Module 2.

Laplace Transforms
INTRODUCTION: The knowledge of Laplace transforms has in recent
years become an essential part of mathematical background required for
engineers and scientists. This is because the transform methods provide an
easy and effective means for the solution of many problems arising in
engineering.

The method of Laplace transforms has the advantage of directly giving the
solution of differential equations with given boundary values without the
necessity of first finding the general solution and then evaluating from it the
arbitrary constants. Moreover, the ready tables of Laplace transforms reduce
the problem of solving differential equations to mere algebraic manipulations.

Definition: Let f (t ) be a function of t (defined for all positive values of t).

The Laplace transform of f (t ) , denoted by 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)], is defined by the equation

0 e
− st
L  f (t ) = f (t ) dt

provided the integral converges. In the definition, 𝑠 is a parameter which may

be a real or complex number. 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] is denoted by 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) or 𝐹(𝑠).
The symbol 𝐿 is called the Laplace transform operator.

Remarks
1. The Laplace transform (an integral transform) converts a function f (t ) into

a function f ( s ) .
2. The Laplace transform technique is very useful in solving linear differential
equations with initial conditions. It is a powerful tool for solving electrical
circuit and systems problems.

Linearity Property
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constants and 𝑓, 𝑔 and ℎ are functions of 𝑡, then

L  a f (t ) + b g (t ) − c h(t )  = a L  f (t ) + b L  g (t ) − c L  h(t ) 
 2.1 Laplace Transform of Elementary Functions
𝟏 𝒌
𝟏. 𝑳[𝟏] = & 𝑳[𝒌] = (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝒌 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)
𝒔 𝒔
2 −5
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: 𝐿[2] = 𝐿[−5] =
𝑠 𝑠
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐. 𝑳[𝒆𝒂𝒕 ] = & 𝑳[𝒆−𝒂𝒕 ] =
𝒔−𝒂 𝒔+𝒂
1 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: 𝐿[𝑒 2𝑡 ] = 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 ] =
𝑠−2 𝑠+3
𝒂 𝒔
𝟑. 𝑳[𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒕] = & 𝑳[𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒕] =
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐
2 2 𝑠 𝑠
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: 𝐿[sin 2𝑡] = = 𝐿[cos 𝑡] = =
𝑠 2 + 22 𝑠 2 + 4 𝑠 2 + 12 𝑠 2 + 1
𝒂 𝒔
𝟒. 𝑳[𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒂𝒕] = & 𝑳[𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒂𝒕] =
𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂 𝟐 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂 𝟐
1 1 𝑠 𝑠
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: 𝐿[sinh 𝑡] = = 𝐿[cosh 2𝑡] = =
𝑠 2 − 12 𝑠 2 − 1 𝑠 2 − 22 𝑠 2 − 4
𝒏!
𝟓. 𝑳[𝒕𝒏 ] = , 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫
𝒔𝒏+𝟏
1! 1 3! 6
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: 𝐿[𝑡] = 1+1 = 2 𝐿[𝑡 3 ] = 3+1 = 4
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝚪 (𝒏 + 𝟏 )
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: 𝑳[𝒕𝒏 ] = , 𝐢𝐟 𝐧 𝐢𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 .
𝒔𝒏+𝟏
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Find the Laplace transform of 𝒆𝟐𝒕 + 𝟒𝒕𝟑 − 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝒕 + 𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 + 4𝑡 3 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑒 2𝑡 + 4𝑡 3 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡]

= 𝐿[𝑒 2𝑡 ] + 4𝐿[𝑡 3 ] − 2𝐿[𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡] + 3𝐿[𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡] (by linearity)

1 𝑛! 𝑎 𝑠
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ] = , 𝐿[𝑡 𝑛 ] = 𝑛+1 , 𝐿[sin 𝑎𝑡] = 2 & 𝐿 [ cos 𝑎𝑡 ] =
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
1 3! 3 𝑠
∴ 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = + 4 ( 4) − 2 ( 2 ) + 3( 2 )
𝑠−2 𝑠 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9
 1 24 6 3𝑠
= + 4− 2 + 2
𝑠−2 𝑠 𝑠 +9 𝑠 +9
𝟏 𝟐𝟒 𝟑𝒔 − 𝟔
Thus 𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = + 𝟒+ 𝟐 .
𝒔−𝟐 𝒔 𝒔 +𝟗

2. Find the Laplace transform of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝒕

Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = sin 2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
1
We know that sin 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 = [cos (−𝑡) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑡]
2
1
𝑓(𝑡) = [cos 𝑡 − cos 5𝑡] [cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃]
2
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿 [ [cos 𝑡 − cos 5𝑡]]
2
1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝐿(cos 𝑡) − 𝐿(cos 5𝑡)] (by linearity)
2
𝑠
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿[cos 𝑎𝑡] = 2
𝑠 + 𝑎2
𝟏 𝒔 𝒔
Thus 𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = [ 𝟐 − 𝟐 ].
𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟐𝟓
3. Find the Laplace transform of (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕)𝟐
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)2
= sin2 𝑡 + cos 2 𝑡 − 2 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡
We know that sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 and 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = sin 2𝜃
∴ 𝑓(𝑡) = 1 − sin 2𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[1 − sin 2𝑡]
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿(1) − 𝐿(sin 2𝑡) (by linearity)
1 𝑎
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿[1] = & 𝐿[sin 𝑎𝑡] =
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
𝟏 𝟐
Thus 𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = − 𝟐 .
𝒔 𝒔 +𝟒
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:
s sin a + b cos a
1. sin ( a + bt ) Answer:
s 2 + b2
1 5 1 
2. sin 3t cos 2 t Answer:  2 + 
2  s + 25 s 2 + 1 

1 s s 
3. cos3t cos 2 t Answer:  2 + 
2  s + 25 s 2 + 1 

1 1 s 
4. sin 2 2t Answer:  − 2 
2  s s + 16 
2
5. sin 2 t cos 2 t Answer:
𝑠 2 +16

4 3
6. 4 t − 3 Answer: −
s2 s
3
7. 3 e− 2 t Answer:
s+2
2.2 Properties of Laplace Transforms
Property 1 [First Shifting Property]

If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠 − 𝑎).

Or
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]𝑠⟶𝑠−𝑎 (𝑠 is replaced by 𝑠 − 𝑎)

Or
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)}]𝑠⟶𝑠−𝑎

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Find the Laplace transform of 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 (𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓𝒕 − 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓𝒕)
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑡 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[2 cos 5𝑡 − 3 sin 5𝑡]
= 2𝐿[cos 5𝑡] − 3𝐿[sin 5𝑡] (by linearity)
𝑠 𝑎
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿[cos 𝑎𝑡] = 2 & 𝐿 [ sin 𝑎𝑡 ] =
𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
 𝑠 5
∴ 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 2 ∙ − 3 ∙
𝑠 2 + 52 𝑠 2 + 52
2𝑠 15
= 2 − 2
𝑠 + 25 𝑠 + 25
2𝑠 − 15
∴ 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 2 = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
𝑠 + 25
By shifting property, we have
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]𝑠⟶𝑠−𝑎

∴ 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]𝑠⟶𝑠+3

2𝑠 − 15
= [ 2 ]
𝑠 + 25 𝑠⟶𝑠+3
2(𝑠 + 3) − 15
=
(𝑠 + 3)2 + 25
𝟐𝒔 − 𝟗
Thus 𝑳[𝒆−𝟑𝒕 (𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒕 − 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒕)] =
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟔𝒔 + 𝟑𝟒
2. Find the Laplace transform of 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
1
𝑓(𝑡) = (1 + cos 2𝑡)
2
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿 [ (1 + cos 2𝑡)]
2
1
= [𝐿[1] + 𝐿[𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡]] (by linearity)
2
1 𝑠
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿[1] = & 𝐿[cos 𝑎𝑡] = 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑎2
1 1 𝑠
∴ 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = [ + 2 ] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
2 𝑠 𝑠 +4
By shifting property, we have
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]𝑠⟶𝑠−𝑎

∴ 𝐿[𝑒 2𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)]𝑠⟶𝑠−2

1 1 𝑠
= [ + 2 ]
2 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 𝑠⟶𝑠−2
 𝟏 𝟏 𝒔−𝟐
Thus 𝑳[𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒕] = [ + ]
𝟐 𝒔 − 𝟐 (𝒔 − 𝟐)𝟐 + 𝟒

EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:
6 (𝑠 − 2)
1. 𝑒 2𝑡 (3𝑡 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑡) 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: −
(𝑠 − 2)3 𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 + 20
1 1 𝑠+1
2. 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑡 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: [ − ]
2 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 1)2 + 36
8 25 20
3. 𝑒 3𝑡 (2𝑡 + 5)2 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + +
(𝑠 − 3)3 (𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 − 3)2

Property 2 [Multiplication by 𝒕𝒏 property]

𝑑𝑛
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), 𝑛
then 𝐿[𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1 )𝑛 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)], where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑑𝑛
(Or) 𝐿[𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1)𝑛 [𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)}], where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
𝑑𝑠 𝑛

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Find the Laplace transform of 𝒕𝟒 𝒆−𝟑𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 ] = = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
𝑠+3
By multiplication by 𝑡 𝑛 property, we have
𝑑𝑛
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), 𝑛
then 𝐿[𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1 )𝑛 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)], where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑑4
4
∴ 𝐿[𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1 )4 4
[𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]
𝑑𝑠
𝑑4 1 𝑑 1 𝑛
= 4 [ ] 𝑢𝑠𝑒 [ 𝑛 ] = − 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑3 1 𝑑3 1
= 3 [− ] = − [ ]
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)2 𝑑𝑠 3 (𝑠 + 3)2
𝑑2 2 𝑑2 1
= − 2 [− ] = 2 [ ]
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)3 𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 3)3
 𝑑 3 𝑑 1
=2 [− ] = −6 [ ]
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)4 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)4
4
= −6 [− ]
(𝑠 + 3)5
𝟐𝟒
Thus 𝑳[𝒕𝟒 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 ] =
(𝒔 + 𝟑 )𝟓
Alternative Method: Rewrite the given as 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 4
By shifting property, we have 𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = [𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)}]𝑠⟶𝑠−𝑎
∴ 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 4 ] = [𝐿(𝑡 4 )]𝑠⟶𝑠+3
4! 24
= [ 4+1 ] = [ 5]
𝑠 𝑠⟶𝑠+3 𝑠 𝑠⟶𝑠+3
𝟐𝟒
Thus 𝑳[𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒕𝟒 ] =
(𝒔 + 𝟑 )𝟓
2. Find the Laplace transform of 𝒕𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = sin 𝑎𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
𝑎
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[sin 𝑎𝑡] = 2 = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
𝑠 + 𝑎2
By multiplication by 𝑡 𝑛 property, we have
𝑑𝑛
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), 𝑛
then 𝐿[𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1 )𝑛 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)], where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑑2
2
∴ 𝐿[𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = (−1 )2 2
[𝑓 ̅(𝑠)]
𝑑𝑠
𝑑2 𝑎
= 2 [ 2 ]
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑎2
𝑑 𝑎 𝑑 1 𝑛
= [− 2 (2𝑠)] 𝑏𝑦 [ 𝑛 ] = − 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎2 )2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑠
= −2𝑎 [ 2 ]
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎2 )2
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (1) − 𝑠[2(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )(2𝑠)]
= −2𝑎 [ ]
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎 2 )4
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 ){(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 ) − 4𝑠 2 }
= −2𝑎 [ ]
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎 2 )4
 (𝑎2 − 3𝑠 2 )
= −2𝑎 [ 2 ]
(𝑠 + 𝑎 2 )3

𝟐
𝟐𝒂(𝟑𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )
Thus 𝑳[𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕] =
(𝒔 𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐 )𝟑
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:

2
2(3𝑠 2 + 4)
1. 𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 2 2
𝑠 (𝑠 + 4)2

2
2𝑠 3 − 6𝑎2 𝑠
2. 𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 2
(𝑠 + 𝑎2 )3
8(𝑠 + 2)
3. 𝑡 𝑒 −2𝑡 sin 4𝑡 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫:
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 20

Property 3 [Division by 𝒕 property]

∞
1
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿 [ 𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 provided the integral exists
𝑡 𝑠

Or
∞
1
𝐿 [ 𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ [𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)}]𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠

SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝟏 − 𝒆𝒕
𝟏. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
1 1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[1 − 𝑒 𝑡 ] = − = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠−1
By division by 𝑡 property, we have
∞
1
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 (𝑠), then 𝐿 [ 𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 provided the integral exists
̅
𝑡 𝑠
∞
1 1 1
∴ 𝐿 [ 𝑓 (𝑡 )] = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑠 = [log 𝑠 − log(𝑠 − 1)]∞
𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−1
 ∞
𝑠 ∞ 𝑠
= [log ( )] = [log { }]
𝑠−1 𝑠 1
𝑠 (1 − )
𝑠 𝑠
∞
1 1 1
= [log ( )] = log ( ) − log ( )
1 1 1
1− 1− 1−
𝑠 𝑠 ∞ 𝑠
1 𝑠 1
= log ( ) − log ( ) [ = 0]
1−0 𝑠−1 ∞
𝑠
= log 1 − log ( )
𝑠−1
𝑠
= 0 − log ( ) [log 1 = 0]
𝑠−1
𝑠−1 𝑎 𝑏
= log ( ) [log ( ) = − log ( )]
𝑠 𝑏 𝑎
𝟏 − 𝒆𝒕 𝒔−𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒕 𝟏
Thus 𝑳 [ ] = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝑳[ ] = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏 − )
𝒕 𝒔 𝒕 𝒔
𝒆−𝟑𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟒𝒕
𝟐. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝒕
Solution: Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
1 1
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑒 −3𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 ] = − = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
𝑠+3 𝑠+4
By division by 𝑡 property, we have
∞
1
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝐿 [ 𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 provided the integral exists
𝑡 𝑠
∞
1 1 1
∴ 𝐿 [ 𝑓 (𝑡 )] = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+4
= [log(𝑠 + 3) − log(𝑠 + 4)]∞
𝑠
∞
∞ 3
𝑠+3 𝑠(1 + )
= [log ( )] = [log { 𝑠 }]
𝑠+4 𝑠 4
𝑠 (1 + )
𝑠 𝑠

3 ∞ 3 3
1+ 1 + 1+
= [log ( 𝑠 )] = log ( ∞) − log ( 𝑠)
4 4 4
1+ 1+ 1+
𝑠 𝑠 ∞ 𝑠
 1+0 𝑠+3 1
= log ( ) − log ( ) [ = 0]
1+0 𝑠+4 ∞
𝑠+3
= log 1 − log ( )
𝑠+4
𝑠+3
= 0 − log ( ) [log 1 = 0]
𝑠+4
𝑠+4 𝑎 𝑏
= log ( ) [log ( ) = − log ( )]
𝑠+3 𝑏 𝑎
𝒆−𝟑𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒔+𝟒
Thus 𝑳 [ ] = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝒕 𝒔+𝟑
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
1. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑡
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 √𝑠 2 + 𝑏2
2. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑡 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑠+𝑏
3. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑡 𝑠+𝑎
 2.3 Inverse Laplace Transforms

Definition: If L[𝑓(t)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠), then 𝑓(𝑡) is called the inverse Laplace

transform of 𝑓 ̅(s) and we write symbolically L−1 [𝑓(̅ s)] = 𝑓(𝑡) where L−1 is
called the inverse Laplace transformation operator.

Linearity Property
If 𝑓1̅ (𝑠) and 𝑓2̅ (𝑠) are the Laplace transforms of 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡) respectively,
then L−1 [𝑐1 𝑓1̅ (𝑠) + 𝑐2 𝑓2̅ (𝑠)] = 𝑐1 L−1 [𝑓1̅ (𝑠)] + 𝑐2 L−1 [𝑓2̅ (𝑠)] = 𝑐1 𝑓1 (𝑡) +
𝑐2 𝑓2 (𝑡)
where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are any constants.

Inverse Laplace Transform of Standard Functions

𝟏 𝒌
𝟏. 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟏 & 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒌 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝒌 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)
𝒔 𝒔
3 −7
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: L−1 [ ] = 3 L−1 [ ] = −7
𝑠 𝑠

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐. 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐋−𝟏 [& ] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
𝒔−𝒂 𝒔+𝒂
1 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: L−1 [ ] = 𝑒 2𝑡 L−1 [ ] = 𝑒 −5𝑡
𝑠−2 𝑠+5

𝟏 𝟏 𝒔
𝟑. 𝐋−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 & 𝐋−𝟏
[ ] = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐
1 1 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: L−1 [ 2 ] = L−1 [ 2 ] = sin 3𝑡
𝑠 +9 𝑠 + 32 3
1 1 1
L−1 [ 2 ] = L−1 [ ]= sin √5𝑡
𝑠 +5 𝑠 2 + (√5)2 √5
𝑠 𝑠
L−1 [ ] = L−1
[ ] = cos 2𝑡
𝑠2 + 4 𝑠 2 + 22
𝑠 𝑠
L−1 [ ] = L−1
[ ] = cos √3𝑡
𝑠2 + 3 𝑠 2 + (√3)2
 𝟏 𝟏 𝒔
𝟒. 𝐋−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒂𝒕 & 𝐋 −𝟏
[ ] = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕
𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂 𝟐
1 1 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: L−1 [ 2 ] = L−1 [ 2 ] = sinh 2𝑡
𝑠 −4 𝑠 − 22 2
1 1 1
L−1 [ 2 ] = L−1 [ ]= sinh √3𝑡
𝑠 −3 𝑠 2 − (√3)2 √3
𝑠 𝑠
L−1 [ ] = L−1
[ ] = cosh 3𝑡
𝑠2 − 9 𝑠 2 − 32
𝑠 𝑠
L−1 [ ] = L−1
[ ] = cosh √5𝑡
𝑠2 − 5 𝑠 2 − (√5)2

−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝟓. 𝐋 [ 𝒏] = , 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫
𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )!

−1
1 𝑡 2−1 𝑡 −1
1 𝑡 4−1 𝑡3 𝑡3
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬: L [ 2] = = = 𝑡. L [ 4] = = =
𝑠 (2 − 1)! 1 𝑠 (4 − 1)! 3! 6

2.4 Methods of Finding Inverse Laplace Transforms

METHOD 1: Direct Method
SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝟐 𝟓𝒔
𝟏. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟 + 𝟐
𝒔+𝟑 𝒔 +𝟗
2 5𝑠
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let 𝑓(̅ 𝑠) = + 2
𝑠+3 𝑠 +9
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
2 5𝑠
̅
𝐿−1 [𝑓(𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ + 2 ]
𝑠+3 𝑠 +9
1 𝑠
= 2𝐿−1 [ ] + 5𝐿−1 [ 2 ] (by linearity)
𝑠+3 𝑠 + 32
𝟏 𝒔
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝑳−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 & 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒕
𝒔+𝒂 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐
∴ 𝐿−1 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)] = 2𝑒 −3𝑡 + 5 cos 3𝑡
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔)] = 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟐𝒆−𝟑𝒕 + 𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒕.
 𝒔𝟐 − 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟒
𝟐. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝒔𝟑
𝑠 2 − 3𝑠 + 4
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let 𝑓(̅ 𝑠) =
𝑠3
The above can be written as
𝑠 2 3𝑠 4 1 3 4
𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = 3 − 3 + 3 = − 2 + 3
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
1 3 4
̅
𝐿−1 [𝑓(𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ − 2 + 3 ]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 1 1
= 𝐿−1 [ ] − 3𝐿−1 [ 2 ] + 4𝐿−1 [ 3 ] (by linearity)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

−𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ ]=𝟏 & 𝐋 [ 𝒏] =
𝒔 𝒔 ( 𝒏 − 𝟏 )!
𝑡 2−1 𝑡 3−1
∴ 𝐿 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)] = 1 − 3 (
−1
)+4( )
(2 − 1)! (3 − 1)!
𝑡 𝑡2
= 1 − 3( ) + 4( )
1! 2!
𝑡 𝑡2
=1−3 +4
1 2
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔)] = 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟏 − 𝟑𝒕 + 𝟐𝒕𝟐 .

𝟓 𝟒𝒔
𝟑. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟 +
𝟐𝒔 − 𝟑 𝟗 − 𝒔𝟐
5 4𝑠
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let 𝑓(̅ 𝑠) = +
2𝑠 − 3 9 − 𝑠 2
The above can be written as
5 4𝑠
𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = − 2
2(𝑠 − 3/2) 𝑠 − 9
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
5 4𝑠
̅
𝐿−1 [𝑓(𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ − 2 ]
2(𝑠 − 3/2) 𝑠 − 9
5 1 𝑠
= 𝐿−1 [ ] − 4𝐿−1 [ 2 ] (by linearity)
2 𝑠 − 3/2 𝑠 − 32
 𝟏 𝒔
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝑳−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 & 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒂𝒕
𝒔−𝒂 𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐
5 3
∴ 𝐿−1 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)] = 𝑒 2𝑡 − 4 cosh 3𝑡
2
−𝟏 ̅
𝟓 𝟑𝒕
( )
Thus 𝑳 [𝒇(𝒔)] = 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒆𝟐 − 𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝟑𝒕.
𝟐

EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
2𝑠 + 5 5
1. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 2 cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
𝑠2 + 4 2
3𝑠 2 + 4 3𝑡 2 𝑡 4
2. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: +
𝑠5 2 6
1 1 4
3. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: sin ( 𝑡)
3𝑠 2 + 16 4√3 √3
1 3 4 3 5 4 2
4. + − 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 3𝑡
𝑠 + 2 2𝑠 + 5 3𝑠 − 2 2 3

METHOD 2: Shifting Property

If 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡), then 𝐿−1 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠 − 𝑎)] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠)] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)
Or
If 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡), then 𝐿−1 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠 + 𝑎)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)

SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝒔
𝟏. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
(𝒔 − 𝟑)𝟓
𝑠 𝑠 + 3 − 3 (𝑠 − 3) + 3
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: = =
(𝑠 − 3)5 (𝑠 − 3)5 (𝑠 − 3)5
By shifting property, we have

𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠 − 𝑎)] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)]

𝑠 (𝑠 − 3) + 3 𝑠+3
∴ L−1 [ ] = L−1
[ ] = 𝑒 3𝑡 −1
𝐿 [ ]
(𝑠 − 3)5 (𝑠 − 3)5 𝑠5
𝑠 3 1 3
= 𝑒 3𝑡 𝐿−1 [ 5 + 5 ] = 𝑒 3𝑡 𝐿−1 [ 4 + 5 ]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
 1 1
= 𝑒 3𝑡 [𝐿−1 { 4 } + 3𝐿−1 { 5 }] by linearity
𝑠 𝑠

−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ 𝒏] =
𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )!

−1
𝑠 3𝑡
𝑡 4−1 𝑡 5−1
∴L [ ] = 𝑒 [{ } + 3{ }]
(𝑠 − 3)5 (4 − 1)! (5 − 1)!

3𝑡
𝑡3 𝑡4
= 𝑒 [{ } + 3 { }]
3! 4!

3𝑡
𝑡3 𝑡4
=𝑒 [{ } + 3 { }]
6 24

−𝟏
𝒔 𝒂𝒕 ( ) 𝟑𝒕
𝒕𝟑 𝒕𝟒
Thus 𝑳 [ ]=𝒆 𝒇 𝒕 =𝒆 ( + )
(𝒔 − 𝟑)𝟓 𝟔 𝟖
𝒔+𝟑
𝟐. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝒔𝟐 − 𝟒𝒔 + 𝟏𝟑
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 + 13 = 𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 + 13 + 22 − 22
= [𝑠 2 − (2)(2)𝑠 + 22 ] + 13 − 22
= (𝑠 − 2)2 + 9
𝑠+3 𝑠+3 𝑠+3+2−2 (𝑠 − 2) + 5
Now = = =
𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 + 13 (𝑠 − 2)2 + 9 (𝑠 − 2)2 + 9 (𝑠 − 2)2 + 9
By shifting property, we have

𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠 − 𝑎)] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)]

𝑠+3 (𝑠 − 2) + 5 𝑠+5
∴ L−1 [ 2 ] = L−1 [ ] = 𝑒 (2)𝑡 −1
𝐿 [ ]
𝑠 − 4𝑠 + 13 (𝑠 − 2)2 + 9 𝑠2 + 9
𝑠 5
= 𝑒 2𝑡 [𝐿−1 { + }]
𝑠 2 + 32 𝑠 2 + 32
𝑠 1
= 𝑒 2𝑡 [𝐿−1 { 2 } + 5𝐿−1
{ }] by linearity
𝑠 + 32 𝑠 2 + 32
𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒕 & 𝐋 −𝟏
[ ] = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐 𝒂
𝑠+3 1
∴ L−1 [ 2 ] = 𝑒 2𝑡 [cos 3𝑡 + 5 sin 3𝑡]
𝑠 − 4𝑠 + 13 3
𝒔+𝟑 5
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑒 2𝑡 (cos 3𝑡 + sin 3𝑡)
𝒔 − 𝟒𝒔 + 𝟏𝟑 3
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
𝑠
1. 2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 −2𝑡 (1 − 2𝑡)
(𝑠 + 2)
𝑠
2. 2 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 −2𝑡 (cos 𝑡 − 2 sin 𝑡)
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 5
𝑠+2 3
3. 2 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 𝑡 (cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡)
𝑠 − 2𝑠 + 5 2
2𝑠
4. 2 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 −𝑡 (2 cos 2𝑡 − sin 2𝑡)
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5

METHOD 3: Partial Fraction Method

By partial fraction, we have
1 𝐴 𝐵
1. = +
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏) (𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑏)
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2. = + +
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏)2 (𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑏) (𝑠 + 𝑏)2
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
3. = + 2
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐) (𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐)

SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝒔−𝟏
𝟏. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐
𝑠−1 𝑠−1
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Here = by Factorization
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
By partial fraction we can write the above as
𝑠−1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
𝑠 − 1 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1) − − − −(1)
Put s = −2 in (1) Put s = −1 in (1)
−2 − 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(−2 + 1) −1 − 1 = 𝐴(−1 + 2) + 𝐵(0)
−3 = −𝐵 −2 = 𝐴
∴𝑩=𝟑 ∴ 𝑨 = −𝟐
 𝑠−1 −2 3
∴ = +
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
𝑠−1 −2 3
𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1 [ + ]
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
1 1
= −2𝐿−1 [ ] + 3𝐿−1 [ ] (by linearity)
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
𝒔+𝒂
𝑠−1
∴ 𝐿−1 [ ] = −2𝑒 −𝑡 + 3𝑒 −2𝑡
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝒔−𝟏
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐𝒆−𝒕 .
𝒔 + 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐

𝟒𝒔 + 𝟓
𝟐. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
(𝒔 + 𝟐)(𝒔 − 𝟏)𝟐
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: By partial fraction we can write the given as
4𝑠 + 5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1)2
4𝑠 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1) + 𝐶 (𝑠 + 2) − − − −(1)
Put s = −2 in (1) Put s = 1 in (1)
−8 + 5 = 𝐴(−2 − 1)2 + 𝐵 (0) + 𝐶(0) 4 + 5 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (0) + 𝐶 (1 + 2)
−3 = 𝐴(9) 9 = 𝐶(3)
−𝟏 ∴𝑪=𝟑
∴𝑨=
𝟑

Put s = 0 in (1)
5 = 𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 2𝐶
1 17
5 = − − 2𝐵 + 2(3) = − 2𝐵
3 3
17
2𝐵 = −5
3
2 𝟏
2𝐵 = ∴𝑩=
3 𝟑
 1 1
4𝑠 + 5 − 3
∴ = 3 + 3 +
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1)2
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
1 1
4𝑠 + 5 − 3
𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1
[ 3 + 3 + ]
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1)2

1 1 1 1 1
= − 𝐿−1 [ ] + 𝐿−1 [ ] + 3𝐿−1 [ ] (by linearity)
3 𝑠+2 3 𝑠−1 (𝑠 − 1)2
𝟏 𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 , 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 & 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔 − 𝒂)] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔)]
𝒔+𝒂 𝒔−𝒂
4𝑠 + 5 1 −2𝑡 1 𝑡 1
∴ 𝐿−1 [ ] = − 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 3 𝑒 (1)𝑡 −1
𝐿 [ ]
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)2 3 3 𝑠2

−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ 𝒏] =
𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )!

−1
4𝑠 + 5 1 −2𝑡 1 𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 2−1
∴ 𝐿 [ ]=− 𝑒 + 𝑒 +3𝑒
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 − 1)2 3 3 (2 − 1)!
1 1 𝑡
= − 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡 + 3 𝑒 𝑡
3 3 1!
𝟒𝒔 + 𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐𝒕
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒇 ( 𝒕) = ( + 𝟑𝒕) 𝒆 𝒕
− 𝒆 .
(𝒔 + 𝟐)(𝒔 − 𝟏)𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝒔
𝟑. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
(𝒔 − 𝟑)(𝒔𝟐 + 𝟒)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: By partial fraction we can write the given as
𝑠 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
= +
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 2 + 4) (𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 2 + 4)
𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 )(𝑠 − 3) − − − −(1)
Put s = 3 in (1) Put s = 0 in (1)
3 = 𝐴(9 + 4) + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)(0) 0 = 4𝐴 − 3𝐶
3 = 𝐴(13) 3
0 = 4( ) − 3𝐶 =
𝟑 13
∴𝑨= 12 𝟒
𝟏𝟑 3𝐶 = ∴𝑪=
13 𝟏𝟑

(1) ⟹ 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 2 − 3𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 − 3𝐶 − − − −(2)

Comparing the coefficients of 𝑠 2 in (2), we get
0=𝐴+𝐵
3
𝐵 = −𝐴 = − ( )
13
𝟑
∴𝑩=−
𝟏𝟑
3 −3 4
𝑠 ( )𝑠 +
∴ 2
= 13 + 13 2 13
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 4)
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
3 −3 4
𝑠 ( )𝑠 +
𝐿−1 [ 2
] = 𝐿−1 [ 13 + 13 2 13]
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 4)

3 −3 4
( )𝑠
= 𝐿−1 [ 13 + 13 2
+ 213 ]
(𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 + 4)

3 −1 1 3 −1 𝑠 4 −1 1
= 𝐿 [ ]− 𝐿 [ 2 ] + 𝐿 [ ] (by linearity)
13 𝑠−3 13 𝑠 + 22 13 𝑠 2 + 22
𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 , 𝐋−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒕 & 𝐋 −𝟏
[ ] = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕
𝒔−𝒂 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐 𝒂
𝑠 3 3𝑡 3 4 1
∴ 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 − cos 2𝑡 + ( sin 2𝑡)
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 2 + 4) 13 13 13 2
3 3𝑡 3 2
= 𝑒 − cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
13 13 13
𝒔 𝟏
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐
] = 𝒇( 𝒕) = [𝟑𝒆𝟑𝒕 − 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕]
(𝒔 − 𝟑)(𝒔 + 𝟒) 𝟏𝟑
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
𝑠
1. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 + 3𝑒 −3𝑡
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 2 7 4 −3𝑡 2 2𝑡
2. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + 𝑒 + 𝑒
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 − 2) 3 15 5
1
3. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 1)2
1 1 𝑡
4. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: [𝑒 − cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡]
(𝑠 − 1)(𝑠 2 + 1) 2
 2.5 Convolution
Definition: The convolution of two functions 𝑓 (𝑡) & 𝑔(𝑡) usually denoted
by 𝑓 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) is defined in the form of an integral as follows
𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑢
0

Note:Convolution operation ‘∗’ is commutative i.e., 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) ∗ 𝑓(𝑡).

Convolution Theorem for Laplace Transform: If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) and

𝐿[𝑔(𝑡)] = 𝑔̅ (𝑠) then

𝐿[𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)𝑔̅ (𝑠)

𝑡
where, 𝑓 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

Convolution Theorem for Inverse Laplace Transform:

If 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝑓(𝑡) & 𝐿−1 [𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = 𝑔(𝑡), then

𝑡
𝐿 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)
−1
0

or
𝑡
𝐿 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑔(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)
−1
0
SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝟏) 𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟
𝟏
.
𝒔(𝒔 + 𝒂)
Solution: First we express the given function as a product of two functions
1 1 1
= = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)
(
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎 ) 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎)
1 1
Let 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = & 𝑔̅ (𝑠) =
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎)
1
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 1
𝑠
 1
𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎
∴ 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟏 & 𝒈(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
By Convolution theorem, we have
𝑡
𝐿 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)
−1
0
𝑡
−1
1
∴𝐿 [ ] = ∫ (1)[𝑒 −𝑎(𝑡−𝑢) ]𝑑𝑢
(
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎 ) 0
𝑡 𝑡
−𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑢 −𝑎𝑡
=∫ 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0 0

−𝑎𝑡
𝑒 𝑎𝑢 𝑡
=𝑒 [ ]
𝑎 0
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡
= [𝑒 − 1]
𝑎
𝟏 𝟏
∴ 𝑳−𝟏 [ ] = [𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 ]
𝒔 (𝒔 + 𝒂 ) 𝒂

𝟐) 𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟

𝟏
.
(𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝒔𝟐 + 𝟒)
Solution: First we express the given function as a product of two functions
1 1 1
= = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 4) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 2 + 4)
1 1
Let 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = & 𝑔̅ (𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 2 + 4)
1
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝑓(̅ 𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 −𝑡
𝑠+1
1 1 1
𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = 𝐿−1 [ 2 ] = 𝐿−1 [ 2 ] = sin 2𝑡
𝑠 +4 𝑠 + 22 2
𝟏
∴ 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 & 𝒈(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕
𝟐
By Convolution theorem, we have
𝑡
𝐿 [𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑔̅ (𝑠)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑔(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)
−1
0
 𝑡
−1
1 −(𝑡−𝑢)
1
∴𝐿 [ ] = ∫ [𝑒 ] [ sin 2𝑢)] 𝑑𝑢
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 4) 0 2
1 𝑡 −𝑡+𝑢 1 𝑡 −𝑡 𝑢
= ∫𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 0 2 0
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 𝑢
= ∫ 𝑒 sin 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 0

𝑎𝑢
𝑒 𝑎𝑢
We know that ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 (𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑢 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑢 )
𝑎 + 𝑏2
𝑡
−1
1 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒𝑢
∴𝐿 [ ]= [ (sin 2𝑢 − 2 cos 2𝑢)]
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 4) 2 12 + 22 0
𝑡
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒 𝑢
= [ (sin 2𝑢 − 2 cos 2𝑢)]
2 5 0

𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢
= [𝑒 (sin 2𝑢 − 2 cos 2𝑢)]𝑡0
10
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡
= [𝑒 (sin 2𝑡 − 2 cos 2𝑡) − 𝑒 0 (sin 0 − 2 cos 0)]
10
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡
= [𝑒 (sin 2𝑡 − 2 cos 2𝑡) + 2]
10
𝟏 𝟏
Thus 𝑳−𝟏 [ 𝟐
] = [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆−𝒕 ]
(𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝒔 + 𝟒) 𝟏𝟎

EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions using
convolution theorem:
1 1
1. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (1 − cos 𝑎𝑡)
𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 𝑎 2 ) 𝑎2
𝑠 𝑡 sin 2𝑡
2. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫:
(𝑠 2 + 4)2 4
𝑠2 𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑡
3. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫:
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )(𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2 ) 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
1 1 𝑡
4. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (𝑒 − sin 𝑡 − cos 𝑡)
(𝑠 − 1)(𝑠 2 + 1) 2
2 1
5. 𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (2𝑡 − sin 2𝑡)
𝑠 2 (𝑠 2 + 4) 4
2.6 Application of Laplace Transform to Differential Equations
Laplace transform method of solving differential equations yields particular
solution without the necessity of first finding the general solution and then
evaluating the arbitrary constants. In general, this method is shorter than our
earlier methods and is especially useful for solving linear differential
equations with constant coefficients.

Working Procedure to solve linear differential equation with constant

coefficient by Laplace transform method.

❖ Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the differential equation and
use the following formulae then the given initial conditions
𝑳[𝒚′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝒚
̅ (𝒔 ) − 𝒚 (𝟎 )
𝑳[𝒚′′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝟐 𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒔𝒚(𝟎) − 𝒚′ (𝟎)
𝑳[𝒚′′′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝟑 𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒔𝟐 𝒚(𝟎) − 𝒔𝒚′ (𝟎) − 𝒚′′ (𝟎)
𝑰𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍, 𝑳[𝒚(𝒏) (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝒏 𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 𝒚(𝟎) − 𝒔𝒏−𝟐 𝒚′ (𝟎) − ⋯ − 𝒚(𝒏−𝟏) (𝟎)
̅(𝒔) = 𝑳[𝒚(𝒕)]
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒚
❖ Transpose the terms with minus sign to the RHS.
❖ Divide by the coefficient of 𝑦̅, getting 𝑦̅ as a known function of 𝑠.
❖ Take the inverse transform of both sides and use appropriate method to
find inverse Laplace transform. This gives 𝑦 as a function of 𝑡 which is
desired solution satisfying the given conditions.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝒅𝒚
𝟏) 𝐔𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞 + 𝒚 = 𝒕𝒆−𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟐.
𝒅𝒕
Solution: Given 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform of both the sides
𝐿[𝑦 ′ (𝑡)] + 𝐿[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 ]
𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝑳[𝒚′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒚(𝟎), 𝑳[𝒚(𝒕)] = 𝒚
̅ ( 𝒔)

𝒏
𝒅𝒏
& 𝑳[𝒕 𝒇(𝒕)] = (−𝟏 )𝒏 [𝑳{𝒇(𝒕)}], 𝐰𝐞 𝐠𝐞𝐭
𝒅𝒔𝒏
 𝑑
[𝑠𝑦̅(𝑠) − 𝑦(0)] + 𝑦̅(𝑠) = − [𝐿{𝑒 −𝑡 }]
𝑑𝑠
Using the given condition 𝑦(0) = 2, the above reduces to
𝑑 1
𝑠𝑦̅(𝑠) − 2 + 𝑦̅(𝑠) = − [ ]
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 1
1
(𝑠 + 1)𝑦̅(𝑠) − 2 = − [− ]
(𝑠 + 1)2
1
(𝑠 + 1)𝑦̅(𝑠) = +2
(𝑠 + 1)2
1 + 2(𝑠 + 1)2
(𝑠 + 1)𝑦̅(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)2
1 + 2(𝑠 + 1)2
∴ 𝑦̅(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)3
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides

−1 [ −1
1 + 2(𝑠 + 1)2
𝐿 𝑦̅(𝑠)] = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿 [ ]
(𝑠 + 1)3
𝑾𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔 + 𝒂)] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔)]

−𝑡 −1
1 + 2𝑠 2 −𝑡 −1
1 2𝑠 2 −𝑡 −1
1 2
∴ 𝑦 (𝑡 ) = 𝑒 𝐿 [ ] = 𝑒 𝐿 [ + ] = 𝑒 𝐿 [ + ]
𝑠3 𝑠3 𝑠3 𝑠3 𝑠
1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑡 [𝐿−1 ( 3 ) + 2𝐿−1 ( )] by linearity
𝑠 𝑠

−𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ ]=𝟏 & 𝐋 [ 𝒏] =
𝒔 𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )!

−𝑡
𝑡 3−1 −𝑡
𝑡2
=𝑒 [ + 2(1)] = 𝑒 [ + 2(1)]
(3 − 1)! 2!

−𝒕
𝒕𝟐
Thus 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒆 (𝟐 + )
𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝟐) 𝐔𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐭𝐞𝐜𝐡𝐧𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞 𝟐 + 𝟒 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝒆−𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝒚′ (𝟎) = 𝟎.
Solution: Given 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 3𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform of both the sides
𝐿[𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)] + 4𝐿[𝑦 ′ (𝑡)] + 3𝐿[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑒 −𝑡 ]
𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝑳[𝒚′′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝟐 𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒔𝒚(𝟎) − 𝒚′ (𝟎) , 𝑳[𝒚′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝒚
̅ (𝒔 ) − 𝒚 (𝟎 )
𝟏
̅(𝒔) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑳[𝒆−𝒂𝒕 ] =
𝑳[𝒚(𝒕)] = 𝒚 𝐰𝐞 𝐠𝐞𝐭
𝒔+𝒂
1
[𝑠 2 𝑦̅(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′ (0)] + 4[𝑠𝑦̅(𝑠) − 𝑦(0)] + 3𝑦̅(𝑠) =
𝑠+1
Using the initial conditions 𝑦(0) = 0 & 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0, the above reduces to
1
𝑠 2 𝑦̅(𝑠) + 4𝑠𝑦̅(𝑠) + 3𝑦̅(𝑠) =
𝑠+1
1
(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3)𝑦̅(𝑠) =
𝑠+1
1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)𝑦̅(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)
1
∴ 𝑦̅(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3)
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
1
𝐿−1 [𝑦̅(𝑠)] = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ ] − − − − − (1)
(𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3)
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let = + + by partial fraction
(𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2 𝑠 + 3
∴ 1 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐶 (𝑠 + 1)2 − − − −(2)
Put s = −1 in (2) Put s = −3 in (2)
1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (−1 + 3) + 𝐶 (0) 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (0) + 𝐶 (−3 + 1)2
1 = 2𝐵 1 = 𝐶(4)
𝟏 𝟏
∴𝑩= ∴𝑪=
𝟐 𝟒

Put s = 0 in (2)
1 = 3𝐴 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶
1 1 7
1 = 3𝐴 + 3 ( ) + = 3𝐴 +
2 4 4
7 3 𝟏
3𝐴 = 1 − = − ∴𝑨=−
4 4 𝟒
1 −1/4 1/2 1/4
∴ = + +
(𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2 𝑠 + 3
Using the above in (1), we get
 1 −1/4 1/2 1/4
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1
[ + + ]
(𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2 𝑠 + 3
1 1 1 1 1 −1 1
𝑦(𝑡) = − 𝐿−1 [ ] + 𝐿−1 [ ] + 𝐿 [ ] by linearity
4 𝑠+1 2 (𝑠 + 1)2 4 𝑠+3
𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋−𝟏 [ ] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 & 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔 + 𝒂)] = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒇̅(𝒔)]
𝒔+𝒂
1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑦(𝑡) = − 𝑒 −(1)𝑡 + 𝑒 −(1)𝑡 𝐿−1 [ 2 ] + 𝑒 −3𝑡
4 2 𝑠 4

−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ 𝒏] =
𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )!
1 −𝑡 1 −𝑡 𝑡 2−1 1
∴ 𝑦 (𝑡 ) = − 𝑒 + 𝑒 [ ] + 𝑒 −3𝑡
4 2 (2 − 1)! 4
1 1 𝑡 1
= − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 ( ) + 𝑒 −3𝑡
4 2 1 4
𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
Thus 𝒚(𝒕) = ( − ) 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝟑) 𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞 𝟐 − 𝒚 = 𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒚′ (𝟎) = 𝟎.
Solution: Given 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform of both the sides
𝐿[𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)] − 𝐿[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿[𝑡]
𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝑳[𝒚′′ (𝒕)] = 𝒔𝟐 𝒚
̅(𝒔) − 𝒔𝒚(𝟎) − 𝒚′ (𝟎) , 𝑳[𝒚(𝒕)] = 𝒚
̅ (𝒔 )
𝟏
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑳[𝒕] = 𝐰𝐞 𝐠𝐞𝐭
𝒔𝟐
1
[𝑠 2 𝑦̅(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′ (0)] − 𝑦̅(𝑠) =
𝑠2
Using the initial conditions 𝑦(0) = 0 & 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0, the above reduces to
1
𝑠 2 𝑦̅(𝑠) − 𝑦̅(𝑠) =
𝑠2
1
(𝑠 2 − 1)𝑦̅(𝑠) = 2
𝑠
1
∴ 𝑦̅(𝑠) = 2 2
𝑠 (𝑠 − 1)
Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides
1
𝐿−1 [𝑦̅(𝑠)] = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ 2 2 ] − − − − − (1)
𝑠 (𝑠 − 1)
1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷
Let = + 2 by partial fraction
𝑠 2 (𝑠 2 − 1) 𝑠2 𝑠 −1
1 = (𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵)(𝑠 2 − 1) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)𝑠 2
∴ 1 = 𝐴𝑠 3 + 𝐵𝑠 2 − 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑠 3 + 𝐷𝑠 2 − − − −(2)
Put 𝑠 = 0 in (2), we get
1 = −𝐵 ∴ 𝑩 = −𝟏
Comparing the coefficients of 𝑠 in (2), we get
0 = −𝐴 ∴ 𝑨 = 𝟎
Comparing the coefficients of 𝑠 2 in (2), we get
0=𝐵+𝐷
𝐷 = −𝐵 = −(−1) = 1 ∴ 𝑫 = 𝟏
Comparing the coefficients of 𝑠 3 in (2), we get
0=𝐴+𝐶
𝐶 = −𝐴 = −(0) = 0 ∴ 𝑪 = 𝟎
1 (0)𝑠 + (−1) (0)𝑠 + 1 −1 1
∴ = + = +
𝑠 2 (𝑠 2 − 1) 𝑠2 𝑠2 − 1 𝑠2 𝑠2 − 1
Using the above in (1), we get
1 −1 1
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1 [ + ]
𝑠 2 (𝑠 2 − 1) 𝑠2 𝑠2 − 1
1 1
𝑦(𝑡) = −𝐿−1 [ 2 ] + 𝐿−1 [ 2 ] by linearity
𝑠 𝑠 − 12

−𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐖𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐋 [ 𝒏] = 𝐋−𝟏 [ 𝟐 ] = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒂𝒕
𝒔 (𝒏 − 𝟏 )! 𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝑡 2−1 1
∴ 𝑦 (𝑡 ) = − + sinh 1𝑡
(2 − 1)! 1
𝑡
∴ 𝑦(𝑡) = − ( ) + sinh 𝑡 = −𝑡 + sinh 𝑡
1!
Thus 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒕 − 𝒕
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
𝑑𝑦
𝟏) Apply Laplace transform method to solve + 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦(0) = 0.
𝑑𝑡
1 −𝑡
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑦(𝑡) = [𝑒 + sin 𝑡 − cos 𝑡]
2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝟐) Use Laplace transform method to solve 2 + 𝑦 = 𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦(0) = 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0 .
𝑑𝑡
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡
𝟑) Apply Laplace transform technique to solve 𝑦 ′′ − 3𝑦 ′ − 4𝑦 = 2 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑦(0) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ′ (0) = 1 .
12 4𝑡 13 −𝑡 2 −𝑡
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 + 𝑒 − 𝑡𝑒
25 25 5
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝟒) Use Laplace transform technique to solve 2 + 4 + 3𝑦 = 10 sin 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑦(0) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0 .
5 1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑦(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 − 2 cos 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
2 2
 2.7 Fourier & Inverse Fourier Transforms

INTRODUCTION: The Fourier Transform provides a frequency domain

representation of the original signal. It is expansion of Fourier Series to the
non-periodic signals. The Fourier transform of a function of time is
a complex-valued function of the frequency, whose magnitude (absolute
value) represents the amount of that frequency present in the original
function. The Fourier transform is not limited to functions of time, but
the domain of the original function is commonly referred to as the time
domain. Fourier Transform is useful in the study of solution of partial
differential equations associated with initial boundary value problems. Fourier
Transform methods have long been proved to extremely useful in all fields of
science and technology, such as signal analysis, image processing, radio-
astronomy, seismology, spectroscopy and crystallography. There is also
an inverse Fourier transform that mathematically synthesizes the original
function from its frequency domain representation.

2.8 Fourier & Inverse Fourier Transforms

Definition: The (infinite) Fourier transform of a real valued function 𝑓(𝑥) is
defined as
∞
𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞

provided the integral exists. On integration, we obtain a function of 𝑠 which is

usually denoted by 𝑓 ̅(𝑠).
∞
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠).
−∞

The inverse Fourier transform of 𝒇̅(𝒔) is defined as

𝟏 ∞
𝒇(𝒙) = ∫ 𝒇̅(𝒔) 𝒆−𝒊𝒔𝒙 𝒅𝒔.
𝟐𝝅 −∞
Linearity Property
If 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) & 𝑔̅ (𝑠) are Fourier transforms of 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) respectively, then
𝐹 [𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] ± 𝑏𝐹 [𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝑓 ̅(𝑠) ± 𝑏𝑔̅ (𝑠)
where 𝑎 & 𝑏 are constants.
Note: 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 & 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
|𝑥| < 𝑎 ⟹ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 & |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 ⟹ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎

SOLVED PROBLEMS
𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 |𝒙| < 𝟏
1) Find the Fourier transform of 𝒇(𝒙) = { . Hence evaluate
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 |𝒙| > 𝟏
∞
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙
𝟎

1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1

Solution: Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { .
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

The Fourier transform is given by

∞
𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠)
−∞

1 1
𝑖𝑠𝑥
∴ 𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−1 −1

1 1
𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 1
=∫ 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = [𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 ]1−1
−1 𝑖𝑠 −1 𝑖𝑠

1 𝑖𝑠(1) 1
= [𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑖𝑠(−1) ] = [𝑒 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑠 ]
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠
1
= [{cos 𝑠 + 𝑖 sin 𝑠} − {cos 𝑠 − 𝑖 sin 𝑠}]
𝑖𝑠
1 1 2 sin 𝑠
= [cos 𝑠 + 𝑖 sin 𝑠 − cos 𝑠 + 𝑖 sin 𝑠] = [2𝑖 sin 𝑠] = = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠).
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒔
𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬 𝑭[𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒇̅(𝒔) = .
𝒔
Now by inverse Fourier transform, we have

1 ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) 𝑒 −𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋 −∞

1 ∞ 2 sin 𝑠 −𝑖𝑠𝑥
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋 −∞ 𝑠
1 ∞ sin 𝑠 −𝑖𝑠𝑥
Thus 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 −∞ 𝑠

Put 𝑥 = 0, we get

1 ∞ sin 𝑠 −𝑖𝑠(0) 1 ∞ sin 𝑠 0 1 ∞ sin 𝑠

𝑓(0) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 −∞ 𝑠 𝜋 −∞ 𝑠 𝜋 −∞ 𝑠

1 ∞ sin 𝑠
1= ∫ 𝑑𝑠 since f(0) = 1
𝜋 −∞ 𝑠
∞
sin 𝑠
∴∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜋
−∞ 𝑠

∞ ∞
But we know that if f(x) is even, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0

sin s sin 𝑠 sin(−𝑠) sin 𝑠 sin 𝑠

Since is even [ = =− = ]
s 𝑠 (−𝑠) −𝑠 𝑠
∞ ∞
sin 𝑠 sin 𝑠
∴∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜋 ⟹ 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜋
−∞ 𝑠 0 𝑠
∞
sin 𝑠 𝜋
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 =
0 𝑠 2

Changing variable 𝑠 to 𝑥, we get

∞
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝝅
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = .
𝟎 𝒙 𝟐
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎
1) Find the Fourier transform of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { .
0 , 𝑖𝑓 |𝑥| > 𝑎

2𝑖
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠 − 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑠]
𝑠2

1, 𝑖𝑓 |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎
2) Find the Fourier transform of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
0 , 𝑖𝑓 |𝑥| > 𝑎
∞
sin 𝑎𝑥
Hence evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
−∞

∞
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠 sin 𝑎𝑥
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
𝑠 𝑥
−∞

3) Find the Fourier transform of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 when 𝑥 > 0.

𝑎 + 𝑖𝑠
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 ̅(𝑠) =
𝑎2 + 𝑠 2

2.8 Fourier Sine and Cosine Transforms

Definition: If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for all positive values of 𝑥 then the Fourier sine
and cosine transforms are given by
∞
𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) − − − −(1)
0

∞
𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) − − − −(2)
0

The inverse transforms are defined as

2 ∞
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠 − 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
𝜋 0

2 ∞
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠 − 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
𝜋 0
Linearity Property
i) If 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) & 𝑔̅𝑠 (𝑠)are Fourier sine transforms of 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) respectively,
then 𝐹𝑠 [𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] ± 𝑏𝐹𝑠 [𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) ± 𝑏𝑔̅𝑠 (𝑠)
where 𝑎 & 𝑏 are constants.
ii) If 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠)& 𝑔̅𝑐 (𝑠) are Fourier cosine transforms of 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) respectively,
then 𝐹𝑐 [𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] ± 𝑏𝐹𝑐 [𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑎𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) ± 𝑏𝑔̅𝑐 (𝑠)
where 𝑎 & 𝑏 are constants.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1) Find Fourier sine and cosine transforms of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 , 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐.

Solution: Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2.

i) The Fourier sine transform is given by

∞
𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠)
0

2 2
∴ 𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0

2)
− cos 𝑠𝑥 − sin 𝑠𝑥 cos 𝑠𝑥 2
= [(𝑥 ( ) − (2𝑥 ) ( ) + (2) ( 3 )]
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠 0

1 2 2
= − [𝑥 2 cos 𝑠𝑥 ]20 + 2 [𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑥]20 + 3 [cos 𝑠𝑥 ]20
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 2 2
= − [22 cos 2𝑠 − 02 cos 0] + 2 [2 sin 2𝑠 − 0 sin 0] + 3 [cos 2𝑠 − cos 0]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 2 2
= − [4 cos 2𝑠 − 0] + 2 [2 sin 2𝑠 − 0] + 3 [cos 2𝑠 − 1]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

−4 cos 2𝑠 4 sin 2𝑠 2 cos 2𝑠 2 −4𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑠 + 4𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑠 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑠 − 2

= + + − 3=
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠 𝑠3

(𝟐 − 𝟒𝒔𝟐 ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟒𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒔 − 𝟐

𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬 𝑭𝒔 [𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒇̅𝒔 (𝒔) =
𝒔𝟑

ii) The Fourier cosine transform is given by

∞
𝐹𝑐 [𝑓 (𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠)
0
 2 2
∴ 𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0

2)
sin 𝑠𝑥 − cos 𝑠𝑥 − sin 𝑠𝑥 2
= [(𝑥 ( ) − (2𝑥 ) ( ) + (2) ( )]
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 0

1 2 2
= [𝑥 2 sin 𝑠𝑥 ]20 + 2 [𝑥 cos 𝑠𝑥 ]20 − 3 [sin 𝑠𝑥 ]20
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 2 2 2
= [2 sin 2𝑠 − 02 sin 0] + 2 [2 cos 2𝑠 − 0 cos 0] − 3 [sin 2𝑠 − sin 0]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 2 2
= [4 sin 2𝑠 − 0] + 2 [2 cos 2𝑠 − 0] − 3 [sin 2𝑠 − 0]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

4 sin 2𝑠 4 cos 2𝑠 2 sin 2𝑠 4𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑠 + 4𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑠 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑠

= + − =
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠3

(𝟒𝒔𝟐 − 𝟐)𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟒𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒔

𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬 𝑭𝒄 [𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒇̅𝒄 (𝒔) =
𝒔𝟑

2. Find the Fourier sine transform of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆−|𝒙|. Hence show that
∞
𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝝅𝒆−𝒎
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = .
𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝟐
𝟎

Solution: 𝑥 being positive in (0, ∞), 𝑒 −|𝑥| = 𝑒 −𝑥 .

The Fourier sine transform is given by

∞
𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠)
0

∞
∴ 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

𝑎𝑥
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥]
𝑎 + 𝑏2
∞
𝑒 −𝑥
∴ 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) = [ {−1 sin 𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠 cos 𝑠𝑥 }]
(−1)2 + 𝑠 2 0
 1
= 2
[𝑒 −𝑥 {− sin 𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠 cos 𝑠𝑥 }]∞
0
1+𝑠
1
= 2
[𝑒 −∞ {− sin ∞ − 𝑠 cos ∞} − 𝑒 0 {− sin 0 − 𝑠 cos 0}] 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑒 −∞ = 0
1+𝑠
1 𝑠
= [ 0 − 1{ −(0) − 𝑠(1) }] =
1 + 𝑠2 1 + 𝑠2
𝒔
∴ 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) =
𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐

Now by inverse Fourier sine transform, we have

2 ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 0

−𝑥
2 ∞ 𝑠
𝑒 = ∫ sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 0 1 + 𝑠2

Changing 𝑥 to 𝑚, we get

−𝑚
2 ∞ 𝑠 sin 𝑠𝑚
𝑒 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 0 1 + 𝑠2
∞
𝑠 sin 𝑠𝑚 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚
∫ 2
𝑑𝑠 =
0 1 + 𝑠 2

Now changing 𝑠 to 𝑥, we get

∞
𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝝅𝒆−𝒎
∫ 𝒅𝒙 =
𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝟐
𝟎
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1) Find the Fourier sine and cosine transforms of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 4.

2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑠 − 8𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑠
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) =
𝑠2
8𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑠 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑠 − 2
𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) =
𝑠2
𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 2
2) Obtain the Fourier cosine transform of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { .
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

2𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑠 − 1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) =
𝑠2

3) Find the Fourier cosine transform of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 .

1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) =
1 + 𝑠2

4) Find the Fourier sine transform of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 . Hence show that

∞
x sin 𝑚𝑥 𝜋𝑒 −𝑎𝑚
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 + 𝑥2 2
0

𝑠
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹𝑠 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑠̅ (𝑠) =
𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
5) Find the Fourier cosine transform of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = .
𝑥
1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐹𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑓𝑐̅ (𝑠) = − log(𝑠2 + 𝑎2 )
2