/ h min¡1 Precursor m2 g¡1
ratio g¡1
PAN 920–2.5 Single-step 50 2:1 709 1.00 (Maddah and Nasouri, 2015)
Municipal Plastic Waste 700–0.5 700–1 – 1:1 542 0.24 (Cansado et al., 2022)
PAN 12 %* Single-step – – 1,197 0.54 (Ryu et al., 2000)
26 %* 2,558 1.28
32 %* 3,220 1.80
PET 850–2 Single-step – 1:1 1,060 – (Gómez-Serrano et al., 2021)
5:1 1,990
PET 500–0.5 + Acridine – 4:1:1 318 0.15 (Arenillas et al., 2005)
+ Carbazole 418 0.20
+ Urea 150 0.10
PET 600–1 + Urea 700–1 200 2:1:1 1,209 0.48 (Yuan et al., 2020b)
PAN 280–1.5 + NaOH 700–2 50 2:1:0.2 2,100 1.01 (Kim et al., 2015)
3:1:0.1 2,598 1.41
PAN 1,000–1 KOH 750–3+ 100 15 mL/g KOH 1,239 0.43 (Bai et al., 2015)
HF 200 mL/g HF 1,181 0.39
(1 M)+ HF 979 0.31
(4 M)
PET 700 - + HNO3 85 2:1 885 0.31 (Cansado et al., 2010)
+ NaOH 1,110 0.45
+ Urea 1,167 0.46
Polycarbonate 950–1 600–1 100 4:1 1,123 – (Méndez-Liñán et al., 2010)
PC 6:1 1,365
PET 700–0.5 700–1 – 6:1 2,683 1.32 (Zhang et al., 2021)
PVC 600–1 Single-step – 3:1 1,888 0.76 (Liu et al., 2022)

pre-oxidized with air 800–1 2,507 1.11
PAN 800–0.5 KOH 800–2 10 4:1:1 3,154 2.11 (Domínguez-Ramos et al.,
pre-oxidized with O2 + H2SO4 2,764 2.27 2022)
* Burn-off degree.
K2O + C → 2 K + CO(R.9)
◦
C and then decreased. The samples activated at 800 ◦ C had the largest
K2O + H2 → 2 K + H2O(R.10)
SBET and pore volume values of 2,006 m2g− 1 and 0.84 cm3g− 1, respec
Hydroxide dehydrates to form K2O (R.1), which can react with CO2 tively. The smallest ones were reported for the sample activated at 1000
produced by the water-shift reaction (R.3) to form K2CO3 (R.4). The
◦
C (see Table 3 above). Temperatures over 800 ◦ C are not favourable,
removal of these metal salts from carbon during the washing step, along since the pore structure can be destroyed (Zhu et al., 2017). This can be
with the structural changes promoted by the activation mechanisms, due to the sintering and realignment of the carbon structure by the
induces the development of porosity. The metallic potassium resulting complete decomposition of K2CO3, leading to violent gasification (R.6)
from the reactions between the potassium and carbon species (R.5, R.8 that partially destroys the pore structure by collapsing or combining the
and R.9) penetrates the internal structure of the carbon lattice, inducing pores (Hock and Zaini, 2018; Ge et al., 2019). Contrariwise, when the
the generation of the pore network. The formation of physical activating temperature is not high enough, the resulting carbon material does not
agents such as H2O (R.1 and R.10) and CO2 (R.3 and R.6) contributes to show a well-developed porous structure. No significant chemical
the development of porosity by the gasification of carbon (R.2 and R.7). changes in the potassium hydroxide occur, since at 500 ◦ C it reacts to
The intermediate potassium compounds, i.e. K2CO3 and K2O, react in the form potassium carbonate (R.5) (Illán-Gómez et al., 1996). Conse
active sites in carbon (R.5, R.8 and R.9), which results in the generation quently, activation temperatures below 500 ◦ C and over 800 ◦ C are not
of abundant micropores (>1 nm) (Sun et al., 2017). Thus, the porous recommended, especially when highly porous carbons are desired. A
structure is developed through the synergistic effect of pore widening, proper selection of the agent/precursor ratio is also crucial for obtaining
pore combination and pore collapse resulting from the activation activated carbons with the desired textural properties. Typical values
mechanisms. These mechanisms are largely dependent on the activation range between 1:1 and 4:1 (see Table 3 above). For example, Wang et al.
conditions. (2009) compared the textural properties of the activated carbons pre
Table 3 shows the textural properties of KOH-activated carbons and pared with different agent/precursor ratios, 2:1–4:1, and as precursor
the activation strategies. A large range of pyrolysis (500–800 ◦ C) and they employed polystyrene. The SBET and pore volume increased grad
activation (500–900 ◦ C) temperatures is currently used for the prepa ually with the agent/precursor ratio from 1,566 to 2,022 m2g− 1 and
ration of porous carbons treated by potassium hydroxide. The duration from 1.05 to 1.35 cm3g− 1, respectively; the conclusion reached was that
is usually 1 or 2 h for each process. According to Lozano-Castelló et al. the larger ratio led to a higher SBET and pore volume. Similarly, Choma
(2004), the porosity is influenced more by the activation temperature et al. (2015) used CDs and DVDs wastes to prepare activated carbons by
than its duration. De Paula et al. (2018) studied the influence of the varying the agent/precursor ratio from 1:1 to 6:1. The SBET, pore volume
activation temperature on the textural properties of polystyrene wastes. and micropore volume ranged from 730 to 2,710 m2g− 1, 0.35 to 1.27
Increasing the activation temperature (600–800 ◦ C) enhances the cm3g− 1, and 0.32 to 1.15 cm3g− 1, respectively. Those results increased
textural properties of the carbon material, manifested by an increment dramatically with the increasing agent/precursor ratio, reaching the
in the SBET (BET specific surface) and pore volume. The largest values maximum at a ratio of 4:1, and then decreased. From the data in Table 3,
were reported for the 800 ◦ C activated carbon: SBET 2,712 m2g− 1 and it can be concluded that increasing the agent/precursor ratio induces a
pore volume 1.2 cm3g− 1. Yuan et al. (2020a) obtained porous carbon positive trend in the SBET and pore volume. There are two simultaneous
from PET waste bottles by chemical activation, varying the activation mechanisms during the activation process, pore formation and pore
temperature from 700 to 1000 ◦ C. It was found that the SBET and pore widening. By increasing the amount of chemical agent, the extent of the
volume increased with the increasing activation temperature up to 800 reaction (R.5) increases, and the carbon porosity is developed. The
125
growing number of chemical species intercalating into the carbon matrix increased from 100 to 200 cm3min− 1, there was an increase in both SBET
promotes a higher expansion of the pores. However, an excess of pore and the micropore volume, from 454 to 1,055 m2 g− 1 and from 0.18 to
widening can destroy the pore walls. This may provoke the micropores 0.41 cm3 g− 1, respectively. Another increase up to 300 cm3 min− 1 had
to coalesce together to form macropores, reducing the specific surface almost no impact on these parameters, although an increase in the
area. According to Huang et al. (2015), if the hydroxide/precursor ultramicropore volume was observed. To understand the influence of
impregnation ratio is over 6, the pore walls can be degraded, and the the flow rate on the textural properties of these materials, it is necessary
porosity of the carbon material reduced. Moreover, impregnation is to look again at the reactions between hydroxide and carbon during the
considered the most polluting stage. A higher ratio leads also to higher activation. Reactions 5 and 6 show that several gases evolved during the
costs and longer washing times (Wang et al., 2020a). heat treatment. The faster or slower removal of these gases induced by
It is worth emphasising that the greatest values of SBET and the the N2 flowing could explain its influence on the development of
largest pore volume were obtained for the pre-oxidized activated car porosity. According to Lozano-Castelló et al. (2001), when a large flow
bons. Several authors (Shen et al., 2011; Feng et al., 2018; Kamran et al., rate is used, a smaller concentration of these gases is observed. Thus, the
2020; Li et al., 2019a, 2019b; Hsiao et al., 2011) pre-oxidized the pre gas flow behaves as a purge system. To our knowledge, no more studies
cursor prior to the carbonization to produce ultra-highly porous car have been reported on the influence of the gas flow rate on the textural
bons. For instance, Li et al. (2019b) claimed to have obtained the largest properties of plastic-based activated carbons. Therefore, further
SBET (3,751 m2g− 1) and the largest pore volume (2.48 cm3g− 1) of all the research exploring how the gas flow rate influences the textural prop
poly-acrylonitrile-based carbon materials reported in the literature. For erties of these materials is required, especially using gases other than
that reason, the precursor was mixed first with KNO3, then subjected to nitrogen. Although the flow rate is an important variable to be
pre-oxidation (240 ◦ C for 2 h) and finally KOH activation (750 ◦ C for 2 controlled in porous carbons production, the impregnation ratio or the
h). According to the authors, pre-oxidation of the raw precursor pro heat temperature are the most relevant ones in their final pore
moted the construction of a semi-carbonized structure, enabling the characteristics.
accessibility of potassium species and leading to an enlargement of the
surface area (Li et al., 2019b). 3.1.3. Activation with other chemical agents
Table 5 presents the activation conditions under which plastic-based
3.1.2. Activation with NaOH activated carbons are produced using chemical agents other than NaOH
Sodium hydroxide is also a strong and corrosive base that melts and KOH. Among them, phosphoric acid H3PO4, zinc chloride ZnCl2,
without decomposition at 318 ◦ C (Bailar and Trotaman-Dickenson, potassium carbonate K2CO3 and sulphuric acid H2SO4 are the most
1973); it has a lower cost and is less corrosive than potassium hydrox frequent alternatives to hydroxides. The SBET and total pore volume of
ide. Chemical activation using sodium hydroxide proceeds via the same H3PO4-activated carbons range from 1,223 to 246 m2 g− 1 and from 1.23
redox reactions as with KOH (Wang and Kaskel, 2012): to 0.15 cm3 g− 1, respectively (Table 5). Due to the large molecular po
larity of H3PO4, it is important to control the physical and chemical
6NaOH + 2C → 2Na + 3H2 + 2Na2CO3 (sSodium hydroxide is consumed at ≈ interactions between the acid and the precursor. Adjusting the concen
700 ◦ C)(R.11).
tration of H3PO4 solution or the acid/precursor ratio is the primary
Thus, the activation mechanisms inducing the development of factor to consider when this agent is used for that purpose. During the
porosity follow the same considerations as those given for the potassium activation process, the phosphoric acid reacts with the carbon precursor,
hydroxide. Table 4 illustrates the preparation and textural properties of leading to the formation of volatile species. The appearance of pores is a
NaOH-activated carbons. An under-studied variable affecting the final direct consequence of the evaporation of these species. However, a high
texture is the flow rate of gas used during the activation treatment. acid/precursor ratio promotes the formation of an isolating layer on the
Nitrogen is the most frequently employed gas in chemical activation, carbon surface, governed by the phosphorus compounds, which inhibits
which is mostly conducted at a flow rate in the range of 20–200 mL the development of an adequate porosity (Zhong et al., 2012). Moreover,
min− 1 (Tables 3-5). Almazán-Almazán et al. (2010) studied the rela the phosphorus compounds are not easily removed with washing (Liou
tionship between the activation parameters and the textural properties and Wu, 2009). In the literature reviewed, the most frequent H3PO4/
of the PET-activated carbons. The hydroxide-impregnated carbon was precursor ratio was 1:1 (Table 5). On the other hand, activation with
activated at 100, 200 and 300 cm3min− 1. When the flow rate was phosphoric acid usually requires a lower temperature than the
Table 4
Summary of operating conditions during the activation of plastic material precursors with NaOH and their textural properties.
Precursor Pyrolysis Activation N2 Flow Rate mL min¡1 Agent/Precursor SBET Pore Vol. cm3 g¡1 Reference
T/oC - t/ h T/ oC - t/ h ratio m2 g¡1
PAN 800–2 800–2 50 2:1 809 0.50 (Singh et al., 2019d)

3:1 1,020 0.57
4:1 967 0.53
PET 600–1 700–1 1,000–1 200 2:1 1,707 0.80 (Yuan et al. 2020a)
2,023 1.2
PU-F 400–1 700–2 60 2:1 710 0.41 (Ge et al., 2019)
PAN 800–1 Single-step 20 0.8:1 2,012 1.20 (Kamran et al., 2020)

pre-oxidized
ZnCl2
Polycarbonate 500–1.5 Single-step 800 1.5:1 348 – (Li et al., 2014)

3:1 756
Polycarbonate 500–3 Single-step 800 3:1 806 – (Li et al., 2014)
PET 800–1 Single-step 100 1:1 410 0.86 (Akmil-Başar et al., 2005)
650–4 269 2007)
650–8 337
PET 800–0.5 Single-step 100 2:1 770 – (Marzec et al., 1999)
126
Table 5
Summary of the activation conditions of plastic precursors with several chemical agents and their textural properties.
Chemical Agent Precursor Pyrolysis Activation N2 Flow Rate mL Agent/Precursor SBET Pore Vol. cm3 Reference
T/ oC – t/ h T/ oC – t/ h min¡1 ratio m2g¡1 g¡1
Melamine + ZnCl2/ PET 450–0.13 Single-step – 0.5:2:1 612 – (Song et al., 2020)
NaCl 550–0.13 1,173
NaNH2 PAN 800–2 800–2 50 2:1 549 0.29 (Singh et al., 2019d)
3:1 833 0.36
4:1 803 0.34
K2CO3 PAN 800; 2 800–2 50 2:1 1,110 0.50 (Singh et al., 2019d)
3:1 1,250 0.64
4:1 846 0.44
Ca(OH)2 PU-F 400–1 700–2 60 2:1 39 0.04 (Ge et al., 2019)
ZnCl2 PAN 700–0.5 Single-step – 4:1 1,074 0.49 (Tsuchiya et al., 2021)
H3PO4 PET 1) 400–1 Single-step 50 1:1 1,223 0.73 (Adibfar et al., 2014)
H2SO4 2) 800–1 583 0.37
ZnCl2 682 0.47
H2SO4 PET 600–0.5 Single-step 100 2:3 (Sureshkumar and
536 0.36 Susmita, 2018)
K2CO3 PU-F 800–1 Single-step 400 1:1 2,772 –
1:10 1,566 (Hayashi et al., 2005)
H2SO4 PET 800–1 Single-step – 1:3 420 0.36 (Kartel et al., 2001)
K2CO3 PAN 800–1 Single-step 20 0.8:1 1,179 0.54 (Kamran et al., 2020)
KNO3 971 0.45
H2SO4 500–1 Single-step 100 1:1 610 0.15 (Kartel et al., 2006)
PET 800–1 1,030 0.60
H3PO4 600–0.5 Single-step – 3:1 683 – (Cansado et al., 2008)

PET
FeCl3 500–2 Single-step – – 402 – (Marzec et al., 1999)

PET
CaO + MgO PET 850–1 Single-step – 1:5 331 – (Przepiórski et al., 2013)
2.5:1 106
H3PO4 450–4 Single-step – 1:1 261 0.15 (Ahangar et al., 2021)
PET
H3PO4 Kevlar 700–1 Single-step 80 1:3 403 0.21 (Giraldo et al., 2007)
K2CO3 Plastic Fuel 900–2 Single-step 500 1:1 310 – (Kadirova et al., 2006)
500–2 900–2 1,300
K2CO3 Municipal plastic 700–0.5 700–1 – 1:1 623 0.25 (Cansado et al., 2022)
waste
ZnCl2 PET 500–2 Single-step 100 1:1 700 0.69 (de Castro et al., 2018)
K2CO3 PET 800–2 Single-step 100 1:4 680 0.69 (de Castro et al., 2018)
1:1 1,390 1,55
hydroxides. H3PO4 promotes the dehydration of the carbon precursor step. Concerning the activation temperature, this agent usually requires
and can act as a catalyst, enabling the release of physical agents such as a lower activation temperature than with hydroxides. During the acti
CO and CO2, which react with carbon at a lower temperature (Jagtoyen vation, ZnCl2 promotes the formation of cross-linking structures with a
and Derbyshire, 1998). When the hydroxides are used (R.1), these low thermal stability (Kong et al., 2017). At temperatures over 500 ◦ C,
mechanisms occur at higher temperatures. Thus, a lower activation the breakdown and rearrangements of carbon aggregates occur, leading
temperature is required when using this chemical agent. For the carbon to collapse of the pores. Moreover, this agent might also act as a
materials derived from precursors of a different nature, there are also dehydrator.
reports on the SBET and pore volume decreasing as the agent ratio and The SBET and the total pore volume of K2CO3-activated carbons range
temperature increase (Attia et al., 2008; Benadjemia et al., 2011, Kang from 2,772 to 310 m2g− 1 and from 0.64 to 0.44 cm3g− 1, respectively
et al., 2018 Khamkeaw et al., 2019). (Table 5). During the heat treatment, the main reactions taking place
Zinc chloride is another chemical agent used for inducing porosity in between K2CO3 and the carbon species are shown in the previous section
the plastic-based carbons. The SBET and the total pore volume of ZnCl2- (R.6, R.8 and R.9). As mentioned above, the development of porosity is
activated carbons range from 1,439 to 682 m2g− 1 and from 0.7 to 0.47 mainly attributed to the reduction of K2CO3 by carbon to form K, K2O,
cm3g− 1, respectively (Table 5). In contrast to the previous agent, the CO2 and CO. The resulting potassium species can intercalate into the
textural characteristics of ZnCl2-activated carbons are favoured by carbon lattice, widening the existing pores. The carbon gasification also
increasing the amount of this agent. In fact, the highest textural values contributes to expansion of the pores. Moreover, new cavities are pro
were obtained for the sample activated with the largest agent ratio duced on the carbon surface when those compounds are evaporated (Liu
(Table 5). During the thermal treatment, volatile species are released et al., 2015 Wang and Kaskel, 2012). K2CO3 being an intermediate
from the carbon, creating cavities on its surface. Zinc chloride enables species formed during the KOH-activation, similar considerations can be
the movement of those species by preventing the formation of com given to both chemical agents.
pounds that can block the surface. Thus, increasing the mass ratio of Concerning the H2SO4-activated carbons, the SBET and the total pore
ZnCl2 promotes the release of those species, enhancing the N2 adsorp volume range from 1,030 to 420 m2g− 1 and from 0.60 to 0.36 cm3g− 1,
tion (Arami-Niya et al., 2010). Moreover, the porosity increment is also respectively (Table 5). H2SO4 promotes the partial degradation of the
accomplished via the appearance of pores left by ZnCl2 after the washing carbon precursor chiefly via the dehydration reactions. During the
127
C + H2O ↔ CO + H2 (ΔH = 118.5 kJ/mol)(R.13).

activation, sulphuric acid penetrates the carbon matrix, developing a
large or medium porosity on the carbon surface. Given that this activator During these reactions, carbon species undergo chemical degrada
can dissolve many impurities from carbon precursors, it can also be used tion by selective oxidation, the most reactive species being the first to be
as a cleaning or de-ashing agent for carbon precursors (Cheng et al., removed. These carbon species are converted into carbon monoxide and
2016). released in gaseous form. For the development of suitable porosity, the
Other chemical agents such as Ca(OH)2, HNO3 or FeCl3 were also removal of carbon atoms should occur dominantly into the carbon ma
used to produce porous carbons. However, the literature proves that trix instead of its surface. In this way, the gas is released from a deeper
their use to activate plastic waste is very limited compared to the level, and the formation and widening of pores are more pronounced.
chemical agents discussed above. Moreover, the activation with these The development of porosity is governed by these removal processes,
agents usually induces less porosity in the resulting material (Table 5). which are manifested by the carbon material weight loss (Rodríguez-
An interesting issue is the comparison between single-step and two- Reinoso et al., 1995).
step chemical activation. Kadirova et al. (2006) prepared activated The degree of activation is usually referred to as the burn-off value,
carbons by chemical activation using the single-step and two-step which is the difference between the masses before (carbon) and after
methods. The raw plastic waste was impregnated in K2CO3 (2:1) and (activated carbon) the activation:
directly activated at 900 ◦ C in the single-step method. However, for the ( )
W0 − W
two-step method, the precursor was first carbonized at 500 ◦ C and Burn − off(%) = 100
subsequently activated at 900 ◦ C. The SBET value of the single-step- W
activated carbon was 310 m2g− 1, and for the two-step-activated car where W0 is the initial mass of the carbonized sample and W refers to
bon was 1,300 m2g− 1. Similar findings can be drawn from a comparison the final mass after the activation.
of the papers by Singh et al. (2019b) and Maddah and Nasouri (2015) in Table 6 compiles the textural properties of physically activated
Tables 3-4. The two-step method is also more favourable in terms of the carbons derived from plastic wastes and the activating strategies. The
development of porosity when using hydroxides as activators. In the main factors controlling the activation process are the physical agent,
direct method, the agent is concentrated chiefly on the surface and the activation temperature, holding time and burn-off.
interior carbon matrix hardly reacts. Nevertheless, carbonization prior
to the activation enables the formation of fine cavities, creating acces 3.2.1. Activation with CO2
sible pathways toward the active sites within the carbon structure. Table 6 shows that porous carbons with large surface areas (the
Therefore, more chemical species can react with the carbon compounds, maximum SBET values in the range of 2,000–2,800 m2g− 1) can be ob
increasing the reaction rate (Saad et al., 2019). The result is a larger tained by CO2 physical activation. Generally, physical activation is
specific surface area and pore volume; however, the two-step method is conducted at 700–1,000 ◦ C, which is a higher range of temperatures
more energy-consuming. than that used for chemical activation. Kumar et al. (2018) prepared
To sum up, the literature reviewed in this study discusses the vari porous carbons from styrene acrylonitrile wastes by physical activation
ables affecting the development of porosity in chemically activated in CO2 atmosphere at 700, 800 and 900 ◦ C. The SBET increased from 497
carbons. The textural characteristics can be tuned by the appropriate to 1,358 m2g− 1 when the activation temperature changed from 700 to
control of those variables. KOH is the preferred agent for the preparation 900 ◦ C. A similar trend was observed for the pore volume values. Hong
of porous carbon from plastic waste precursors due to its major role in et al. (2016) also studied the influence of temperature on the textural
the enhancement of the textural properties (surface areas up to 3,800 properties of polyvinylidene fluoride-activated carbons. The precursor
m2g− 1 and pore volume up to 2.5 cm3g− 1 (Li et al., 2019b)). In com was activated in the range of 700–950 ◦ C in CO2 atmosphere for 1 h. The
parison, NaOH is a less effective activator, but costs less and is more SBET and pore volume were clearly enhanced by increasing the activa
environmentally friendly as well as less harmful than KOH. Both hy tion temperature. The highest SBET and pore volume values of 2,750
droxides act as oxidants. K2CO3 is also a non-hazardous and effective m2g− 1 and 1.46 cm3g− 1 were reported for the sample activated at 950
activator in preparing porous carbons with nicely controlled structures. ◦
C. The burn-off value increased proportionally with the increasing
ZnCl2 and H3PO4 serve as dehydrating agents, so a lower activation activation temperature, exhibiting a linear correlation between the
temperature is usually required. The former is toxic, with a more- textural parameters and the burn-off values. CO2 activation involves the
polluting character than the latter. Once the agent is selected, the C-CO2 reaction, which results in the removal of carbon species (R.12).
impregnation rate and the activation temperature were found to be the The active sites determine the progress of carbon removal. Further
most relevant parameters in the activation process. As shown below, the temperature increment promotes the migration of CO2 along the existing
attractive features of the chemically activated materials, such as a large pores to approach the active sites for reaction. The active oxygen of the
surface area and abundant micropores, make them powerful candidates physical agent promotes the openness of the block pores, the formation
for application in the field of CO2 capture. of new ones and their expansion by burning the carbonization off-
products, which are trapped within the carbon structure (Sevilla and
3.2. Effects under physical activation conditions Mokaya, 2014). Hence, an increment of the activation temperature
contributes to the carbon particle removal, which is manifested by a
Physical activation is considered to be a green method for activated higher burn-off value. Consequently, a porous structure is gradually
carbon preparation because it is chemical-free (Pallarés et al., 2018); it is formed, during which CO and CO2 are released.
also simpler than chemical activation, and consequently, fewer param In contrast to chemical activation, the porosity of the physically
eters are to be controlled in this type of activation. For the activation of activated carbons is greatly influenced by the activation time. This can
plastic-based char, the most frequently used activating agents are carbon be seen in Table 6, where a wide range of activation times (0.5–72 h) is
dioxide and steam, although some authors also used air or their binary found. Belo et al. (2017) prepared porous carbons from PAN wastes by
mixture. These media can have different effects on the formation of physical activation with CO2 at 800 ◦ C. To study the influence of the
porous carbon. Physical activation is a controlled gasification where activation time, the PAN activation was conducted ranging from 4 to 20
partial or total oxidation of char is governed by the oxidizing atmo h. The SBET and pore volume increased from 322 to 1,230 m2g− 1 and
sphere. Carbon dioxide and steam react endothermically with the car from 0.14 to 0.56 cm3g− 1, respectively. The thermogravimetric analysis
bon species according to the following reactions (Liu et al., 2020): showed that the burn-off evolution was closely related to the activation
time. Moura et al. (2018) obtained porous carbons by CO2 activation of
C + CO2 ↔ 2CO (ΔH = 159.0 kJ/mol)(R.12). pyrolyzed PET waste. The samples were activated at 925 ◦ C for 24, 36
128
Table 6
Summary of operating conditions during the physical activation of plastic material precursors and their textural properties.
Physical Agent Precursor Pyrolysis Activation Flow Rate mL SBET Pore Vol. Reference
T/oC – t/ h T/ oC – t/ h min¡1 m2 g¡1 cm3 g¡1
Air High-density polyethylene Fast 900–3 – 16.77 0.20 (Jamradloedluk and

HDPE pyrolysis Lertsatitthanakorn, 2014)
450
CO2 PU-F 400–1 800–2 15 15 0.04 (Ge et al., 2019)
900–2 206 0.10
1,000–2 865 0.42
CO2 Styrene Acrylonitrile 700–0.25 700–3 1,000 497 0.13 (Kumar et al., 2018)
SAN 900–0.25 900–3 1,358 0.19
CO2 PET 800–1 800–2 110 696 0.24 (Belo et al., 2017)
800–8 1,400 0.46
CO2 PAN 800–1 800–4 110 322 0.14 (Belo et al., 2017)
800–20 1,230 0.56
CO2 Kevlar 560–0.5 750–4 300 630 – (Conte et al., 2020)
900 752
CO2 Kevlar 550–0.5 700–5 300 923 0.44 (Choma et al. 2016)
750–3 1,240 0.61
800–1 737 0.38
Steam + N2 (85:15) Tyre 450 - 975–2 700 350 0.46 (Hadi et al., 2016)
975–6 732 0.91
CO2 PET 825–1.5 900–8 170 1,210 – (Bratek et al., 2013)
940–5 1,830
Steam + N2 (60:100) PVC 900–1.5 900–0.5 200 1,096 0.72 (Qiao et al., 2004)
900–1.5 2,096 1.34
Steam + N2 PET 750–0.5 900–1.5 – 1,170 0.62 (Laszlo and Szucs, 2001)
(1:1)
Steam PET 500 - 900–78 %* 200 1,700 0.15 (Nakagawa et al., 2000)
Steam + N2 (50:50) PAN 750–0.5 900–50 %* 800 544 0.28 (László et al., 2000)
PET 1,190 0.62
Steam PET 500–1 850–2 200 1,450 – (Nakagawa et al., 2003)
850–4 1,740
CO2 PET 800–1 950 – 4 100 438 0.24 (Esfandiari et al., 2012)
1,000 – 4 851 0.46
CO2 Polyvinylidene fluoride 800–1 Single-step 200 1,479 0.62 (Hong et al., 2016)
PDF 950–1 2,750 1.46
N2 PDF 400–2 Single-step – 245 0.14 (Lee and Park, 2014)
600–2 995 0.49
CO2 PET 800–1 975–4 – 2,010 0.93 (Esfandiari et al., 2011)
Steam + N2 PET 750–1.5 900–1.5 300 1,443 0.70 (Podkościelny and László, 2007)
1:1
CO2 PET 950–1 950–4 100 1,367 – (Fernández-Morales et al., 2005)
950–8 1,914
Steam PET 500–1 850–1 200 1,200 – (Nakagawa et al., 2004)
PET + Ca(NO3)2 1,200
CO2 PET 925–2 925–24 10 984 0.40 (Moura et al., 2018)
925–36 1,351 0.58
925–72 2,176 1.03
CO2 and N2 PET 1) 400–1 1) N2 925–1 10 659 0.36 (Rai and Singh, 2018)
2) 725–2 1) CO2
925–2
Steam PET + Act. H2SO4 800–0.5 Single-step – 1,030 0.81 (Sych et al. 2006)
Steam + N2 PET 700 - 900–1.5 300 1,190 0.42 (Bóta et al., 1997)
1:1
Steam PET 900–1 Single-step – 1,061 – (Gómez-Serrano et al., 2021)
Self-generated PET 200–0.25 700–5 – 515 0.54 (Collin et al., 2016)
atmosphere
Steam PAN 7.5 %* Single-step – 749 0.32 (Ryu et al., 2000)
12 %* 1,241 1.10
Air PAN 3.9 %* Single-step – 384 0.17 (Ryu et al., 2000)
5.3 %* 527 0.23
Air Municipal Plastic Waste 700–0.5 700–1 – 318 0.17 (Cansado et al., 2022)
CO2 Kevlar 900–3.5 800–12 %* 40 543 0.29 (Martínez-Alonso et al., 1997)
800–65 %* 986 0.50
Steam Kevlar 900–3.5 850–1 50 458 0.24
(Giraldo et al., 2007)
CO2 Waste Cds and DVDs 500–1 920–1 25 390 0.18 (Choma et al. 2014)
920–5 1,560 0.77
920–8 2,440 1.36
Steam PET 1) 520–1 800–50 %* – 1,042 0.47 (Czepirski et al., 2013)
CO2 2) 850–1 850–50 %* 1,122 0.52
Steam PS 900–3 900–0.75 – 1,555 1.29 (Wang et al., 2009)
Plastic Fuel 500 – (Kadirova et al., 2006)
129
Physical Agent Precursor Pyrolysis Activation Flow Rate mL SBET Pore Vol. Reference
T/oC – t/ h T/ oC – t/ h min¡1 m2 g¡1 cm3 g¡1
Steam/N2 900–2 Single-step 282

80:20 500–2 900–2 420
Steam Municipal Plastic waste 350–8 850–5 200 378 –
M. Plastic w. + HNO3 828 (Nagano et al., 2000)
CO2 PET 725–2 925–12 %* 10 668 – (Parra et al., 2006)

925–35 %* 1,405
925–76 %* 2,468
Ar Poly(vinylidenefluoride) 500–2 Single-step 500 880 0.41
PVDF 900–2 1,037 0.47 (Park et al., 2020)
CO2 PVDF 500–2 Single-step 500 856 0.41 (Park et al., 2020)
900–2 1,158 0.53
Steam PET + Act. H2SO4 800–1 800–1 – 1,230 0.54 (Kartel et al., 2001)
CO2 PET 400–4 975–1 200 1,591 – (Yuliusman et al., 2017)
CO2 Plastic Box Waste 700–0.5 800–5 – 701 0.25 (Cansado et al., 2022)
CO2 PET 925–38 %* Single step – 1,426 0.58 (Mestre et al., 2009)
CO2 Tyre 800–1 750–3 600 126 – (González et al., 2006)
850–3 496
Steam/N2 Tyre 800–1 750–2 600 213 – (González et al., 2006)
85:15 900–2 1,317
CO2 Polycarbonate 950–1 950–1 100 656 – (Méndez-Liñán et al., 2010)
950–8 1,927
*burn-off degree.
and 72 h. The burn-off degrees after 24, 36 and 72 h of activation were (2000) used PET wastes to obtain porous carbon by gasification under a
22 %, 41 % and 76 %, respectively, showing a strong correlation be mixed atmosphere of N2 + steam (1:1). The precursor was firstly
tween both variables. The greatest textural parameters were reported for carbonized at 750 ◦ C for 0.5 h and then subjected to gasification at 900
the 72 h activated sample. Another common practice for activated car ◦
C for 1.5 h. The SBET and pore volume values increased from 242 m2g− 1
bon preparation is setting the burn-off degree instead of the activation and 0.14 cm3g− 1 (carbonized PET) to 1,190 m2g− 1 and 0.62 cm3g− 1
time. For instance, Mestre et al. (2009) prepared a series of porous (activated PET). This indicates that the gasification in a mixed medium
carbons from PET by physical activation with CO2 at 925 ◦ C. The sam can also be effective to prepare porous carbon materials. Nitrogen is
ples were activated until burn-off degrees of 12 %, 35 %, 58 % and 76 % combined with steam because the latter can react with the carbon spe
were reached. It was observed that the samples developed a better cies with a high reaction rate. The addition of nitrogen slows down the
porosity with the increasing burn-off degree. A general trend is that all carbon conversion into gas and facilitates the control of the burn-off
the SBET, pore volume and micropore volume values increase with the degree. In contrast, CO2 is not mixed with nitrogen since the reaction
increase of the burn-off value (weight loss). In turn, the burn-off degree of CO2 with the carbon species is substantially slower.
depends on both the temperature and activation time. Consequently, the Although mixing the gas agents is intended to achieve a synergistic
higher the activation temperature or the longer the activation time, the effect of each gas, the contrary effect can also take place. For instance,
greater the porosity. the activation by the binary mixture of CO2 and steam can include two
possible reaction mechanisms: the carbon-CO2 and carbon-H2O re
3.2.2. Activation with steam actions (R.11 and R.12) occur at the same reactive sites, competing
Steam is another common agent used for the preparation of physi between themselves, which can result in a lower reaction rate (Chen
cally activated carbons. The porosity is developed chiefly through the et al., 2013). In the other case, these reactions occur at different sites,
extensive reaction between the steam and the carbon species (R.13). inducing a larger degradation in the carbon structure, which enables the
Steam is a more reactive agent than carbon dioxide, causing a faster agent diffusivity. This results in an increment of the reaction rate and a
reaction (higher reaction rate) with the carbon species (Rodríguez- better porosity is developed (Guizani et al., 2016). The mechanisms
Reinoso et al., 1995). Thus, the activation of plastic wastes with steam occurring in the mixed atmospheres are more complicated to explain
usually requires the application of lower temperatures (500–900 ◦ C). than those of the pure atmosphere. To our knowledge, there are no
González et al. (2006) carbonized tyre wastes prior to steam and CO2 studies dealing with the influence of different gas compositions on the
activation and discussed the effects of both agents on the resulting textural properties of the carbons derived from plastic wastes. Thus,
textural properties. The samples were activated in the range of 750–900 further research should be carried out to understand how the gasifier
◦
C for 1–3 h. The steam gasification produced greater N2 adsorption, design can influence the resulting textural properties of these materials.
which was manifested by higher values of SBET and pore volume than the
CO2 samples. For instance, the SBET and pore volume for the steam- and 3.2.3. Activation with other physical agents
CO2-samples activated at 850 ◦ C for 3 h were 872–496 m2g− 1 and In addition to the common physical agents, porous carbon can also
0.33–0.20 cm3g− 1, respectively. The N2 adsorption isotherms showed be prepared using other gasifiers (e.g., air, argon, or nitrogen). However,
that the CO2 activation required 50 ◦ C more to match the porosity of the there are few studies on the activation of plastic wastes under these
steam sample. Moreover, the burn-off degree of the samples was 77 % atmospheres. Ryu et al. (2000) prepared PAN-porous carbon with
(steam) and 60 % (CO2), showing that steam is a more reactive agent various degrees of activation by air gasification. The SBET values for the
than CO2 and requires lower activation temperatures. This fact was also samples with 3.9 % and 5.3 % activation degrees were 384 and 527
reported by other authors using precursors of different natures (Ioan m2g− 1, while those of the pore volume were 0.17 and 0.23 cm3g− 1,
nidou and Zabaniotou, 2007). respectively. The air gasification induced the development of large
As follows from Table 6, some authors used a mixture of different porosity in the resulting carbon material, even working at small acti
gaseous agents to produce activated carbon. For instance, László et al. vation degrees, which is attributed to the high oxidant character of the
130
O2 in the air. However, high reactivity of O2 hinders the control of the micropore volume -, and the adsorption capacities of precursors ob
burn-off degree, which is not favourable for tailoring the porosity tained from wastes of some frequently used plastics. It shows the nature
characteristics of the resulting material (Benedetti et al., 2017). Park of the type of activation - chemical/physical - as well as the activation
et al. (2020) obtained porous carbon from PVDF wastes by argon and conditions used for the preparation of activated carbon.
CO2 gasification, and proved that the resulting porous carbon developed
a similar porosity, which indicates that argon can also be considered to 4.1. CO2 adsorption capacity of chemically activated carbons
be an efficient agent (Table 6).
Physical and chemical activations can also be combined to produce As shown in Table 7, chemically activated carbons prepared from
activated carbons with well-developed porosity. This hybrid method plastic wastes can achieve, or even exceed, the CO2 adsorption capacity
begins with chemical activation followed by physical activation. Its of commercial adsorbents. For instance, their adsorption capacity at low
purpose is to reach the synergistic effect of each activation on the temperatures (<10 ◦ C) ranged from 8.93 to 1.99 mmol g− 1 (1 atm). It is
resulting material properties. Sych et al. (2006) used this method and worth noting that the adsorption mechanism is strongly influenced by
prepared porous carbon from PET wastes, including chemical activation the process temperature. Most of the adsorbents showed a decreased
with H2SO4 followed by physical activation with steam. It was found adsorption capacity as the temperature increased. The adsorption ca
that this allowed for the development of large porosity in a much shorter pacities at medium (20–50 ◦ C) and high (75–100 ◦ C) temperatures
time than physical activation only. Combined activation needed 5 min to ranged between 4.9 and 0.92 and 1.35–0.28 mmol g− 1, respectively (1
reach 70 % of the burn-off degree, while physical activation usually atm). The increase in the molecular kinetic energy of the gaseous species
takes 1.5 h under the same conditions (László, 2005; Laszlo and Szucs, at higher temperatures is the well-known reason for this phenomenon
2001). Kartel et al. (2006) also used hybrid activation to obtain porous (Kamran et al., 2020).
carbons from PET wastes. They considered this activation to be an The selection of an appropriate precursor for the production of
express-activation method due to the shorter activation time required to activated carbons considerably influences their adsorption capacity.
obtain large burn-off values. Moreover, the authors claimed that a lower PET plastic wastes can be considered suitable precursors to produce
activation temperature is needed when employing the combined acti efficient CO2 adsorbents due to their large carbon (over 60 wt%) and
vation. This proves that hybrid or combined activation is also an effec oxygen contents (Lian et al., 2011). For instance, Yuan et al. (2020a)
tive method to produce porous carbons, improving the technological prepared activated carbons from PET plastic bottles using KOH and
procedure and resulting in a significant energy saving. NaOH and evaluated their CO2 adsorption capacities. The activation was
According to the literature review, physically activated carbons conducted at different temperatures (700–1,000 ◦ C). The KOH- and
derived from plastic wastes have well developed surface areas and pore NaOH-samples activated at 700 ◦ C exhibited the largest CO2 uptake of
volumes ranging from 15 to 2,750 m2g− 1 and 0.04 to 1.46 cm3g− 1, 4.42 and 3.86 mmol g− 1, respectively. For both chemicals used in the
respectively. From the data collected in Tables 3-6, it is possible to state activation process, the CO2 capture capacity was gradually reduced by
that the physically activated carbons develop a smaller surface area and increasing the activation temperature. The authors reported that a high
pore volume than the chemical ones. Compared to physical activation, activation temperature was not favourable to develop narrow micro
chemical activation provided activated carbons with a more porous pores (<0.8 nm), which was the main governing mechanism in the CO2
structure than those obtained using physical activation (Cui et al., adsorption process. Adibfar et al. (2014) studied the CO2 adsorption
2011). However, one of the main weaknesses of this routine is the need capacity of chemically activated PET wastes using KOH, H3PO4, ZnCl2
for repeated washing steps to remove the residual chemical activating and H2SO4 as chemical agents. It was reported that the KOH-activated
agent from the final solid. Moreover, appropriate treatment is required carbon was the most efficient adsorbent, which was manifested by the
for the toxic wastewater produced in the washing step (Wang et al., largest adsorbed amount of CO2 (3.5 mmol g− 1 at 25 ◦ C and 1 atm). The
2016). On the other hand, chemical activation requires a lower activa sequence of the CO2 adsorption capacity of the samples was: KOH >
tion temperature (500–800 vs. 700–1,000 ◦ C) and time (1–2 vs. 3–10 h). H3PO4 > ZnCl2 > H2SO4. The same trend was found for the surface area
The long activation time and small adsorption capacity of the prepared and pores volume. Lian et al. (2011) compared the physicochemical
activated carbon along with its large energy consumption are the main characteristics of the activated carbons derived from different starting
disadvantages of the physical activation methods (Yahya et al., 2015). materials, i.e., PVC and PET. The PET-activated carbon exhibited the
Another important advantage of the chemical activation method is that best pore characteristics, which was mainly explained by the aromatic
it provides a better control of the development of porosity, which is structure of the PET polymer. The authors stated that the PET precursor
specifically important for the synthesis of any effective CO2 adsorbent is more suitable to develop efficient adsorbents than the PVC one. Kaur
material. However, physical activation is simpler, cheaper, and more et al. (2019b) studied the influence of the activation conditions on the
favourable in terms of environmental safety. Consequently, the carbon- CO2 adsorption capacity and found that the largest adsorption capacity
based materials characterized by great performance in terms of textural was achieved for the sample activated at 700 ◦ C for 2 h with the 3:1
properties should have the potential to be studied for their CO2 KOH/precursor ratio, owing to its well-developed pore system.
adsorption capacity. The next section will estimate this. Carbonized waste polyurethane was studied by Ge et al. (2016),
using KOH as a chemical activation agent. It exhibited a considerable
4. Application of plastic-based activated carbons for co2 capture performance for the CO2 uptake, with a capacity of 6.67 and 4.33 mmol
g− 1 at 0 and 25 ◦ C, respectively. According to these authors, the highest
Numerous studies have described the successful conversion of plastic adsorption capacity corresponded to the largest ultramicropore volume.
wastes into activated porous carbon for different applications, such as Kevlar waste was studied by Choma et al. (2014). They prepared
supercapacitors (Sevilla and Mokaya, 2014), catalysis (Calvino-Casilda chemically activated carbons and studied their CO2 adsorption behav
et al., 2010), removal of pollutants from wastewater (Wang et al., 2021), iour. The activation was conducted by varying the KOH/precursor ratio.
hydrogen storage (Gong et al., 2014), etc. However, fewer studies All samples increased their adsorption capacity with the increasing KOH
consider their application as CO2 adsorbents. It is well known that there ratio in the range of 1–4, and it then dropped with the further increase of
is a close correlation between the CO2 adsorption capacity of the acti KOH. The authors reported that the amount of CO2 adsorbed was
vated carbons and their textural properties; however, there are different correlated with the micropore volume. The largest adsorption capacity
views concerning which textural parameter dominates the CO2 adsorp of 4.47 mmol g− 1 was reported for the sample impregnated at the KOH
tion capacity. This section summarizes some of the main results found in ratio of 4:1. The importance of developing narrow microporous struc
the literature on this issue, which could allow relevant conclusions to be tures for efficient CO2 capture has been an issue considered in most
extracted. Table 7 displays the textural parameters - specific surface and reports found in the literature on this topic. Sevilla and Fuertes (2011)
131
Table 7
Summary of CO2 adsorption and textural properties of plastic-based activated carbons.
Precursor Activation Ads. Ads. Capacity mmol SBET Micropore Narrowp. Reference
Conditions g¡1 m2 cm3 g¡1 cm3 g¡1
T/ P/ g¡1
◦
C atm
PAN NaNH2 30 1 1.75 833 0.34 – (Singh et al., 2019d)

NaOH 2.20 1,020 0.51
K2CO3 2.44 1,250 0.57
3:1 − 800◦ − 2
PAN KOH 30 – 1.2 1,890 0.99 – (Singh et al., 2019b)
3:1 − 800◦ − 2 50 0.92
PAN KOH 30 1 2.5 1,884 0.92 – (Singh et al., 2019c)
3:1 − 800◦ − 2 75 1.3
PET KOH 25 1 4.42 1,812 0.71 0.37 (Yuan et al. 2020a)
2:1 − 700◦ − 1 75 1.35
PET NaOH 25 1 3.86 1,707 0.70 0.34 (Yuan et al. 2020a)
2:1 − 700◦ − 1 75 1.25
PET MgO/CaO 20 1 0.22 106 0.22 – (Przepiórski et al., 2013)
2.5:1 − 850◦ − 1 70 0.28
PU-F KOH 0 1 6.67 1,516 0.57 0.18
1:1 − 700◦ − 1 25 4.33 (Ge et al., 2016)
KOH 5.85 1,360 0.52 (Ge et al., 2019)

PU-F NaOHCa 0 1 4.12 710 0.20 –
(OH)2 1.99 39 0.01
2:1 − 700◦ − 2
Kevlar KOH 0 1 4.47 2,660 1.35 0.85 (Choma et al. 2014)
4:1 − 700◦ − 0.5 4.27 2,450 1.23 0.87
5:1 − 700◦ − 0.5
Waste CDs and KOH 0 1 5.8 2,710 1.15 0.68 (Choma et al. 2015)
DVDs 4:1 − 700◦ − 1 25 3.3
PET KOH 20 1 2.2* 472 – – (Arenillas et al., 2005)
+ Acridine 2.9* 318
+ Carbazole 4.8* 418
+Urea 2.7* 150
4:1:1 500–0.5
PET KOH 25 1 3.5 1,338 0.61 – (Adibfar et al., 2014)
H3PO4 3.1 1,223 0.55
ZnCl2 2.3 682 0.34
H2SO4 1.8 583 0.29
1:1 800–1
PAN KOH+ HF – 1 0.76 1,239 0.42 – (Bai et al., 2015)
(4 M) 1.61 979 0.21
15 mL/g 750–3
PAN KOH 0 1 5.6 3,072 1.16 1.75 (Kamran et al., 2020)
NaOH 5.8 2,012 0.82 1.20
KNO3 3.3 971 0.39 0.45
K2CO3 4.2 1,179 0.46 0.54
0.8:1 800–1
PAN KOH 50 1 2.70 2,366 0.45 – (Hsiao et al., 2011)
3:1 900–3.5
PAN KOH 25 1 2.74 1,565 0.50 0.20 (Chiang et al., 2019)
2:1 800–1 55 1.38
Mixed Plastic KOH 40 1 0.57 1,734 – – (Gong et al., 2014)
pre-treated with Montmorillonite 10 6.75
6:1 850–1 45 18.1
PET KOH + Urea 0 1 6.23 1,165 0.46 – (Yuan et al., 2020b)
1:2:1 700–1 25 4.58
50 2.82
PAN KOH + NaOH 0 1 6.84 (Kim et al., 2015)
2:1 + 20 % 700–2 25 4.98 2,100 0.93 0.35
PET Melamine + ZnCl2/NaCl 0 1 6.47 1,173 – – (Song et al., 2020)

2:1 550–0.13 25 4.67
PET KOH 30 1 2.31 1,690 0.78 – (Kaur et al., 2019b)
3:1 700–2 50 1.35
PAN KOH 25 1 3,11 780 0.35 – (Shen et al., 2011)
pre-oxidized with air 4,42 2,231 0.76
2:1 850–1
PVC KOH 0 1 6.9 2,453 0.91 0.37 (Liu et al., 2022)
pre-oxidized with air 25 3.9
3:1 700–3
PVC KOH 0 1 8.93 2,453 0.91 0.37 (Wang et al., 2020b)
pre-oxidized with NaOH, TBD, 25 5.47
Ethanol
3:1 500–700 − 3
132
Precursor Activation Ads. Ads. Capacity mmol SBET Micropore Narrowp. Reference
Conditions g¡1 m2 cm3 g¡1 cm3 g¡1
T/ P/ g¡1
◦
C atm
PAN KOH 0 1 0.91 3,154 0.54 – (Domínguez-Ramos et al.,

4:1 800–2 2022)
Kevlar CO2 0 1 4.88 923 0.41 0.34 (Choma et al. 2016)
700◦ − 5 6.58 1,240 0.54 0.44
750◦ − 3
PU-F CO2 0 1 2.4 15 0.03 – (Ge et al., 2019)
800◦ − 2 3.2 206 0.08
900–2
Waste CDs and CO2 0 1 3.9 1,560 0.71 0.37 (Choma et al. 2015)
DVDs 920◦ − 5 4.3 2,440 1.25 0.48
920–8
PVDF Ar 25 1 3.44 1,023 0.33 0.24 (Park et al., 2020)
700–2 3.25 1,037 0.33 0.23
900–2
PVDF CO2 25 1 3.73 1,154 0.38 0.26 (Park et al., 2020)
800–2 3.31 1,158 0.37 0.24
900–2
Kevlar CO2 7 15 6.5 469 – 0.19 (Conte et al., 2020)
750–3 10.3 1,109 0.22
850–1
PDF CO2 0 1 6.05 1,479 0.58 0.26 (Hong et al., 2016)
800–1 25 3.84
50 2.30
PDF N2 1 3.52 995 0.39 – (Lee and Park, 2014)
600–2 25 2.72 888 0.34
700–2
PET CO2 25 4 4.85 984 0.25 – (Moura et al., 2018)
925–24 6.59 2,176 0.29
925–72
Kevlar CO2 30 1 1.8 1,593 0.39 – (Kaliszewski et al., 2021)
1000–0.25 1.5 1,586 0.32
1000–0.5
PS Steam 30 1 2.82 1,274 0.47 – (Ren et al., 2022)
+ gaseous ammonia 3.2 1,198 0.46
810–2
* Weight increase.
demonstrated that narrower micropores for CO2 capture facilitate the activation is another feasible process for further enhancing the adsorp
retention of CO2 in the pore walls. So, using high impregnation rates tion capacity toward acid gases. This approach includes blending of the
makes the micropores collapse, forming macropores, which are not precursor with the oxidizing species, followed by a heating step at
favourable for CO2 adsorption. A high degree of narrow porosity enables moderate temperatures. The largest CO2 uptakes of 8.93 and 6.9 mmol
the full penetration of the CO2 molecules into the pores: this seems to be g− 1 at ambient pressure were obtained for the pre-oxidized activated
a well- established fact in the adsorption performances of the activated carbons (see Table 7). It should be noted that the oxidation of the surface
carbons from different precursors (Hong et al., 2016; Rehman and Park, increases the number of oxygen functional groups, opening the possi
2018a; Rehman and Park, 2018b). bility of specific interactions between the CO2 molecules and the oxygen
Besides the pore characteristics, the nature of the interactions among groups.
the gas species and pore surface is also relevant for CO2 adsorption. The PAN waste-based activated carbons have also proved to be good
Some authors attempted to improve those interactions by doping ni CO2 adsorbents. Singh et al. (2019c) produced PAN wastes at different
trogen compounds into the carbon framework prior to the activation. activation temperatures, times and impregnation rates. The maximum
Arenillas et al. (2005) studied the CO2 capture capacity of a series of CO2 adsorption, 2.5 mmol g− 1, was obtained for the sample activated at
activated carbons obtained by mixing different nitrogen compounds 800 ◦ C for 2 h at the KOH/precursor ratio of 3:1. This adsorption ca
(acridine, carbazole and urea) with PET wastes. The N-doped activated pacity was about 10 times greater than that of the untreated PAN (0.22
carbons showed a better capacity for CO2 adsorption than the activated mmol g− 1). The sample produced under these conditions exhibited also
carbon prepared without nitrogen. Song et al. (2020) converted PET the largest specific surface SBET and pore volume. The same authors
waste into N-doped carbon, using melamine and ZnCl2/NaCl eutectic (Singh et al., 2019d) used other activating agents to prepare adsorbents
salts, and studied its adsorption capacity. The resulting material showed from the same precursor. The activation was performed using NaNH2,
the adsorption capacity of 6.5 mmol g− 1, which was three times higher NaOH, and K2CO3. It was reported that the K2CO3-activated carbons
than the carbonized one. Yuan et al. (2020b) also produced N-doped showed the maximum adsorption capacity, (2.44 mmol g− 1), followed
carbon adsorbents from the same precursor by urea treatment and KOH by the NaOH (2.20 mmol g− 1) and NaNH2 (1.75 mmol g− 1) activated
activation. The samples activated with KOH and urea showed a higher carbons. The maximum adsorption capacities were correlated by the
CO2 adsorption capacity than those without nitrogen dopants authors with the SBET and pore volume, which were the major factors to
(6.23–5.30 mmol g− 1, respectively). The CO2 molecule is largely quad improve the CO2 adsorption capacity. Kamran et al. (2020) studied the
rupolar and weakly acidic; thus, the introduction of basic nitrogen CO2 adsorption capacity of porous PAN waste, using several chemical
dopants onto the carbonaceous surface can boost the interaction be agents. It appeared that the adsorption capacity decreased in the
tween the acidic gas molecules and the surface of the pores (Kaur et al., following order: NaOH > KOH > K2CO3 > KNO3. Interestingly, NaOH-
2019b). On the other hand, oxidation of the precursor prior to the activated samples exhibited significantly smaller values of SBET and
133
pore volume than the KOH-activated ones. Although large surface areas range of 0–15 atm. The largest adsorption capacity of 10.3 mmol g− 1
have been reported to be beneficial for enhancing the CO2 adsorption was reported at 7 ◦ C and 15 atm. A higher pressure of adsorbate forces
process, there is no strict correlation between the CO2 adsorption ca gas molecules to have more contact at the binding sites on the adsorbent
pacity and the increase of the surface area and pore volume. Actually, it pores and thus promotes the adsorption efficiency. The adsorption at
is possible to obtain large values of surface area due to the pores that are atmospheric pressure is effective when the pore size is compatible with
unsuitable for CO2 adsorption but suitable for N2 adsorption. This is the molecular CO2 size, i.e., when the adsorbent exhibits narrow
attributed to the difference in the molecular sizes between N2 (364 pm) porosity structures. However, at higher pressures the adsorption is also
and CO2 (330 pm). The activated carbons with large micropores can be efficient on wider pores, which increases the adsorption densities
more selective for the N2 molecules rather than the smaller CO2 ones. (Table 7). Lee and Park (2014) studied the adsorption properties of
Thus, the surface selectivity of gases -notably N2– other than CO2 should carbonized poly(vinylidene fluoride) at different pressures. The results
be considered when using adsorbents for CO2 capture. showed that at 100 kPa, the adsorption capacity was mainly governed by
Another point to consider is the adsorbate-adsorbent interactions the micropore volume, while the ultramicropores (<0.65 nm) were
derived from the short-range attractive and repulsive forces (Gregg and more suitable for the CO2 molecules at pressures of<30 kPa.
Sing, 1991). These interactions can be significantly strengthened if the All in all, the information obtained from the literature shows that the
adsorption occurs in the narrow micropores i.e., < 0.8 nm, which enable low cost, ready availability and finely-tuneable pore structure, together
the overlapping of the potential fields from the neighbouring pores with the better working conditions, makes plastic wastes very promising
(Sing, 1995). A high adsorption potential induces stronger interactions precursors to prepare efficient adsorbents. The most important factors to
between the linker and the guest molecules. This mechanism leads to the consider in the synthesis of effective plastic-based CO2 adsorbents are as
complete filling of the pores, rather than their surface coverage, which follows:
typically occurs in the larger size pores.
(a) Pores size and shape: Tailoring the activated carbon pore diam
4.2. CO2 adsorption capacity of physically activated carbons eter to match the CO2 kinetic diameter significantly improves the
CO2 adsorption capacity. At ambient conditions, narrow micro
As follows from the literature reports, effective CO2 adsorbents pore structures contribute to CO2 molecules adsorption by a pore
derived from plastic wastes can also be produced via physical activation. filling mechanism. In contrast, carbons containing larger pore
However, such studies are not numerous. As shown in Table 7, the CO2 sizes (>1 nm) are not capable of capturing dense packs of CO2
adsorption capacities for the physically activated carbons ranged from molecules. Additionally, narrow microporosity structures pro
6.5 to 1.5 mmol g− 1 (1 atm). Park et al. (2020) reported that efficient vide a high selectivity towards CO2 molecules in a CO2/N2 gas
CO2 adsorbents could be obtained from poly(vinylidenefluoride) by mixture. Consequently, the development of narrow porosity
activation under CO2 or argon atmosphere. The carbonization and structures (<0.8 nm) is the main criterion to produce a suitable
activation were conducted simultaneously. The Ar- and CO2-activated plastic-based CO2 adsorbent. The development of larger pores is
carbons showed significant adsorption capacities of 3.44 and 3.73 mmol also effective at higher adsorption pressures. This can be achieved
g− 1 at 25 ◦ C and 1 atm, respectively. The adsorption correlated with the by adjusting the experimental conditions, the main activating
narrow micropores volume, but not with the surface area and the total agent and temperature. Moreover, structural analyses are rec
pore volume. Hong et al. (2016) prepared activated carbons from the ommended to describe the adsorption process based on the size
same precursor by single-step physical activation and evaluated their and shape of the pores.
CO2 adsorption capacity. The activation was conducted in a CO2 me (b) Activations: i) Chemical - The chemically activated carbons
dium, at temperatures from 700 to 950 ◦ C. The surface area and the total exhibited better adsorption capacities than the physical ones
pore volume increased with the increasing activation temperature. (Table 7). The higher efficiency can be assigned to the fact that
However, the maximum adsorption capacity of 6.05 mmol g− 1 was the former allows better control of the pore structure than the
obtained for the sample activated at 800 ◦ C. The authors concluded that latter. The impregnation of the precursor with a specific agent
the adsorption capacity was mainly dependent on the volume of mi concentration allows the desired pore structure to be obtained.
cropores that were below 0.70 nm in size. Since it is capable of producing narrow porosity structures, KOH
Some authors compared the adsorption performance of chemically is the preferred chemical agent used for plastic waste activation.
and physically activated carbons. Ge et al. (2019) used polyurethane A higher impregnation ratio than 4 is not recommended when
waste to prepare a series of activated carbons by physical activation with using this agent as it results in pore blockage, minimizing the
CO2 and chemical activation with hydroxides. The samples obtained by adsorption capacity and selectivity (Alhamed et al., 2015). Other
the chemical activation showed a larger CO2 adsorption capacity than agents that exhibited good adsorption performances are NaOH or
the physical ones. The CO2 adsorption capacity of 5.85 mmol g− 1 was K2CO3, which also produce micropores with narrow diameters
reported for the KOH-sample compared to 3.37 mmol g− 1 obtained for using low impregnation rates (Table 7). ii) Physical - The litera
the CO2-sample. This was attributed to the larger volume of micropores ture shows that CO2 is preferable to other agents for preparing
(<1 nm) induced by the chemical activation. Similarly, Choma et al. plastic-based CO2 adsorbents. This agent provides the carbon
(2014) prepared activated carbons by KOH and CO2 activations of DVDs with abundant narrow micropores (Table 7). More reactive
and CDs wastes and compared their CO2 adsorption capacities. Under agents such as steam or O2 induce faster reactions with the carbon
the optimal conditions, the KOH-sample showed the adsorption capacity species, causing the expansion of the pores, which results in a
of 5.7 mmol g− 1 and the CO2-sample of 4.3 mmol g− 1 at 0 ◦ C and 1 atm. more random porous structure. Consequently, highly reactive
For both activated carbons, the largest CO2 adsorption coincided with agents are not recommended for the present purpose. Neverthe
the highest values of textural parameters. less, dilution of these agents with inert gases could enhance the
Another important variable having a significant influence on the CO2 control of the activation process and thus, the adsorption capacity
capture capacity of any adsorbent is the operating adsorption pressure. of the activated material. A general trend is that the micropore
Moura et al. (2018) prepared a series of activated carbons from PET volume is related to the physical activation temperature when it
waste by physical activation and evaluated their adsorption capacity in is below 900 ◦ C; higher temperatures are not recommended, as
the pressure range of 1–10 atm. The amount of adsorbed CO2 increased they can result in a pore wall collapse, forming macropores.
with the increasing adsorption pressure from 2 to 11 mmol g− 1. Similar Finally, despite its higher energy consumption, the two-step
findings were reported by Conte et al. (2020), who examined the method, e.g. pyrolysis and activation, is more frequently used
adsorption capacity of Kevlar-based activated carbon in the pressure to produce plastic-based CO2 adsorbents. This is justified by the
134
better porosity characteristics that this method provides means of dynamic breakthrough experiments with a simulated binary
compared to the single-step one. gas steam (50/50 vol%). The authors concluded that the CO2-activated
(c) Interactions between adsorbate and adsorbent: The surface samples were the most effective in the adsorption–desorption cycles,
chemical composition also plays an important role in controlling reaching CO2 adsorption capacities of approximately 2 and 5.14 mmol
the CO2 adsorption density. The incorporation of nitrogen dop g− 1 at 1 and 10 bar, respectively. The CH4 purity reached (>95 %) was
ants increases the basicity of the carbon surface, enabling specific higher than that reached by a commercial adsorbent (85 %) in the same
interactions between the acid CO2 molecules and the carbon working conditions. The authors reported that the differences in the
pores. As a source of nitrogen groups, agents like NH3 or amine polar moment between the CO2 and CH4 molecules induced a prefer
are recommended owing to their affinity towards the CO2 mole ential adsorption of CO2 over CH4. The authors also pointed out the
cules. Additionally, the functionalization of the activated carbon importance of developing narrow micropores in the biomass-based
surface is also recommended. The presence of oxygen-containing carbons. Surra et al. (2022) prepared activated carbons from maize
groups induces a negative charge in the carbon surface, wastes by CO2 physical activation, varying the activation time, and
strengthening the interactions with the acidic CO2 molecules. The studied their performance in biogas upgrading. The longer activation
oxygen functionalities can be induced by the oxidation of the produced carbons with a higher surface area and micropore volume,
carbon; i.e. by means of pre- or post-synthesis oxidative treat which were more suitable for biogas upgrading. Vivo-Vilches et al.
ments. These treatments also contribute to enhance the selec (2017) prepared activated carbon from commercial pine wood pellets by
tivity towards CO2 molecules adsorption (Shafeeyan et al., 2010). means of physical activation with carbon dioxide; the authors evaluated
its behaviour as a CO2 adsorbent for biogas upgrading, and observed
Summarizing, the CO2 adsorption capacity of plastic-based chars that the material could separate CH4 and CO2, obtaining pure CH4 from
mainly depends on the combined effect of micropore volume, the the 60 % CO2 and 40 % CH4 mixture; they concluded that the activation
presence of functional groups, basicity of the surface and adsorption induced a large micropore widening, which led to a great selectivity of
conditions. The combination of these factors offers a wide range of new CO2 in all ranges of pressure tested. Gallucci et al. (2020) investigated
possibilities for the synthesis of effective adsorbents, depending on their the CO2 adsorption capacity of silver hydrochar for the sawdust ob
final application. For instance, plastic-based activated carbons with tained by means of hydrothermal carbonization and subsequent KOH
specific porosity characteristics can be attractive candidates for the activation in a model biogas mixture (50/50 vol%). The best CO2
separation of CO2 and CH4 in biogas upgrading applications. adsorption capacity of 6.56 mmol g− 1 (5 bar) was reached for the sample
characterized by a SBET of 881 m2g− 1 and 1 nm pore diameter. Seo et al.
5. Upgrading of biogas using activated carbons produced from (2016) also demonstrated effective biogas upgrading using bamboo char
residual materials prepared by pyrolysis at different temperatures. The bamboo carbonized
at the highest temperature (900 ◦ C) exhibited the largest CO2 adsorption
Biogas results from the anaerobic digestion of organic materials and capacity (2.76 mmol g− 1) and allowed>90 % of CH4 stream to be ob
is mainly composed of CH4 and CO2 (Bharathiraja et al., 2016). It rep tained from the 60 % CH4 and 40 % CO2 mixture. The authors stated that
resents a potential resource to produce bioenergy, using a wide range of the higher the temperature, the smaller the carbon pores and the closer
raw materials coming from wastes generated in industry or daily life. to the CH4 molecular size (0.38 nm). Lourenco et al. (2019) prepared
The main application of biogas is to produce energy, either thermal chitosan-based materials using different strategies and evaluated their
(direct burning in boilers), electrical (internal combustion engines or gas applicability for biogas upgrading. The adsorbent prepared by drying in
turbines) or both (cogeneration). A further step towards the exploitation supercritical CO2 and subjected to later pyrolysis exhibited a very high
of biogas is to clean it and upgrade it to produce biomethane. This affinity for CO2 and a very low affinity for CH4, with the highest selec
process extends its use to multiple applications, including vehicle fuel or tivity value (95 at 500 kPa) in the CO2/CH4 separation. The presence of
direct injection into the natural gas grids. Thus, its usage promotes high nitrogen content and 2 nm micropores on the carbon surface
progress in the circular economy action plan, less dependence on fossil seemed to promote the CO2 adsorption process. Vilella et al. (2017)
fuels, and the reduction of environmental pollution. synthesized activated carbons from babassu coconut by means of
Biogas upgrading refers to a gas separation process involving the physical activation with carbon dioxide and examined their application
removal of the main undesirable component of biogas, CO2, and other in biogas upgrading. The prepared activated carbons proved to be a
trace species such as H2O, NH3 or H2S. Since CO2 reduces the calorific promising material for biogas upgrading, with a selectivity of 4.2 at 1
value of biogas, its removal is one of the most important upgrading bar and a CO2 adsorption capacity of 1.0 mmol g− 1 at 3 bar. Durán et al.
steps. Compared with other upgrading technologies, the pressure swing (2022) reported that efficient activated carbons can be obtained from
adsorption (PSA) technique is attracting much interest owing to its pine sawdust to remove the CO2 from biogas streams. On the other hand,
lower energy demand and lower emissions (Agarwal et al., 2010). PSA Linville et al. (2017) studied the use of biomass-based activated carbons
exploits the difference between methane and CO2 in terms of the degree in an in-situ biogas upgrading process. The modified version of the in-
of attraction to the surface under pressure. Separation is based on both situ CO2 removal was applied during the anaerobic digestion of food
molecular size exclusion and adsorption affinity. Activated carbons are waste with two types of walnut shell biochar on the bench scale in the
among the most common adsorbents used in PSA units (Surra et al., batch operating mode. The biochar could remove 40–96 % of the CO2
2022). Although abundant research has been performed on CO2 compared with the control digesters under mesophilic and thermophilic
adsorption on different adsorbents prepared from solid wastes, studies temperature conditions.
on the adsorption process for biogas upgrading are scarce. This section As shown above, waste materials are promising candidates to pro
provides a summary of the key studies on the use of activated carbons duce efficient adsorbents for biogas upgrading. These materials exhibi
derived from wastes (mainly biomass) as adsorbents for biogas ted a similar or even better potential than marketed products (Mulu
upgrading. Additionally, the possible use of plastic-based activated
carbon for that purpose is discussed.
Table 8
Physical constant of gases.
5.1. Application of char-based activated carbons for biogas upgrading
Gas Kinetic Diameter (nm) Quadrupolar moment (Å3) Polarity (Å3)
Álvarez-Gutiérrez et al. (2016) prepared two biomass-based acti CO2 0.33 0.64 1.9
vated carbons from cherry stones using physical activation with steam N2 0.364 0.31 1.4
CH4 0.38 0 2.6
and carbon dioxide. The samples were subjected to biogas upgrading by
135
et al., 2021). Considering the intrinsic characteristics of plastic-based disposal, aiming to make it cost-effective. In addition to the high
activated carbons, their use for biogas upgrading deserves to be adsorption capacity and long-term recyclability, its stability and resis
explored. One of the main prerequisites of any suitable adsorbent is its tance have yet to be comprehensively determined. Another important
tuneable texturation, which is one the main properties of those mate challenge is environmental risk assessment, alongside economic and
rials. Moreover, another essential parameter to consider is the CO2 environmental feasibility analyses. Since chemical activation implies the
selectivity. In the previous section, it was shown that narrow micropo use of agents such as KOH, H3PO4 or ZnCl2 that may have a negative
rosity structures provide high selectivity towards CO2 molecules in a environmental impact, the development of more environmentally
CO2/N2 gas mixture. This structural characterization hinders the diffu friendly alternatives can and must be an important research direction.
sion of N2 molecules into the pores, which is attributed to the differences Another important challenge involves the in-depth investigation of CO2
between the CO2 and N2 molecular sizes. The similar kinetic diameters removal mechanisms. In general, mechanistic aspects of how to improve
of the CH4 and N2 molecules (Table 8) suggest that plastic-based ad functionalization are less often addressed. Further studies should in any
sorbents could also achieve a high selectivity for CO2/CH4 mixtures. In case include helpful information about the intrinsic mechanisms of CO2
fact, some authors emphasise the importance of developing narrow capture to develop more targeted plastic-based char activation/modifi
micropore structures in biomass-based adsorbents (<0.8 nm) for biogas cation schemes. The activated carbon adsorption rate tends to drop
upgrading (Seo et al., 2016; Gallucci et al., 2020; Vivo-Vilches et al., when operated at high temperature as well as low pressure conditions.
2017). Thus, testing and optimization of these materials in order to withstand
Furthermore, in any interpretation of the adsorption process, the these environments and attain a high CO2 adsorption density is needed.
fundamental properties of the adsorbate species must be considered. In Another of the major challenges for the pyrolysis of plastic wastes is the
physical adsorption, the interaction forces between the carbon surface still non-existent markets for the solid product (char) and unclear reg
and the guest molecule are a function of their polarity (Sing, 1995). For a ulations concerning plastic waste management. Post-consumer plastic
CO2/N2 mixture, the adsorption is based on the higher quadrupolar wastes that are not collected separately may contain pigments, metal
moment of the CO2 molecules (Table 8), which induces stronger pore foils, coatings, etc., that affect the quality of the char, and consequently,
wall interactions. The decrease in the polar moments in the sequence its by-products. Lastly, simulated gases were employed in most of the
CH4 < N2 < CO2 suggests that the CO2 molecules would be adsorbed biogas upgrading studies reported; thus, real-world biogas effluents
preferentially, leading to the purification of a CH4/CO2 gas mixture. (composition and circumstances) must be examined. The existence of
Based on these premises, plastic-based activated carbons should have other pollutants can reduce the adsorbents’ durability and efficiency,
the potential to be applied effectively for selective adsorption of CO2 resulting in higher operating costs.
over CH4. Nevertheless, it is challenging to remove CO2 to a high degree All in all, more research is required on the preparation and appli
from a gas mixture, only tailoring the porosity of the adsorbent. Since cations of plastic-based activated carbons from the perspective of their
the CO2 adsorption capacity significantly decreases at elevated tem industrial applicability. Environmental and economic studies, regener
peratures, additional treatments that strengthen the interactions be ation research and evaluation of these materials in real industrial en
tween CO2 and the adsorbent surface should be considered. The vironments are required. The use of plastic waste adsorbents for biogas
functionalization of the carbon surface, e.g. by means of introducing of upgrading seems to be a promising and feasible possibility. Therefore,
oxygen- or nitrogen-containing groups, along with the appropriate further research on this topic is highly recommended.
activation, could play a combined role for achieving higher CO2
adsorption and better selectivity performance. In this way, the appli
cability of plastic-based adsorbents for that purpose seems to be very Declaration of Competing Interest
feasible.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
6. Conclusions; challenges and avenues for future research interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Plastic management is a hot topic that needs to be addressed very
seriously. In this regard, the search for new applications of plastic waste Data availability
materials is crucial. An unexplored area includes the development of
plastic-based activated carbons for the adsorption of CO2 in biogas No data was used for the research described in the article.
upgrading. The most important parameters to produce activated carbon
for CO2 capture are the following: the composition and chemical Acknowledgements
structure of the raw precursor material; the selection of a suitable acti
vating agent; the time and temperature of pyrolysis and activation. The This paper has received funds from the project PID2019.108826RB.
chemical activation of carbons provides better control of the develop I00 financied by MCIN/ AEI /10.13039/501100011033. Funding for
ment of porosity than the physical one, resulting in better adsorption open access charge: Universidad de Granada / CBUA. Our gratitute to
capacities. However, physical activation is simpler, cheaper, and more Prof. Fernando González-Caballero for his support and fruitful com
favourable in terms of environmental safety. The main governing ments during the preparation of the manuscript.
mechanism in the adsorption process is the development of narrow
porous structures, especially at atmospheric pressure. The reasons for References
exploring the applicability of plastic-based activated carbons for biogas
upgrading lies in their tuneability, high surface area, large micropore Adibfar, M., Kaghazchi, T., Asasian, N., Soleimani, M., 2014. Conversion of poly
(ethylene terephthalate) waste into activated carbon: chemical activation and
volume, availability of precursors, thermal stability, high degree of CO2 characterization. Chem. Eng. Technol. 37 (6), 979–986. https://doi.org/10.1002/
adsorption and the high selectivity towards CO2 over CH4 based on the ceat.201200719.
molecular size exclusion and electric field gradient. Adrados, A., de Marco, I., Caballero, B.M., López, A., Laresgoiti, M.F., Torres, A., 2012.
Pyrolysis of plastic packaging waste: A comparison of plastic residuals from material
Although progress has been made in plastic-based adsorbent mate
recovery facilities with simulated plastic waste. Waste Manag. 32 (5), 826–832.
rials via pyrolysis, there are still some challenges to face before these https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.06.016.
adsorbents can be used in large-scale industrial settings. One of these is Agarwal, A., Biegler, L.T., Zitney, S.E., 2010. A super structure-based optimal synthesis of
the need to verify the desorption of CO2 and adsorbent regeneration to PSA cycles for post-combustion CO2 capture. AIChE J. 56, 1813–1828. https://doi.
org/10.1002/aic.12107.
achieve the application of biogas upgrading on a large scale. The goal is Ahangar, F.A., Rashid, U., Ahmad, J., Tsubota, T., Alsalme, A., 2021. Conversion of
to recycle the adsorbent as many times as possible before its final Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Polymer into Activated Carbon and Its
136
Feasibility to Produce Green Fuel. Polymers 13 (22), 3952. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Butler, K.M.E., Devlin, G., 2011. Waste polyolefins to liquid fuels via pyrolysis: review of
polym13223952. commercial state-of-the-art and recent laboratory research. Waste Biomass Valor.
Ahmed, S.F., Mofijur, M., Tarannum, K., Chowdhur, A.T., Rafa, N., Nuzhat, S., Kumar, P. (2), 227–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9067-5.
S., Vo, D.-V.-N., Lichtfouse, E., Mahlia, T.M.I., 2021. Biogas upgrading, economy and Cansado, I.P.P., Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L., Carrott, P.J.M., Mourão, P.A.M., 2008. Textural
utilization: a review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 19 (6), 4137–4164. https://doi.org/ development of activated carbon prepared from recycled PET with different
10.1007/s10311-021-01292-x. chemical activation agents. Mater. Sci. Forum (587), 753–757. https://doi.org/
Akmil-Başar, C., Önal, Y., Kılıçer, T., Eren, D., 2005. Adsorptions of high concentration 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.587-588.753.
malachite green by two activated carbons having different porous structures. Cansado, I.P.P., Galacho, C., Nunes, A.S., Carrott, M.L.R., Carrott, P.J.M., 2010.
J. Hazard. Mater. 127 (1–3), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Adsorption properties of activated carbons prepared from recycled PET in the
jhazmat.2005.06.025. removal of organic pollutants from aqueous solutions. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 28
Alhamed, Y.A., Rather, S.U., El-Shazly, A.H., Zaman, S.F., Daous, M.A., Al-Zahrani, A.A., (8–9), 807–821. https://doi.org/10.1260/0263-6174.28.8-9.807.
2015. Preparation of activated carbon from fly ash and its application for CO2 Cansado, I.P.P., Mourão, P.A.M., Nabais, J.M.V., Tita, B., Batista, T., Rocha, T.,
capture. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 32, 723–730. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-014- Borges, C., Matos, G., 2022. Use of dirty plastic wastes as precursors for activated
0273-2. carbon production – a contribution to the circular economy. Water Environ. J. 36
Al-Salem, S.M., Antelava, A., Constantinou, A., Manos, G., Dutta, A., 2017. A review on (1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12762.
thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic solid waste (PSW). J. Environ. Manage. Calvino-Casilda, V., López-Peinado, A.J., Durán-Valle, C.J., Martín-Aranda, R.M., 2010.
197, 177–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.084. Last decade of research on activated carbons as catalytic support in chemical
Almazán-Almazán, M.C., Pérez-Mendoza, M., Domingo-García, M., Fernández- processes. Catal. Rev. 52 (3), 325–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Morales, I., López, F.J., López-Garzón, F.J., 2010. The influence of the process 01614940.2010.498748.
conditions on the characteristics of activated carbons obtained from PET de- Cetin, E., Moghtaderi, B., Gupta, R., Wall, T.F., 2004. Influence of pyrolysis conditions on
polymerisation. Fuel Process. Technol. 91 (2), 236–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. the structure and gasification reactivity of biomass chars. Fuel 83, 2139–2150.
fuproc.2009.10.003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2004.05.008.
Almazán-Almazán, M.C., Pérez-Mendoza, M., López-Domingo, F.J., Fernández- Chen, C., Wang, J., Liu, W., Zhang, S., Yin, J., Luo, G., Yao, H., 2013. Effect of pyrolysis
Morales, I., Domingo-García, M., López-Garzón, F.J., 2007. A new method to obtain conditions on the char gasification with mixtures of CO2 and H2O. Proc. Combust.
microporous carbons from PET: Characterisation by adsorption and molecular Inst. 34 (2), 2453–2460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2012.07.068.
simulation. Micropor. Mesopor. Mat. 106 (1–3), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Chen, S., Liu, Z., Jiang, S., Hou, H., 2020. Carbonization: A feasible route for reutilization
j.micromeso.2007.02.053. of plastic wastes. Sci. Total Environ. 710, 136250 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Almroth, B.C., Eggert, H., 2019. Marine Plastic Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Policy scitotenv.2019.136250.
Issues. Rev. Env. Econ. Policy 13 (2), 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/ Cheng, C., Liu, H., Dai, P., Shen, X., Zhang, J., Zhao, T., Zhu, Z., 2016. Microwave-
rez012. assisted preparation and characterization of mesoporous activated carbon from
Álvarez-Gutiérrez, N., García, S., Gil, M.V., Rubiera, F., Pevida, C., 2016. Dynamic mushroom roots by phytic acid (C6H18O24P6) activation. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng.
performance of biomass-based carbons for CO2/CH4 separation. Approximation to a 67, 532–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2016.08.032.
pressure swing adsorption process for biogas upgrading. Energy Fuels 30 (6), Chiang, Y.C., Yeh, C.Y., Weng, C.H., 2019. Carbon dioxide adsorption on porous and
5005–5015. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b00664. functionalized activated carbon fibers. Appl. Sci. 9 (10), 1977. https://doi.org/
Álvarez-Gutiérrez, N., Gil, M.V., Rubiera, F., Pevida, C., 2018. Simplistic approach for 10.3390/app9101977.
preliminary screening of potential carbon adsorbents for CO2 separation from Choma, J., Osuchowski, L., Dziura, A., Kwiatkowska-Wójcik, W., Mietek, J., 2014.
biogas. J. CO2 Util. 28, 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2018.10.001. Adsorption Properties of Active Carbons Obtained from Kevlar (R) Fibers. Ochr. Sr.
Arami-Niya, A., Daud, W.M.A.W., Mjalli, F.S., 2010. Using granular activated carbon 36 (4), 3–8.
prepared from oil palm shell by ZnCl2 and physical activation for methane Choma, J., Marszewski, M., Osuchowski, L., Jagiello, J., Dziura, A., Jaroniec, M., 2015.
adsorption. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 89 (2), 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Adsorption Properties of Activated Carbons Prepared from Waste CDs and DVDs.
jaap.2010.08.006. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 3 (4), 733–742. https://doi.org/10.1021/
Arenillas, A., Rubiera, F., Parra, J.B., Ania, C.O., Pis, J.J., 2005. Surface modification of acssuschemeng.5b00036.
low cost carbons for their application in the environmental protection. Appl. Surf. Choma, J., Osuchowski, L., Marszewski, M., Dziura, A., Jaroniec, M., 2016. Developing
Sci. 252 (3), 619–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2005.02.076. microporosity in Kevlar®-derived carbon fibers by CO2 activation for CO2
Attia, A.A., Girgis, B.S., Fathy, N.A., 2008. Removal of methylene blue by carbons adsorption. J. CO2 Util. 16, 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2016.05.004.
derived from peach stones by H3PO4 activation: batch and column studies. Dyes Collin, G.J., Anisuzzaman, S.M., Moh, P.Y., Lim, E.-W.-A., 2016. Sorption and
Pigm. 76 (1), 282–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2006.08.039. Characterization Studies of Activated Carbon Prepared from Polyethylene
Bai, B.C., Kim, E.A., Lee, C.W., Lee, Y.-S., 2015. Effects of surface chemical properties of Terephthalate (PET). Borneo science 37 (2), 28–39.
activated carbon fibers modified by liquid oxidation for CO2 adsorption. Appl. Surf. Conte, G., Stelitano, S., Policicchio, A., Minuto, F.D., Lazzaroli, V., Galiano, F.,
Sci. 353, 158–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.06.046. Agostino, R.G., 2020. Assessment of activated carbon fibers from commercial
Bailar, J.C., Trotaman-Dickenson, A.F. (Eds.), 1973. Comprehensive Inorganic Kevlar® as nanostructured material for gas storage: Effect of activation procedure
Chemistry, vol. I. Pergamon Press, Oxford. and adsorption of CO2 and CH4. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 152, 104974 https://doi.org/
Balat, M., Balat, M., Kirtay, E., Balat, H., 2009. Main routes for the thermo-conversion of 10.1016/j.jaap.2020.104974.
biomass into fuels and chemicals. Part 1: Pyrolysis systems. Energy Conv. Manag. 50, Cui, X., Jia, F., Chen, Y., Gan, J., 2011. Influence of single-walled carbon nanotubes on
3147–3157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2009.08.014. microbial availability of phenanthrene in sediment. Ecotoxicology 20, 1277–1285.
Balsamo, M., Budinova, T., Erto, A., Lancia, A., Petrova, B., Petrov, N., Tsyntsarski, B., https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-011-0684-3.
2013. CO2 adsorption onto synthetic activated carbon: Kinetic, thermodynamic and Czepirski, L., Szczurowski, J., Bałys, M., Ciesińska, W., Makomaski, G., Zieliński, G.J.,
regeneration studies. Sep. Purif. Technol. 116, 214–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2013. Pore structure of activated carbons from waste polymers. Inż. Och. Śr. 16 (3),
seppur.2013.05.041. 353–359.
Belo, C.R., Cansado, I.P.P., Mourão, P.A.M., 2017. Synthetic polymers blend used in the Djahed, B., Shahsavani, E., Naji, F.K., Mahvi, A.H., 2015. A novel and inexpensive
production of highactivated carbon for pesticides removals from liquid phase. method for producing activated carbon from waste polyethylene terephthalate
Environ. Technol. 38 (3), 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/ bottles and using it to remove methylene blue dye from aqueous solution. Desalin.
09593330.2016.1190409. Water Treat. 57 (21), 9871–9880. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Bhatnagar, A., Hogland, W., Marques, M., Sillanpää, M., 2013. An overview of the 19443994.2015.1033647.
modification methods of activated carbon for its water treatment applications. de Castro, C.S., Viau, L.N., Andrade, J.T., Mendonça, T.A.P., Gonçalves, M., 2018.
Chem. Eng. J. 219, 499–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.12.038. Mesoporous activated carbon from polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) waste: pollutant
Benadjemia, M., Millière, L., Reinert, L., Benderdouche, N., Duclaux, L., 2011. adsorption in aqueous solution. New J. Chem. 42, 14612–14619. https://doi.org/
Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid 10.1039/C8NJ02715C.
activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process. Technol. 92 (6), de Paula, F.G.F., de Castro, M.C.M., Ortega, F.P.R., Blanco, C., Lavall, R.L.,
1203–1212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014. Santamaría, R., 2018. High value activated carbons from waste polystyrene foams.
Benedetti, V., Patuzzi, F., Baratieri, M., 2017. Gasification char as a potential substitute Microporous Mesoporous Mat. 267, 181–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
of activated carbon in adsorption applications. Energy Procedia 105, 712–717. micromeso.2018.03.027.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.380. Demirbas, A., 2004. Pyrolysis of municipal plastic wastes for recovery of gasoline-range
Bharathiraja, B., Sudharsanaa, T., Bharghavi, A., Jayamuthunagai, J., Praveenkumar, R., hydrocarbons. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 72 (1), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2016. Biohydrogen and Biogas – An overview on feedstocks and enhancement jaap.2004.03.001.
process. Fuel 185, 810–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.08.030. Domínguez-Ramos, L., Prieto-Estalrich, A., Malucelli, G., Gómez-Díaz, D., Freire, M.S.,
Bishop, G., Styles, D., Lens, P., 2020. Recycling of European plastic is a pathway for Lazzari, M., González-Álvarez, J., 2022. N- and S-Doped Carbons Derived from
plastic debris in the ocean. Environ. Int. 142, 105893 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Polyacrylonitrile for Gases Separation. Sustainability 14, 3760. https://doi.org/
envint.2020.105893. 10.3390/su14073760.
Bóta, A., László, K., Nagy, L.G., Copitzky, T., 1997. Comparative study of active carbons Elordi, G., Olazar, M., López, G., Artetxe, M., Bilbao, J., 2011. Product Yields and
from different precursors. Langmuir 13 (24), 6502–6509. https://doi.org/10.1021/ Compositions in the Continuous Pyrolysis of High-Density Polyethylene in a Conical
la9700883. Spouted Bed Reactor. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50 (11), 6650–6659. https://doi.org/
Bratek, W., Świątkowski, A., Pakuła, M., Biniak, S., Bystrzejewski, M., Szmigielski, R., 10.1021/ie200186m.
2013. Characteristics of activated carbon prepared from waste PET by carbon Esfandiari, A., Tahereh, K., Mansooreh, S., 2011. Preparation of high surface area
dioxide activation. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 100, 192–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. activated carbon from polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) waste by physical activation.
jaap.2012.12.021. Res. J. Chem. Environ 15 (2), 433–437.
137
Esfandiari, A., Kaghazchi, T., Soleimani, M., 2012. Preparation and evaluation of Ioannidou, O., Zabaniotou, A., 2007. Agricultural residues as precursors for activated
activated carbons obtained by physical activation of polyethyleneterephthalate carbon production—A review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 11 (9), 1966–2005. https://
(PET) wastes. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 43 (4), 631–637. https://doi.org/10.1016/ doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.013.
j.jtice.2012.02.002. Jagtoyen, M., Derbyshire, F., 1998. Activated carbons from yellow poplar and white oak
FakhrHoseini, S.M., Dastanian, M., 2013. Predicting Pyrolysis Products of PE, PP, and by H3PO4 activation. Carbon 36 (7–8), 1085–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
PET Using NRTL Activity Coefficient Model. J. Chem. 2013, 1–5. https://doi.org/ 6223(98)00082-7.
10.1155/2013/487676. Jahirul, M., Rasul, M., Chowdhury, A., Ashwath, N., 2012. Biofuels Production through
Feng, B., Shen, W., Shi, L., Qu, S., 2018. Adsorption of hexavalent chromium by Biomass Pyrolysis — A Technological Review. Energies 5 (12), 4952–5001. https://
polyacrylonitrile-based porous carbon from aqueous solution. R. Soc. Open Sci. 5 doi.org/10.3390/en5124952.
(1), 171662 https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171662. Jamradloedluk, J., Lertsatitthanakorn, C., 2014. Characterization and Utilization of Char
Fernández-Morales, I., Almazán-Almazán, M.C., Pérez-Mendoza, M., Domingo- Derived from Fast Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes. Procedia Eng. 69, 1437–1442. https://
García, M., López-Garzón, F.J., 2005. PET as precursor of microporous carbons: doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.03.139.
preparation and characterization. Micropor. Mesopor. Mater. 80 (1–3), 107–115. Johnson, O., Joseph, B., Kuhn, J.N., 2021. CO2 separation from biogas using PEI-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2004.12.006. modified crosslinked polymethacrylate resin sorbent. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 103,
Ford, H.V., Jones, N.H., Davies, A.J., Godley, B.J., Jambeck, J.R., Napper, I.E., 256–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2021.07.038.
Suckling, C.C., Williams, G.J., Woodall, L.C., Koldewey, H.J., 2022. The fundamental Jung, S.H., Cho, M.H., Kang, B.S., Kim, J.S., 2010. Pyrolysis of a fraction of waste
links between climate change and marine plastic pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 806, polypropylene and polyethylene for the recovery of BTX aromatics using a fluidized
150392 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150392. bed reactor. Fuel Process. Technol. 91 (3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Gallucci, K., Taglieri, L., Papa, A.A., Di Lauro, F., Ahmad, Z., Gallifuoco, Z.A., 2020. Non- fuproc.2009.10.009.
energy valorization of residual biomasses via HTC: CO2 capture onto activated Kadirova, Z., Kameshima, Y., Nakajima, A., Okada, K., 2006. Preparation and sorption
hydrochars. Appl. Sci. 10 (5), 1879. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10051879. properties of porous materials from refuse paper and plastic fuel (RPF). J. Hazard.
Ge, C., Song, J., Qin, Z., Wang, J., Fan, W., 2016. Polyurethane Foam-Based Mater. 137 (1), 352–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.02.008.
Ultramicroporous Carbons for CO2 Capture. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (29), Kakuta, N., Shimizu, A., Ohkita, H., Mizushima, T., 2009. Dehydrochlorination behavior
18849–18859. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b04771. of polyvinyl chloride and utilization of carbon residue: effect of plasticizer and
Ge, C., Lian, D., Cui, S., Gao, J., Lu, J., 2019. Highly Selective CO2 Capture on Waste inorganic filler. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 11 (1), 23–26. https://doi.org/
Polyurethane Foam-Based Activated Carbon. Processes 7 (9), 592. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10163-008-0214-4.
10.3390/pr7090592. Kaliszewski, M., Zgrzebnicki, M., Kałamaga, A., Pinjara, S., Wróbel, R.J., 2021.
Gholipour, F., Mofarahi, M., 2016. Adsorption equilibrium of methane and carbon Commercial Kevlar derived activated carbons for CO2 and C2H4 sorption. Pol. J.
dioxide on zeolite13X: Experimental and thermodynamic modelling. J. Supercrit. Chem. Technol. 23 (2), 81–87. https://doi.org/10.2478/pjct-2021-0021.
Fluids 111, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2016.01.008. Kamran, U., Choi, J.R., Park, S.-J., 2020. A Role of Activators for Efficient CO2 Affinity on
Giraldo, L., Ladino, Y., Pirajánc, J.C.M., Rodríguez, M.P., 2007. Synthesis and Polyacrylonitrile-Based Porous Carbon Materials. Front. Chem. 8, 710. https://doi.
characterization of activated carbon fibres from Kevlar. Eclet. Quim. 32 (4), 55–62. org/10.3389/fchem.2020.00710.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-46702007000400008. Kang, B.S., Kim, S.G., Kim, J.S., 2008. Thermal degradation of poly(methyl methacrylate)
Golmakani, A., Nabavi, S.A., Wadi, B., Manovic, V., 2022. Advances, challenges, and polymers: Kinetics and recovery of monomers using a fluidized bed reactor. J. Anal.
perspectives of biogas cleaning, upgrading, and utilisation. Fuel 317, 123085. Appl. Pyrol. 81 (1), 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2007.07.001.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.123085. Kang, S., Jiang, S., Peng, Z., Lu, Y., Guo, J., Li, J., Zeng, W., Lin, X., 2018. Valorization of
Gómez-Serrano, V., Adame-Pereira, M., Alexandre-Franco, M., Fernández-González, C., humins by phosphoric acid activation for activated carbon production. Biomass
2021. Adsorption of bisphenol A by activated carbon developed from PET waste by Convers. Biorefinery 8 (4), 889–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-018-0329-3.
KOH activation. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28 (19), 24342–24354. https://doi.org/ Kartel, N.T., Gerasimenko, N.V., Tsyba, N.N., Nikolaichuk, A.D., Kovtun, G.A., 2001.
10.1007/s11356-020-08428-6. Synthesis and Study of Carbon Sorbent Prepared from Polyethylene Terephthalate.
Gong, J., Michalkiewicz, B., Chen, X., Mijowska, E., Liu, J., Jiang, Z., Wen, X., Tang, T., Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 74 (10), 1765–1767. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
2014. Sustainable conversion of mixed plastics into porous carbon nanosheets with 1014894211046.
high performances in uptake of carbon dioxide and storage of hydrogen. ACS Kartel, M.T., Sych, N.V., Tsyba, M.M., Strelko, V.V., 2006. Preparation of porous carbons
Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2 (12), 2837–2844. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc500603h. by chemical activation of polyethyleneterephthalate. Carbon 44 (5), 1019–1022.
González, J.F., Encinar, J.M., González-García, C.M., Sabio, E., Ramiro, A., Canito, J.L., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.10.031.
Gañán, J., 2006. Preparation of activated carbons from used tyres by gasification Kaur, B., Gupta, R.K., Bhunia, H., 2019a. Chemically activated nanoporous carbon
with steam and carbon dioxide. Appl. Surf. Sci. 252 (17), 5999–6004. https://doi. adsorbents from waste plastic for CO2 capture: Breakthrough adsorption study.
org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2005.11.029. Microporous Mesoporous Mat. 282, 146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Gregg, S.J., Sing, K.S.W., 1991. In Adsorption, surface area and porosity. Academic Press, micromeso.2019.03.025.
London. Kaur, B., Singh, J., Gupta, R.K., Bhunia, H., 2019b. Porous carbons derived from
Guddeti, R.R., Knight, R., Grossmann, E.D., 2000. Depolymerization of polypropylene in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste for CO2 capture studies. J. Environ. Manage.
an induction-coupled plasma (ICP) reactor. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39 (5), 1171–1176. 242, 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.077.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ie9906868. Khamkeaw, A., Jongsomjit, B., Robison, J., Phisalaphong, M., 2019. Activated carbon
Guizani, C., Jeguirim, M., Gadiou, R., Escudero Sanz, F.J., Salvador, S., 2016. Biomass from bacterial cellulose as an effective adsorbent for removing dye from aqueous
char gasification by H2O, CO2 and their mixture: Evolution of chemical, textural and solution. Sep. Sci. Technol. 54 (14), 2180–2193. https://doi.org/10.1080/
structural properties of the chars. Energy 112, 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 01496395.2018.1541906.
energy.2016.06.065. Khan, M.U., Lee, J.T.E., Bashir, M.A., Dissanayake, P.D., Ok, Y.S., Tong, Y.W.,
Gunawardene, O.H.P., Gunathilake, C.A., Vikrant, K., Amaraweera, S.M., 2022. Carbon Shariati, M.A., Wu, S., Ahring, B.K., 2021. Current status of biogas upgrading for
dioxide capture through physical and chemical adsorption using porous carbon direct biomethane use: A review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 149, 111343 https://doi.
materials: A review. Atmos. 13 (3), 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030397. org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111343.
Hadi, P., Yeung, K.Y., Guo, J., Wang, H., McKay, G., 2016. Sustainable development of Kim, Y.K., Kim, G.M., Lee, J.W., 2015. Highly porous N-doped carbons impregnated with
tyre char-based activated carbons with different textural properties for value-added sodium for efficient CO2 capture. J. Mater. Chem. A 3 (20), 10919–10927. https://
applications. J. Environ. Manage. 170, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. doi.org/10.1039/C5TA01776A.
jenvman.2016.01.005. Kong, L.B., Que, W., Liu, L., Boey, F.Y.C., Xu, Z.J., Zhou, K., Wang, C., 2017. Carbon
Hayashi, J., Yamamoto, N., Horikawa, T., Muroyama, K., Gomes, V.G., 2005. Preparation Based Supercapacitors, Nanomaterials for Supercapacitors. CRC Press.
and characterization of high-specific-surface-area activated carbons from K2CO3- Kumar, U., Gaikwad, V., Mayyas, M., Sahajwalla, V., Joshi, R.K., 2018. Extraordinary
treated waste polyurethane. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 281 (2), 437–443. https://doi.org/ supercapacitance in activated carbon produced via a sustainable approach. J. Power
10.1016/j.jcis.2004.08.092. Sources 394, 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.054.
Hock, P.E., Zaini, M.A.A., 2018. Activated carbon by zinc chloride activation for dye Lam, S.S., Chase, H.A., 2012. A Review on Waste to Energy Processes Using Microwave
removal – a commentary. Acta Chim. Slov. 11 (2), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.2478/ Pyrolysis. Energies 5, 4209–4232. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5104209.
acs-2018-0015. László, K., Bóta, A., Nagy, L.G., 2000. Comparative adsorption study on carbons from
Hong, S.M., Choi, S.W., Kim, S.H., Lee, K.B., 2016. Porous carbon based on polymer precursors. Carbon 38 (14), 1965–1976. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
polyvinylidene fluoride: Enhancement of CO2 adsorption by physical activation. 6223(00)00038-5.
Carbon 99, 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2015.12.012. Laszlo, K., Szucs, A., 2001. Surface characterization of polyethyleneterephthalate (PET)
Hsiao, H.Y., Hung, C.-H., Hsu, M.Y., Chen, H., 2011. Preparation of high-surface-area based activated carbon and the effect of pH on its adsorption capacity from aqueous
PAN-based activated carbon by solution-blowing process for CO2 adsorption. Sep. phenol and 2,3,4-trichlorophenol solutions. Carbon 39 (13), 1945–1953. https://doi.
Purif. Technol. 82, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.08.006. org/10.1016/S0008-6223(01)00005-7.
Huang, Y.P., Hou, C.H., His, H.C., Wu, J.W., 2015. Optimization of highly microporous László, K., 2005. Adsorption from aqueous phenol and aniline solutions on activated
activated carbon preparation from Moso bamboo using central composite design carbons with different surface chemistry. Colloid Surf. A-Physicochem. Eng. Asp.
approach. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 50, 266–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 265 (1–3), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2004.11.051.
jtice.2014.12.019. Lee, S.Y., Park, S.J., 2014. Carbon dioxide adsorption performance of ultramicroporous
Illán-Gómez, M.J., García-García, A., Salinas-Martínez de Lecea, C., Linares-Solano, A., carbon derived from poly(vinylidene fluoride). J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 106, 147–151.
1996. Activated carbons from Spanish coals. 2. Chemical activation. Energy Fuels 10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.01.012.
(5), 1108–1114. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef950195%2B. Li, J.R., Ma, Y., McCarthy, M.C., Sculley, J., Yu, J., Jeong, H.K., Balbuena, P.B., Zhou, H.
C., 2011. Carbon dioxide capture-related gas adsorption and separation in
138
metalorganic frameworks. Coord. Chem. Rev. 255 (15–16), 1791–1823. https://doi. of polystyrene waste to pyrolysis liquid oil. Waste Manag. 58, 250–259. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ccr.2011.02.012. org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.09.023.
Li, Z., Wang, K., Song, J., Xu, Q., Kobayashi, N., 2014. Preparation of activated carbons Miskolczi, N., Bartha, L., Deák, G., Jóver, B., Kalló, D., 2004. Thermal and thermo-
from polycarbonate with chemical activation using response surface methodology. catalytic degradation of high-density polyethylene waste. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 72
J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 16 (2), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163- (2), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2004.07.002.
013-0196-8. Moura, P.A.S., Bezerra, D.P., Vilarrasa-Garcia, E., Bastos-Neto, M., Azevedo, D.C.S.,
Li, Y., Xiao, Y., Dong, H., Zheng, M., Liu, Y., 2019a. Polyacrylonitrile-based highly 2016. Adsorption equilibria of CO2 and CH4 in cation-exchanged zeolites 13X.
porous carbon materials for exceptional hydrogen storage. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 44 Adsorption 22 (1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10450-015-9738-9.
(41), 23210–23215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.07.023. Moura, P.A.S., Vilarrasa-Garcia, E., Maia, D.A.S., Bastos-Neto, M., Ania, C.O., Parra, J.B.,
Li, Y., Liang, Y., Hu, H., Dong, H., Zheng, M., Xiao, Y., Liu, Y., 2019b. KNO3-mediated Azevedo, D.C.S., 2018. Assessing the potential of nanoporous carbon adsorbents
synthesis of high-surface-area polyacrylonitrile-based carbon material for from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) to separate CO2 from flue gas. Adsorption 24
exceptional supercapacitors. Carbon 152, 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. (3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10450-018-9943-4.
carbon.2019.06.001. Mui, E.L.K., Cheung, W.H., McKay, G., 2010. Tyre char preparation from waste tyre
Lian, F., Xing, B., Zhu, L., 2011. Comparative study on composition, structure, and rubber for dye removal from effluents. J. Hazard. Mater. 175 (1–3), 151–158.
adsorption behavior of activated carbons derived from different synthetic waste https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.142.
polymers. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 360 (2), 725–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Mulu, E., M’Arimi, M.M., Ramkat, R.C., 2021. A review of recent developments in
jcis.2011.04.103. application of low cost natural materials in purification and upgrade of biogas.
Linville, J.L., Shen, Y., Ignacio-de Leon, P.A., Schoene, R.P., Urgun-Demirtas, M., 2017. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 145, 111081 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111081.
In-situ biogas upgrading during anaerobic digestion of food waste amended with Nakagawa, K., Tamon, H., Suzuki, T., Nagano, S., 2000. Improvement of mesoporosity of
walnut shell biochar at bench scale. Waste Manage. Res. 35 (6), 669–679. https:// activated carbons from PET by novel pre-treatment for steam activation. Adsorpt.
doi.org/10.1177/0734242X17704716. Sci. Technol. 456–460. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789812793331_0091.
Liou, T.H., Wu, S.J., 2009. Characteristics of microporous/mesoporous carbons prepared Nakagawa, K., Mukai, S.R., Suzuki, T., Tamon, H., 2003. Gas adsorption on activated
from rice husk under base- and acid-treated conditions. J. Hazard. Mater. 171 (1–3), carbons from PET mixtures with a metal salt. Carbon 41 (4), 823–831. https://doi.
693–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.056. org/10.1016/S0008-6223(02)00404-9.
Liu, W.J., Jiang, H., Yu, H.Q., 2015. Development of biochar-based functional materials: Nakagawa, K., Namba, A., Mukai, S.R., Tamon, H., Ariyadejwanich, P.,
Toward a sustainable platform carbon material. Chem. Rev. 115 (22), 12251–12285. Tanthapanichakoon, W., 2004. Adsorption of phenol and reactive dye from aqueous
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00195. solution on activated carbons derived from solid wastes. Water Res. 38 (7),
Liu, P., Wang, Y., Zhou, Z., Yuan, H., Zheng, T., Chen, Y., 2020. Effect of carbon structure 1791–1798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.01.002.
on hydrogen release derived from different biomass pyrolysis. Fuel 271, 117638. Nagano, S., Tamon, H., Adzumi, T., Nakagawa, K., Suzuki, T., 2000. Activated carbon
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117638. from municipal waste. Carbon 38 (6), 915–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
Liu, X., Yang, F., Li, M., Wang, S., Sun, C., 2022. From polyvinyl chloride waste to 6223(99)00208-0.
activated carbons: the role of occurring additives on porosity development and gas Namane, A., Mekarzia, A., Benrachedi, K., Bensemra, N.B., Hellal, A., 2005.
adsorption properties. Sci. Total Environ. 833, 154894 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Determination of the adsorption capacity of activated carbon made from coffee
scitotenv.2022.154894. grounds by chemical activation with ZnCl2 and H3PO4. J. Hazard. Mater. 119 (1–3),
López, G., Artetxe, M., Amutio, M., Bilbao, J., Olazar, M., 2017. Thermochemical routes 189–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.12.006.
for the valorization of waste polyolefinic plastics to produce fuels and chemicals. Nsakala, N.Y., Essenhigh, R.H., Walker, P.L., 1978. Characteristics of chars produced
A review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 73, 346–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. from lignites by pyrolysis at 808-degrees-C following rapid heating. Fuel 57,
rser.2017.01.142. 605–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(78)90189-8.
López, A., de Marco, I., Caballero, B.M., Laresgoiti, M.F., Adrados, A., 2011a. Onwudili, J.A., Insura, N., Williams, P.T., 2009. Composition of products from the
Dechlorination of fuels in pyrolysis of PVC containing plastic wastes. Fuel Process. pyrolysis of polyethylene and polystyrene in a closed batch reactor: Effects of
Technol. 92 (2), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2010.05.008. temperature and residence time. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 86 (2), 293–303. https://doi.
López, A., de Marco, I., Caballero, B.M., Laresgoiti, M.F., Adrados, A., 2011b. Influence of org/10.1016/j.jaap.2009.07.008.
time and temperature on pyrolysis of plastic wastes in a semi-batch reactor. Chem. Pallarés, J., González-Cencerrado, A., Arauzo, I., 2018. Production and characterization
Eng. J. 173 (1), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.07.037. of activated carbon from barley straw by physical activation with carbon dioxide and
López, G., Olazar, M., Aguado, R., Bilbao, J., 2010. Continuous pyrolysis of waste tyres in steam. Biomass Bioenergy 115, 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomb
a conical spouted bed reactor. Fuel 89 (8), 1946–1952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ioe.2018.04.015.
fuel.2010.03.029. Park, H.Y., Lee, C.H., Cho, D.W., Lee, C.H., Park, J.H., 2020. Synthesis of porous carbon
Lourenco, M.A.O., Nunes, C., Gomes, J.B.R., Pires, J., Pinto, M.L., Ferreira, P., 2019. derived from poly(vinylidenefluoride) and its adsorption characteristics for CO2 and
Pyrolyzed chitosan-based materials for CO2/CH4 separation. Chem. Eng. J. 362, CH4. Microporous and Mesoporous Mat. 299, 110121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
364–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.12.180. micromeso.2020.110121.
Lozano-Castelló, D., Lillo-Ródenas, M.A., Cazorla-Amorós, D., Linares-Solano, A., 2001. Parra, J.B., Ania, C.O., Arenillas, A., Rubiera, F., Pis, J.J., Palacios, J.M., 2006. Structural
Preparation of activated carbons from Spanish anthracite: I. Activation by KOH. Changes in Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Waste Materials Caused by Pyrolysis
Carbon 39 (5), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00185-8. and CO2 Activation. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 24 (5), 439–450. https://doi.org/
Lozano-Castelló, D., Cazorla-Amorós, D., Linares-Solano, A., 2004. Usefulness of CO2 10.1260/026361706779849735.
adsorption at 273 K for the characterization of porous carbons. Carbon 42 (7), Peng, W.M., Wu, Q.Y., Tu, P.G., 2000. Effects of temperature and holding time on
1233–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBON.2004.01.037. production of renewable fuels from pyrolysis of Chlorella protothecoides. J. Appl.
Ludlow-Palafox, C., Chase, H.A., 2001. Microwave-induced pyrolysis of plastic wastes. Phycol. 12 (2), 147–152. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008115025002.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40 (22), 4749–4756. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie010202j. Podkościelny, P., László, K., 2007. Heterogeneity of activated carbons in adsorption of
Machado, N.C.F., de Jesus, L.A.M., Pinto, P.S., de Paula, F.G.F., Alves, M.O., Mendes, K. aniline from aqueous solutions. Appl. Surf. Sci. Volume 253 (21), 8762–8771.
H.A., Mambrini, R.V., Barrreda, D., Rocha, V., Santamaría, R., Trigueiro, J.P.C., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.04.057.
Lavall, R.L., Ortega, P.F.R., 2021. Waste-polystyrene foams-derived magnetic carbon Przepiórski, J., Czyżewski, A., Pietrzak, R., Morawski, A.W., 2013. MgO/CaO-Loaded
material for adsorption and redox supercapacitor applications. J. Clean. Prod. 313, Activated Carbon for Carbon Dioxide Capture: Practical Aspects of Use. Ind. Eng.
127903 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127903. Chem. Res. 52 (20), 6669–6677. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie302848r.
Maddah, B., Nasouri, K., 2015. Fabrication of high surface area PAN-based activated Quesada, L., Pérez, A., Godoy, V., Peula, F.J., Calero, M., Blázquez, G., 2019.
carbon fibers using response surface methodology. Fiber. Polym. 16 (10), Optimization of the pyrolysis process of a plastic waste to obtain a liquid fuel using
2141–2147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-015-5514-4. different mathematical models. Energy Conv. Manag. 188, 19–26. https://doi.org/
Martínez-Alonso, A., Jamond, M., Montes-Morán, M.A., Tascón, J.M.D., 1997. 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.03.054.
Microporous texture of activated carbon fibers prepared from aramid fiber pulp. Qiao, W.M., Yoon, S.H., Korai, Y., Mochida, I., Inoue, S., Sakurai, T., Shimohara, T.,
Microporous Mater. 11 (5–6), 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-6513(97) 2004. Preparation of activated carbon fibers from polyvinyl chloride. Carbon 42 (7),
00050-3. 1327–1331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2004.01.035.
Martín-Lara, M.A., Piñar, A., Ligero, A., Blázquez, G., Calero, M., 2021. Characterization Qureshi, M.S., Oasmaa, A., Pihkola, H., Deviatkin, I., Tenhunen, A., Mannila, J.,
and use of char produced from pyrolysis of post-consumer mixed plastic waste. Minkkinen, H., Pohjakallio, M., Laine-Ylijoki, J., 2020. Pyrolysis of plastic waste:
Water 13 (9), 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091188. Opportunities and challenges. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 152, 104804 https://doi.org/
Marzec, M., Tryba, B., Kalenczuk, R.J., Morawski, A.W., 1999. Poly(ethylene 10.1016/j.jaap.2020.104804.
terephthalate) as a source for activated carbon. Polym. Adv. Technol. 10 (10), Rai, P., Singh, K.P., 2018. Valorization of Poly (ethylene) terephthalate (PET) wastes into
588–595. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1581(199910). magnetic carbon for adsorption of antibiotic from water: characterization and
Méndez-Liñán, L., López-Garzón, F.J., Domingo-García, M., Pérez-Mendoza, M., 2010. application. J. Environ. Manag. 207, 249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Carbon Adsorbents from Polycarbonate Pyrolysis Char Residue: Hydrogen and jenvman.2017.11.047.
Methane Storage Capacities. Energy Fuels 24 (6), 3394–3400. https://doi.org/ Rehman, A., Park, S.J., 2018a. Comparative study of activation methods to design
10.1021/ef901525b. nitrogen-doped ultra-microporous carbons as efficient contenders for CO2 capture.
Mestre, A.S., Pires, J., Nogueira, J.M.F., Parra, J.B., Carvalho, A.P., Ania, C.O., 2009. Chem. Eng. J. 352, 539–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.07.046.
Waste-derived activated carbons for removal of ibuprofen from solution: Role of Rehman, A., Park, S.J., 2018b. Microporous carbons derived from melamine and iso-
surface chemistry and pore structure. Bioresour. Technol. 100 (5), 1720–1726. phthalaldehyde: one-pot condensation and activation in a molten salt medium for e
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.09.039. cient gas adsorption. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 6092. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-
Miandad, R., Nizami, A.S., Rehan, M., Barakat, M.A., Khan, M.I., Mustafa, A., Ismail, I.M. 24308-z.
I., Murphy, J.D., 2016. Influence of temperature and reaction time on the conversion
139
Ren, X., Zhang, C., Kou, L., Wang, R., Wang, Y., Li, R., 2022. Hierarchical porous sulfonated poly (styrene-divinylbenzene) for CO2 capture. J. Phys. Chem. C 121 (18),
polystyrene-based activated carbon spheres for CO2 capture. Environ. Sci. Pollut. 10000–10009. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b02195.
Res. Int. 29 (9), 13098–13113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16561-z. Sych, N.V., Kartel, N.T., Tsyba, N.N., Strelko, V.V., 2006. Effect of combined activation
Rodríguez-Reinoso, F., Molina-Sabio, M., 1992. Activated carbons from lignocellulosic on the preparation of high porous active carbons from granulated post-consumer
materials by chemical and/or physical activation: an overview. Carbon 30 (7), polyethyleneterephthalate. Appl. Surf. Sci. 252 (23), 8062–8066. https://doi.org/
1111–1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(92)90143-K. 10.1016/j.apsusc.2005.10.009.
Rodríguez-Reinoso, F., Molina-Sabio, M., González, M.T., 1995. The use of steam and Syamsiro, M., Saptoadi, H., Norsujianto, T., Noviasri, P., 2014. Fuel Oil Production from
CO2 as activating agents in the preparation of activated carbons. Carbon 33 (1), Municipal Plastic Wastes in Sequential Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reforming Reactors.
15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(94)00100-E. Energy Procedia 47, 180–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.01.212.
Rosi, L., Bartoli, M., Frediani, M., 2018. Microwave assisted pyrolysis of halogenated Tsuchiya, Y., Yamaya, Y., Amano, Y., Machida, M., 2021. Effect of two types of
plastics recovered from waste computers. Waste Manag. 73, 511–522. https://doi. adsorption sites of activated carbon fibers on nitrate ion adsorption. J. Environ.
org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.04.037. Manage. 289, 112484 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112484.
Ryu, Z., Zheng, J., Wang, M., Zhang, B., 2000. Nitrogen Adsorption Studies of PAN-Based Uddin, M.A., Koizumi, K., Murata, K., Sakata, Y., 1997. Thermal and catalytic
Activated Carbon Fibers Prepared by Different Activation Methods. J. Colloid Interf. degradation of structurally different types of polyethylene into fuel oil. Polym.
Sci. 230 (2), 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.2000.7078. Degrad. Stabil. 56 (1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(96)00191-7.
Saad, M.J., Chia, C.H., Zakaria, S., Sajab, M.S., Misran, S., Abdul Rahman, M.H., Chin, S. UNEP, 2021a - From Pollution to Solution: A Global Assessment of Marine Litter and
X., 2019. Physical and chemical properties of the rice straw activated carbon Plastic Pollution. https://www.unep.org/interactive/pollution-to-solution/
produced from carbonization and KOH activation processes. Sains Malays. 48 (2), (accessed 03 May 2022).
385–391. https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2019-4802-16. UNEP, 2021b Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics.
Saptoadi, H., Rohmat, T.A., Sutoyo, 2016. Combustion of char from plastic wastes https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-
pyrolysis. AIP Conf. Proc. 1737, 30006. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4949286. plastic-waste-vital-graphics (accessed 03 May 2022).
Serrano, D.P., Aguado, J., Escola, J.M., Garagorri, E., 2001. Conversion of low density Vilella, P.C., Lira, J.A., Azevedo, D.C.S., Bastos-Neto, M., Stefanutti, R., 2017.
polyethylene into petrochemical feedstocks using a continuous screw kiln reactor. Preparation of biomass-based activated carbons and their evaluation for biogas
J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 58–59, 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(00) upgrading purposes. Ind. Crop Prod. 109, 134–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
00153-4. indcrop.2017.08.017.
Seo, D.-J., Gou, Z., Fujita, H., Fujii, T., Sakoda, A., 2016. Simple fabrication of molecular Vivo-Vilches, J.F., Pérez-Cadenas, A.F., Maldonado-Hódar, F.J., Carrasco-Marín, F.,
sieving carbon for biogas upgrading via a temperature controlled carbonization of Faria, R.P.V., Ribeiro, A.M., Ferreira, A.F.P., Rodrigues, A.E., 2017. Biogas
Phyllostachys pubescens. Renew. Energ. 86, 693–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. upgrading by selective adsorption onto CO2 activated carbon from wood pellets.
renene.2015.09.006. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 5 (2), 1386–1393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Sevilla, M., Fuertes, A.B., 2011. Sustainable porous carbons with a superior performance jece.2017.02.015.
for CO2 capture. Energ. Environ. Sci. 4 (5), 1765. https://doi.org/10.1039/ Wallis, M.D., Sarathy, S., Bhatia, S.K., Massarotto, P., Kosior, E., Mercier, A., 2008.
C0EE00784F. Catalytic degradation of high-density polyethylene in a reactive extruder. Ind. Eng.
Sevilla, M., Mokaya, R., 2014. Energy storage applications of activated carbons: Chem. Res. 47 (15), 5175–5181. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie0714450.
supercapacitors and hydrogen storage. Energ. Environ. Sci. 7 (4), 1250–1280. Wang, Q., Liang, X.Y., Qiao, W.M., Liu, C.J., Liu, X.J., Zhan, L.A., Ling, L.C., 2009.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C3EE43525C. Preparation of polystyrene-based activated carbon spheres with high surface area
Shafeeyan, M.S., Daud, W.M.A.W., Houshmand, A., Shamiri, A., 2010. A review on and their adsorption to dibenzothiophene. Fuel Process. Technol. 90 (3), 381–387.
surface modification of activated carbon for carbon dioxide adsorption. J. Anal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2008.10.008.
Appl. Pyrol. 89, 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2010.07.006. Wang, J., Kaskel, S., 2012. KOH activation of carbon-based materials for energy storage.
Sharuddin, S.D.A., Abnisa, F., Daud, W.M.A.W., Aroua, M.K., 2016. A review on pyrolysis J. Mater. Chem. 22 (45), 23710–23725. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2JM34066F.
of plastic wastes. Energ. Conver. Manage. 115, 308–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Wang, B., Zhu, C., Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., Chen, X., Sun, N., Wei, W., Sun, Y., Ji, H., 2016.
enconman.2016.02.037. Facile, low-cost, and sustainable preparation of hierarchical porous carbons from ion
Shen, W., Zhang, S., He, Y., Li, J., Fan, W., 2011. Hierarchical porous polyacrylonitrile- exchange resin: an improved potassium activation strategy. Fuel 179, 274–280.
based activated carbon fibers for CO2 capture. J. Mater. Chem. 21 (36), 14036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.03.088.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C1JM12585K. Wang, L., Wang, Y., Ma, F., Tankpa, V., Bai, S., Guo, X., Wang, X., 2019. Mechanisms and
Scott, D.S., Czernik, S.R., Piskorz, J., Radlein, D.S.A.G., 1990. Fast pyrolysis of plastic reutilization of modified biochar used for removal of heavy metals from wastewater:
waste. Energy Fuels 4, 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef00022a013. a review. Sci. Total Environ. 668, 1298–1309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Sing, K.S.W., 1995. In: Patrick, J.W., Arnold, Edward (Eds.), Porosity in carbons: scitotenv.2019.03.011.
characterization and applications 2, 49. Wang, J., Yuan, X., Deng, S., Zeng, X., Yu, Z., Li, S., Li, K., 2020a. Waste polyethylene
Singh, J., Laurenti, R., Sinha, R., Frostell, B., 2014. Progress and challenges to the global terephthalate (PET) plastics-derived activated carbon for CO2 capture: a route to a
waste management system. Waste Manag. Res. 32 (9), 800–812. https://doi.org/ closed carbon loop. Green Chem. 22 (20), 6836–6845. https://doi.org/10.1039/
10.1177/0734242X14537868. D0GC01613F.
Singh, R.K., Ruj, B., 2016. Time and temperature depended fuel gas generation from Wang, J., Wang, F., Duan, H., Li, Y., Xu, J., Huang, Y., Liu, B., Zhang, T., 2020b.
pyrolysis of real world municipal plastic waste. Fuel 174, 164–171. https://doi.org/ Polyvinyl chloride-derived carbon spheres for CO2 adsorption. Chem. Sus. Chem 13
10.1016/j.fuel.2016.01.049. (23), 6426–6432. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202002230.
Singh, R.K., Ruj, B., Sadhukhan, A.K., Gupta, P., 2019a. Impact of fast and slow pyrolysis Wang, H., Xu, J., Liu, X., Sheng, L., 2021. Preparation of straw activated carbon and its
on the degradation of mixed plastic waste: product yield analysis and their application in wastewater treatment: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 283, 124671 https://
characterization. J. Energy Inst. 92 (6), 1647–1657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124671.
joei.2019.01.009. Williams, P.T., Slaney, E., 2007. Analysis of products from the pyrolysis and liquefaction
Singh, J., Basu, S., Bhunia, H., 2019b. Dynamic CO2 adsorption on activated carbon of single plastics and waste plastic mixtures. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 51 (4),
adsorbents synthesized from polyacrylonitrile (PAN): Kinetic and isotherm studies. 754–769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.12.002.
Microporous Mesoporous Mat. 280, 357–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Williams, E.A., Williams, P.T., 1997a. Analysis of products derived from the fast pyrolysis
micromeso.2019.02.031. of plastic waste. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 40–41, 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Singh, J., Bhunia, H., Basu, S., 2019c. Adsorption of CO2 on KOH activated carbon S0165-2370(97)00048-X.
adsorbents: Effect of different mass ratios. J. Environ. Manage. 250, 109457 https:// Williams, E.A., Williams, P.T., 1997b. The pyrolysis of individual plastics and a plastic
doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109457. mixture in a fixed bed reactor. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 70 (1), 9–20. https://
Singh, J., Basu, S., Bhunia, H., 2019d. CO2 capture by modified porous carbon doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199709)70:1<9::AID-JCTB700>3.0.CO;2-E.
adsorbents: Effect of various activating agents. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 102, Xian, S., Wu, Y., Wu, J., Wang, X., Xiao, J., 2015. Enhanced dynamic CO2 adsorption
438–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2019.06.011. capacity and CO2/CH4 Selectivity on polyethylenimine-impregnated UiO-66. Ind.
Solis, M., Silveira, S., 2020. Technologies for chemical recycling of household plastics - a Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (44), 11151–11158. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b03517.
technical review and TRL assessment. Waste Manag. 105, 128–138. https://doi.org/ Yahya, M.A., Al-Qodah, Z., Ngah, C.Z., 2015. Agricultural bio-waste materials as
10.1016/j.wasman.2020.01.038. potential sustainable precursors used for activated carbon production: a review.
Song, C., Zhang, B., Hao, L., Min, J., Liu, N., Niu, R., Gong, J., Tang, T., 2020. Converting Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 46, 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
poly(ethylene terephthalate) waste into N-doped porous carbon as CO2 adsorbent rser.2015.02.051.
and solar steam generator. Green Energy Environ. 7 (3), 411–422. https://doi.org/ Yuan, X., Lee, J.G., Yun, H., Deng, S., Kim, Y.J., Lee, J.E., Kwak, S.K., Lee, K.B., 2020a.
10.1016/j.gee.2020.10.002. Solving two environmental issues simultaneously: Waste polyethylene terephthalate
Sureshkumar, A., Susmita, M., 2018. Optimization of preparation conditions for plastic bottle-derived microporous carbons for capturing CO2. Chem. Eng. J. 397,
activated carbons from polyethylene terephthalate using response surface 125350 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.125350.
methodology. Braz. J. Chem. Eng. 35 (3), 1105–1116. https://doi.org/10.1590/ Yuan, X., Li, S., Jeon, S., Deng, S., Zhao, L., Lee, K.B., 2020b. Valorization of waste
0104-6632.20180353s20160724. polyethylene terephthalate plastic into N-doped microporous carbon for CO2 capture
Surra, E., Ribeiro, R., Santos, T., Bernardo, M., Mota, J.P.B., Lapa, N., Esteves, I., 2022. through a one-pot synthesis. J. Hazard. Mater. 399, 123010 https://doi.org/
Evaluation of activated carbons produced from Maize Cob Waste for adsorption- 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123010.
based CO2 separation and biogas upgrading. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. (10),, 107065. Yuliusman, N., Sanal, A., Bernama, A., Haris, F., Ramadhan, I.T., 2017. Preparation of
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.107065. activated carbon from waste plastics polyethylene terephthalate as adsorbent in
Sun, Y., Zhao, J., Wang, J., Tang, N., Zhao, R., Zhang, D., Guan, T., Li, K., 2017. Sulfur- natural gas storage. IOP Conf. Series. Mater. Sci. Eng. 176, 012055 https://doi.org/
Doped millimeter-sized microporous activated carbon spheres derived from 10.1088/1757-899X/176/1/012055.
140
Zhang, X.Q., Li, W.C., Lu, A.H., 2015. Designed porous carbon materials for efficient CO2 Zheng, J., Suh, S., 2019. Strategies to reduce the global carbon footprint of plastics. Nat.
adsorption and separation. New Carbon Mater. 30 (6), 481–501. https://doi.org/ Clim. Chang. 9 (5), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0459-z.
10.1016/S1872-5805(15)60203-7. Zhong, Z.Y., Yang, Q., Li, X.M., Luo, K., Liu, Y., Zeng, G.M., 2012. Preparation of peanut
Zhang, Y., Cui, Y., Liu, S., Fan, L., Zhou, N., Peng, P., Wang, Y., Guo, F., Min, M., hull- based activated carbon by microwave-induced phosphoric acid activation and
Cheng, Y., Liu, Y., Lei, H., Chen, P., Li, B., Ruan, R., 2020. Fast microwave-assisted its application in Remazol Brilliant Blue R adsorption. Ind. Crop. Prod. 37 (1),
pyrolysis of wastes for biofuels production – A review. Bioresour. Technol. 297, 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.12.015.
122480 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122480. Zhu, X., Gao, Y., Yue, Q., Kan, Y., Kong, W., Gao, B., 2017. Preparation of green alga-
Zhang, H., Zhou, X., Shao, L., Lü, F., He, P., 2021. Upcycling of PET waste into methane- based activated carbon with lower impregnation ratio and less activation time by
rich gas and hierarchical porous carbon for high-performance supercapacitor by potassium tartrate for adsorption of chloramphenicol. Ecotox. Environ. Safe. 145,
autogenic pressure pyrolysis and activation. Sci. Total Environ. 772, 145309 https:// 289–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.053.
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145309.
141

1-s2.0-S0956053X2300199X-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0956053X2300199X-main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0956053X2300199X-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waste Management 161 (2023) 116–141

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

On the use of plastic precursors for preparation of activated carbons and

500 10 NA – 0.09 (FakhrHoseini and

Polyacrylonitrile 800–2 800–2 60 2:1 1,513 0.65 (Singh et al., 2019c)

PS 530–5 800–1 – 3:1 2,562 1.21 (Machado et al., 2021)

PET 650–4 Single-step 100 6:1 704 – (Almazán-Almazán et al.,

PVC 600–1 Single-step – 3:1 1,888 0.76 (Liu et al., 2022)

PAN 800–2 800–2 50 2:1 809 0.50 (Singh et al., 2019d)

PAN 800–1 Single-step 20 0.8:1 2,012 1.20 (Kamran et al., 2020)

Polycarbonate 500–1.5 Single-step 800 1.5:1 348 – (Li et al., 2014)

H3PO4 600–0.5 Single-step – 3:1 683 – (Cansado et al., 2008)

FeCl3 500–2 Single-step – – 402 – (Marzec et al., 1999)

C + H2O ↔ CO + H2 (ΔH = 118.5 kJ/mol)(R.13).

Air High-density polyethylene Fast 900–3 – 16.77 0.20 (Jamradloedluk and

Steam/N2 900–2 Single-step 282

CO2 PET 725–2 925–12 %* 10 668 – (Parra et al., 2006)

PAN NaNH2 30 1 1.75 833 0.34 – (Singh et al., 2019d)

KOH 5.85 1,360 0.52 (Ge et al., 2019)

PET Melamine + ZnCl2/NaCl 0 1 6.47 1,173 – – (Song et al., 2020)

PAN KOH 0 1 0.91 3,154 0.54 – (Domínguez-Ramos et al.,

You might also like