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Parts of Speech in English Grammar

April 2022
Edition: 1 · Publisher: Imtiaz Ahmad Publications · Editor: Imtiaz Ahmad

Authors:

Imtiaz Ahmad
Ghazi University

Abstract

The parts of speech that are generally most helpful for English teaching are noun,
pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and determiner. Each part of Discover the world's
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speech is best defined not by the meaning of the word in question but rather by the
syntactic relationship of the word to other words in the sentence. Neuroscientific research 25+ million
provides a still incomplete understanding of the correlation between parts of speech and members
brain structure, but the organization of many grammar books by parts of speech reflects
that learning about different parts of speech in English can be helpful for learners. Corpus 160+ million
linguistics provides further understanding of how parts of speech are used by allowing us publication
to see patterns of use over many speakers and genres. This entry discusses each of the pages
above-mentioned parts of speech in detail with examples and points out which aspects of 2.3+ billion
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each part of speech in English can be difficult for English learners, while providing citations
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 Parts of Speech in English Grammar

Chapter.1

Parts of Speech

Every language consists on its basic elements that are called words. As a building is made by bricks;
language is made by words. First we will know about a word.

A word is a speech sound or a combination of sound having a particular meaning for an idea, object or
thought and has a spoken or written form. In English language word is composed by an individual letter
(e.g., 'I'), I am a boy, or by combination of letters (e.g., Jam, name of a person) Jam is a boy. Morphology,
a branch of linguistics, deals with the structure of words where we learn under which rules new words are
formed, how we assigned a meaning to a word? How a word functions in a proper context? How to spell a
word? Etc. Parts of Speech in English Grammar
Chapter.1
Some
Parts different
of Speech examples are: Boy, kite, fox, mobile phone, nature, etc.
Every language consists on its basic elements that are called words. As a building is made by bricks;
There are nine parts of speech in the English grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective,
language is made by words. First we will know about a word.
preposition, conjunction, interjection and determiners. Some writes and websites count only eight parts of
speech and place determiner under the category of adjectives. However, advance studies count determiner
A word is a speech sound or a combination of sound having a particular meaning for an idea, object or
as a separate parts of speech. These nine parts of speech indicate how the words function within the
thought and has a spoken or written form. In English language word is composed by an individual letter
sentence. An individual word may function as more than one part of speech when used in various
(e.g., 'I'), I am a boy, or by combination of letters (e.g., Jam, name of a person) Jam is a boy. Morphology,
sentences.
a branch of linguistics, deals with the structure of words where we learn under which rules new words are
formed, how we assigned a meaning to a word? How a word functions in a proper context? How to spell a
Here are the nine parts of speech in English grammar:
word? Etc.
1. Noun
Some different examples are: Boy, kite, fox, mobile phone, nature, etc.
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
There are nine parts of speech in the English grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective,
4. Adverb
preposition, conjunction, interjection and determiners. Some writes and websites count only eight parts of
5. Adjective
speech and place determiner under the category of adjectives. However, advance studies count determiner
6. Preposition
as a separate parts of speech. These nine parts of speech indicate how the words function within the
7. Conjunction
sentence. An individual word may function as more than one part of speech when used in various
8. Interjection
sentences.
9. Determines
Here are the nine parts of speech in English grammar:
Chapter.2
1. Noun
Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
A
4. noun is a word used for a place, person, or thing. Everything which has a name and we talk about it is a
Adverb
noun.
5. Everything
Adjectiveis donated by a name and that naming word is called a "noun". Often a noun will be the
name
6. forPreposition
something we can touch (e.g., lamb, pen, table), but sometimes a noun will be the name for
something
7. we cannot touch (e.g., happiness, determinism, truth).
Conjunction
8. Interjection
Some
9. examples of noun:
Determines
Everything is represented by a word that is called a noun. Some of the examples of noun are written
below:

Chapter.2
Noun
A noun is a word used for a place, person, or thing. Everything which has a name and we talk about it is a
noun. Everything is donated by a name and that naming word is called a "noun". Often a noun will be the
name for something we can touch (e.g., lamb, pen, table), but sometimes a noun will be the name for
something we cannot touch (e.g., happiness, determinism, truth).

Some examples of noun:

Everything is represented by a word that is called a noun. Some of the examples of noun are written
below:
:
  People: Ali, boy, singer.
 Animals: Cat, cow, elephant.
 Places: Karachi, city, street.
 Objects: Cup, pencil, book.
 Qualities: Boldness, sorrow.
 Actions: Writing, listening, running.

Types of Noun
There
 are many types of noun depending upon some aspects. One noun may fall in multiple categories. A
common
 noun may be a countable noun and at a same time that noun may be a concrete e.g., pencil is a
common noun itAli,
 People: is countable,
boy, singer.concrete and as well it is singular noun. Some main types of noun are
tabulated below.
 Animals: Cat, cow, elephant.
 Places: Karachi, city, street.
1.
 Proper
Objects:Noun
Cup, pencil, book.
Qualities: Boldness, sorrow.
A properActions:
noun is the givenlistening,
Writing, name of arunning.
person, or a specific place or thing, i.e. its own name ((e.g.,
e.g., Imran,
Karachi, and Rover
Rover).). A proper noun always starts with a capital letter. All days and months are proper
noun and start with capital letters (e.g. Sunday, March, and December). Name of all Person, name of
countries, name of oceans are counted in category of proper nouns (e.g., Mashal, Pakistan, Atlantic).
There are many types of noun depending upon Types
someofaspects.
NounOne noun may fall in multiple categories. A
2. Common Noun
common noun may be a countable noun and at a same time that noun may be a concrete e.g., pencil is a
common noun it is countable, concrete and as well it is singular noun. Some main types of noun are
A common noun is the word used for a class of person, place, or thing (e.g., person, city, and dog).
tabulated below.
Common nouns are not capitalized unless used in start of a sentence. There are some exceptions like in
poetry where every word of new line is capitalized. Something that is personified in poetry is also
1. Proper Noun
capitalized e.g., "So Nature incites them in their hearts" (Prologue- Geoffrey Chaucer)
A proper noun is the given name of a person, or a specific place or thing, i.e. its own name (e.g., Imran,
3. Concrete Noun
Karachi, and Rover). A proper noun always starts with a capital letter. All days and months are proper
noun and start with capital letters (e.g. Sunday, March, and December). Name of all Person, name of
Concrete
Download full-text PDF nouns are the thingscitation
Download which we can see or link
Copy touch physically. This noun contrast with abstract
countries,
ResearchGate name of oceans are counted in category of proper nouns (e.g., Mashal, Pakistan, Atlantic).
iOS App
category of noun.Install
For example: tree, hammer, and pen . We can see them feel them or touch them. Some
Get it from the App
time we name it material noun.
Store now. 2. Common Noun
Keep up with your stats and more
4. Abstract
Access scientific knowledge Noun
from anywhere
A common noun is the word used for a class of person, place, or thing (e.g., person, city, and dog).
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. Abstract nouns do not have physical existence. These
Common nouns are not capitalized unless used in start of a sentence. There are some exceptions like in
nouns are difficult to guess. Sometime learners get confused with abstract noun and adjectives. Abilities
poetry where every word of new line is capitalized. Something that is personified in poetry is also
and emotions are abstract noun e.g. bravery, joy, determination etc.
capitalized e.g., "So Nature incites them in their hearts" (Prologue- Geoffrey Chaucer)
5. Collective Noun
3. Concrete Noun
Collective nouns are words that denote groups' collection or multitude of something. These noun are used
as singular e.g. team, army, concert.
Concrete nouns are the things which we can see or touch physically. This noun contrast with abstract
category of noun. For example: tree, hammer, and pen . We can see them feel them or touch them. Some
6. Compound Noun
time we name it material noun.
Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example: court-martial, pickpocket,
4. Abstract Noun
water bottle. Some compound nouns are two words (e.g., peace pipe), some are hyphenated (e.g., play-
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. Abstract nouns do not have physical existence. These
off), and some have become single words (e.g., eye-opener). And, many of them are currently
off),
nouns are difficult to guess. Sometime learners get confused with abstract noun and adjectives. Abilities
transitioning through those stages. Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a nightmare. Some
and emotions are abstract noun e.g. bravery, joy, determination etc.
compound nouns form their plural by adding an s to the principal word, not necessarily to the end ( e.g.,
5. Collective Noun
brothers-in-law
brothers-in-law).).
Collective nouns are words that denote groups' collection or multitude of something. These noun are used
as singular e.g. team, army, concert.

6. Compound Noun

Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example: court-martial, pickpocket,
water bottle. Some compound nouns are two words (e.g., peace pipe), some are hyphenated (e.g., play-
off), and some have become single words (e.g., eye-opener). And, many of them are currently
transitioning through those stages. Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a nightmare. Some
compound nouns form their plural by adding an s to the principal word, not necessarily to the end ( e.g.,
brothers-in-law).
:
 7. Countable Noun

A countable noun is a noun that can be counted in numbers like one pen, two cars with both a singular
and a plural form. (E.g. dog/dogs, pie/pies).

8. Uncountable Noun

An uncountable noun is a noun without a plural form For example: oxygen, patience. Such nouns do not
include counting. All abstract noun falls under the uncountable category of nouns.

9. Gerund Noun
7. Countable Noun
Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that represent actions. Gerunds have verb-like properties. But these
are used differently in a sentence unlike verbs. Gerund noun are modified with adverbs. How to
A countable noun is a noun that can be counted in numbers like one pen, two cars with both a singular
differentiate gerund noun and verb? Look at two examples.
and a plural form. (E.g. dog/dogs, pie/pies).
(a) Ali is singing a song.
8. Uncountable Noun
(b) Ali is fond of singing.
An uncountable noun is a noun without a plural form For example: oxygen, patience. Such nouns do not
In sentence (a) singing is verb as its show action that Ali is performing. Verb with -ing are used followed
include counting. All abstract noun falls under the uncountable category of nouns.
by helping verbs is, am, was, were, etc. But in sentence (b) singing is not an action being performed by
Ali and not followed by a helping verb.
9. Gerund Noun
10. Gender-specific Nouns
Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that represent actions. Gerunds have verb-like properties. But these
are used differently in a sentence unlike verbs. Gerund noun are modified with adverbs. How to
Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are definitely male or female. For example: king, vixen, and
differentiate gerund noun and verb? Look at two examples.
actress
actress.. A blonde is a woman. A blond is a man.
(a) Ali is singing a song.
11. Verbal Noun
(b) Ali is fond of singing.
Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs and do not have verb-like properties ( e.g., building, drawing,
In sentence (a) singing is verb as its show action that Ali is performing. Verb with -ing are used followed
attack
attack).
).
by helping verbs is, am, was, were, etc. But in sentence (b) singing is not an action being performed by
Ali and not followed by a helping verb.
How to Differentiate Gerund Noun and Verbal Noun?
10. Gender-specific Nouns
To understand difference between gerund noun and verbal noun look at given example.
Gender-specific nouns are
 The ceremonial nouns
raising thatflag
of the arehas
definitely
started. male or female. For example: king, vixen, and
actress . A blonde is a woman. A blond is a man.
 Raising the flag carefully is much difficult.
Like gerunds nouns, verbal nouns are also derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds, they have no verb-like
11. Verbal
properties. Noungiven example, the verbal noun raising is not showing any verb-like qualities. It is
In above
not modified by a determiner and an adjective (the and ceremonial) and it requires a preposition (of)
Verbal
to nouns
link it areflag.
to the nounsIn derived
contrast,from verbs
in the and do"raising
sentence not havethe
verb-like properties
flag carefully ( e.g., difficult,"
is much building, drawing,
the word
attack ).
raising (which, despite being spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb- like qualities. More
specifically, it is modified with an adverb (carefully).

Verbal How to Differentiate Gerund Noun and Verbal Noun?

 nouns are usually preceded by a, or, an, or the, and followed by a preposition (e.g., of, in,
To understand
for). This makesdifference
them between
pretty gerund noun
inefficient from and verbal
a word nounperspective.
count look at given example.
Also, a sentence with verbal

nouns can often sound stuffy. However, verbal nouns
The ceremonial raising of the flag has started. can give an air of formality or provide emphasis.
So, we should all care about verbal nouns for two
Raising the flag carefully is much difficult. reasons:
Like gerunds nouns, verbal nouns are also derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds, they have no verb-like
properties. In above given example, the verbal noun raising is not showing any verb-like qualities. It is
not modified by a determiner and an adjective (the and ceremonial) and it requires a preposition (of)
to link it to the flag. In contrast, in the sentence "raising the flag carefully is much difficult," the word
raising (which, despite being spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb- like qualities. More
specifically, it is modified with an adverb (carefully).

Verbal nouns are usually preceded by a, or, an, or the, and followed by a preposition (e.g., of, in,
for). This makes them pretty inefficient from a word count perspective. Also, a sentence with verbal
nouns can often sound stuffy. However, verbal nouns can give an air of formality or provide emphasis.
So, we should all care about verbal nouns for two reasons:
:
 i. Replacing verbal nouns with verbs and gerunds will reduce your word count and improve
sentence flow.
ii. Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could portray you as stuffy (bad) or authoritative (good).
Employ them smartly to tune to your needs.

Chapter.3
Pronoun

Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. It takes place of a noun. Read the
paragraph written below.

(Jam
i. is aReplacing
boy of sixteen.
verbalJam is studying
nouns in 9th
with verbs andclass. Jam has
gerunds willtwo brothers.
reduce yourJam loves
word playing
count and football.
improve
Jam is captain of his
sentence flow.team.)
ii. Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could portray you as stuffy (bad) or authoritative (good).
Look Employ
at above paragraph.
them smartly The
to tune to name
your Jam looks strange in every sentence due to repetition of
needs.
noun Jam. We replace it with pronoun to make a sentence beautiful and easy to avoid word redundancy.
We will replace it with appropriate pronoun and read it again.

Jam is a boy of sixteen. He is studying in 9th class and has two brothers. He loves playing football and he
Chapter.3
Pronoun
is captain of his team.
Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. It takes place of a noun. Read the
paragraph written below.
Types of Pronoun
(Jam is a boy of sixteen. Jam is studying in 9th class. Jam has two brothers. Jam loves playing football.
Pronouns are categorized
Jam is captain of his team.)into many types. Main types include personal pronoun, possessive pronoun,
indefinite pronoun, reflective pronoun, intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun,
and
Lookreflexive
at pronoun.
above paragraph. The name Jam looks strange in every sentence due to repetition of
noun Jam. We replace it with pronoun to make a sentence beautiful and easy to avoid word redundancy.
Wei.will Personal
replace it Pronouns
with appropriate pronoun and read it again.
Personal pronouns refer to a person's name. We use personal pronouns as a substitute for a person's name.
Jam is are
There a boy
twoofkinds
sixteen. He is studying
of personal in Subjective
pronoun: 9th class and
andhas two brothers.
objective He loves playing football and he
pronouns.
is captain of his team.
(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns replace the subject in a sentence.

Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they
Pronouns are categorized into many types. Types
Mainoftypes
Pronoun
include personal pronoun, possessive pronoun,
indefinite pronoun,
Example: reflective
I love watching TV.pronoun, intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun,
and reflexive pronoun.
(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns replace the object in a sentence.
i. Personal Pronouns
Common objective pronouns are me, us, you, him, her, it, and them
Personal pronouns refer to a person's name. We use personal pronouns as a substitute for a person's name.
There are two kinds of personal pronoun: Subjective and objective pronouns.
Examples: She gave him a present on his birthday.
(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns replace the subject in a sentence.
ii. Possessive Pronouns
Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they
Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that show ownership and possession in a sentence. We categorize
possessive pronoun into two types:
Example: I love watching TV.
 Strong possessive pronoun
(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns replace the object in a sentence.

Common objective pronouns are me, us, you, him, her, it, and them

Examples: She gave him a present on his birthday.

ii. Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that show ownership and possession in a sentence. We categorize

possessive pronoun into two types:

Strong possessive pronoun

:
  Weak possessive pronoun

The strong possessive pronouns include yours mine, his, hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours. They refer back
to a noun or noun phrase already used, replacing it to avoid repetition: "I said that pen was mine." Strong
possessive pronouns are sometime called absolute possessive pronoun.

The weak possessive pronouns include your, my, her, his, its, their, our, and, your. Their function is as a
determiner in front of a noun to express whom something belongs to: "I said that's my pen." Sometime
we call them possessive adjectives.

iii. Indefinite Pronouns
Weak possessive pronoun
Indefinite pronouns refer to something that in not definite in a sentence, they do not refer to particular
thing or person. We use them when an object does not need to be specifically identified. There are two
The strong possessive pronouns include yours mine, his, hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours. They refer back
main types of indefinite pronoun: Singular indefinite pronoun and plural indefinite pronoun.
to a noun or noun phrase already used, replacing it to avoid repetition: "I said that pen was mine." Strong
possessive pronouns are sometime called absolute possessive pronoun.
 Singular Indefinite Pronoun: We use singular indefinite pronouns for the singular objects and not
for plural. Singular indefinite pronouns include: someone, somebody, something, no one, nobody,
The weak possessive pronouns include your, my, her, his, its, their, our, and, your. Their function is as a
nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, anybody, another, anyone, each, anything, either,
determiner in front of a noun to express whom something belongs to: "I said that's my pen." Sometime
other, one, neither, and much.
we call them possessive adjectives.
 Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural indefinite pronouns are used for the plural objects and not for
iii. Indefinite Pronouns
singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include many, several, few, others, and both.
Indefinite pronouns refer to something that in not definite in a sentence, they do not refer to particular
iv. Relative Pronouns
thing or person. We use them when an object does not need to be specifically identified. There are two
main types of indefinite pronoun: Singular indefinite pronoun and plural indefinite pronoun.
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates the relative clause to another clause within a
sentence. In addition, introduces the relative clause or an adjective clause. In mostly cases it acts as a
Singular Indefinite Pronoun: We use singular indefinite pronouns for the singular objects and not
subject of the relative clause. The most commonly used relative pronouns are mentioned below.
for plural. Singular indefinite pronouns include: someone, somebody, something, no one, nobody,
nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, anybody, another, anyone, each, anything, either,
Examples: Whom, whoever, whomever, who, that, which and whose
 other, one, neither, and much.
Example in a sentence:
Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural indefinite pronouns are used for the plural objects and not for
singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include many, several, few, others, and both.
 She does not know which pack of pencil you want.
iv. Relative Pronouns
"Which pack of pencil you want" is a relative clause, and the relative pronoun "which" has linked
it to the main clause.
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates the relative clause to another clause within a
sentence. In addition, introduces the relative clause or an adjective clause. In mostly cases it acts as a
v. Intensive Pronouns
subject of the relative clause. The most commonly used relative pronouns are mentioned below.
Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify nouns and pronouns and we define it as a pronoun
Examples: Whom, whoever, whomever, who, that, which and whose
that ends in self or selves. Intensive pronouns place emphasis on its antecedent by referring back to
another noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence. An intensive pronoun is approximately identical to a

Example in a sentence:
reflexive pronoun. Intensive pronouns are also sometimes called emphatic pronouns.
Intensive pronouns are himself, myself, themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves, and
 She does not know which pack of pencil you want.
yourself,
"Which pack of pencil you want" is a relative clause, and the relative pronoun "which" has linked
Example in a sentence:
it to the main clause.
 I myself like to sing.
v. Intensive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify nouns and pronouns and we define it as a pronoun
that ends in self or selves. Intensive pronouns place emphasis on its antecedent by referring back to
another noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence. An intensive pronoun is approximately identical to a
reflexive pronoun. Intensive pronouns are also sometimes called emphatic pronouns.
Intensive pronouns are himself, myself, themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves, and
yourself,


Example in a sentence:

I myself like to sing.

:
  Jerry herself is her worst critic.

vi. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are the nouns that take place of a noun that's already been mentioned in a
sentence. Demonstrative pronouns can be singular or plural. Five main demonstrative pronouns are:
these, those, such, this, that,

Example in a sentence:

 These are beautiful. Do not eat that.
Jerry herself is her worst critic.
vii. Interrogative Pronouns
vi. Demonstrative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun often stands for something that we are not aware of yet, because we are asking
about it. We use these pronouns specifically to ask questions. These pronouns are special because they all
Demonstrative pronouns are the nouns that take place of a noun that's already been mentioned in a
start with "Wh", which is quite easy to remember.
sentence. Demonstrative pronouns can be singular or plural. Five main demonstrative pronouns are:
these, those, such, this, that,
Most commonly used interrogative pronouns are: whose, what, whom, which, and who.

Example in a sentence:
The other words like "whichever" and "whatsoever" are the words that we use as interrogative pronouns.
These are beautiful. Do not eat that.
Words with 'wh' that are not interrogative pronouns. There are many other words that start with Wh but
they are not interrogative pronouns. Because they are just words that start with 'wh' and are in questions!
vii. Interrogative Pronouns
When t an interrogative pronoun is neither is "where" nor "why". Moreover, unlike other pronouns,
sometime interrogative pronouns do not have antecedents because you are not yet sure what they really
An interrogative pronoun often stands for something that we are not aware of yet, because we are asking
are!
about it. We use these pronouns specifically to ask questions. These pronouns are special because they all
start with "Wh", which is quite easy to remember.
Example in a sentence:
Most commonly used interrogative pronouns are: whose, what, whom, which, and who.
 What is your nickname?
 Whose pen is this?
The other words like "whichever" and "whatsoever" are the words that we use as interrogative pronouns.
 Whatsoever do you suggest by that? Whom were you talking with last night? Which of these
three do you like?
Words with 'wh' that are not interrogative pronouns. There are many other words that start with Wh but

they are not interrogative pronouns. Because they are just words that start with 'wh' and are in questions!
Sentence in which 'wh' words are not interrogative pronoun:
When t an interrogative pronoun is neither is "where" nor "why". Moreover, unlike other pronouns,
sometime interrogative pronouns do not have antecedents because you are not yet sure what they really
 When do you have to go to gymnasium?
are!
 He doesn't know where Ali was living last week.

Example in a sentence:
viii. Reflexive Pronouns

 What is your nickname?
Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns are similar, but the difference between them is that intensive
Whose pen is this?
pronouns are not essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. In addition, they
 Whatsoever do you suggest by that? Whom were you talking with last night? Which of these
are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. Reflexive
three do you like?
pronouns end in -selves or -self. Reflexive pronouns are:

Sentence in which 'wh' words are not interrogative pronoun:
 Yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself, yourselves.

ExampleWhen
in a sentence:
do you have to go to gymnasium?
He doesn't know where Ali was living last week.
 She told herself to spend all vacations at home.
viii. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns are similar, but the difference between them is that intensive
pronouns are not essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. In addition, they
are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. Reflexive

pronouns end in -selves or -self. Reflexive pronouns are:

Yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself, yourselves.


Example in a sentence:

She told herself to spend all vacations at home.

:
  He bought himself a new phone.

Reciprocal Pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that we use to identify a feeling or any kind of action that is
reciprocated among two or more than two. That is why; it always refers to two or more than two persons.

For example
example,, Jane is laughing at Lizzy and Lizzy is laughing at Jane. So we say:

 Jane and Lizzy are laughing at each other.


Each other and One another are the two reciprocal pronouns are not individual words but they are
He bought himself a new phone.
phrases. While using them, there must be two or more things, persons, or groups involved. Moreover,
they all must be acting the same action.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Some more examples
A reciprocal pronoun are:
is a pronoun that we use to identify a feeling or any kind of action that is
reciprocated among two or more than two. That is why; it always refers to two or more than two persons.
 Paul and Jam help each other.
For example
Both ,teams fought
Jane is hardatagainst
laughing Lizzy each other.is laughing at Jane. So we say:
and Lizzy
 Why do you laugh at each other?
 AllJanethe
andstudents gave
Lizzy are presentsatto
laughing oneother.
each another.

ix. other
Each Distributive
and OnePronouns
another are the two reciprocal pronouns are not individual words but they are
phrases. While using them, there must be two or more things, persons, or groups involved. Moreover,
Distributive
they all mustpronoun
be actingis the
a pronoun that describes a member of a group separately from the group and not
same action.
collectively or including in that group. It refers to a thing or a person in a group. We use this pronoun to
describe all the individual members of a particular group. Distributive pronoun are commonly used with
Some  more examples are:
plural noun and singular verb

 Paul and Jam help each other.
Distributive pronouns that are commonly used are each, either, every, neither, none, everyone, and any.
 Both teams fought hard against each other.
Why do you laugh at each other?
Example in a sentence:
All the students gave presents to one another.
 Each of the boys writes a poem.
ix. Distributive Pronouns
 Neither of the pens is black.
Distributive pronoun is a pronoun that describes Chapter.4
a member of a group separately from the group and not
collectively or including in that group. It refers to a thing or a person in a group. We use this pronoun to
describe all the individual members of a particular group. Distributive pronoun are commonly used with
Verb
plural noun and singular verb
A verb shows the happening or state of something. It is an action word. It can show:
Distributive pronouns that are commonly used are each, either, every, neither, none, everyone, and any.
 If somebody does something; like: This cat sleeps all day.
 If in
Example a sentence:
something has done onto someone; like: A stranger patted the stray cat.
 The state of someone or something; like: The cat is alive fortunately.
Each of the boys writes a poem.
Neither of the pens is black.
Verb is the most important part of any sentence. A sentence does not make sense without a verb in it.
There are some instants where a one-word answer can make up for a whole sentence; like, yes or indeed,
etc, without the use of verb, but these responses are not used in formal writing.
Chapter.4
Verb can also consist of more than one word, such as:
Verbs
 shows the happening or state of something. It is an action word. It can show:
A verb

 If somebody does something; like: This cat sleeps all day.
If something has done onto someone; like: A stranger patted the stray cat.
The state of someone or something; like: The cat is alive fortunately.

Verb is the most important part of any sentence. A sentence does not make sense without a verb in it.
There are some instants where a one-word answer can make up for a whole sentence; like, yes or indeed,
etc, without the use of verb, but these responses are not used in formal writing.

Verbs can also consist of more than one word, such as:
:
  The children were playing in the backyard.

Types of Verbs
These are the main kinds of verbs:
 Linking Verbs
 Transitive Verbs
 Intransitive Verbs
 Reflexive Verbs,
 Auxiliary Verbs
 Modal Verbs.
The children were playing in the backyard.
1) Linking Verbs

Linking verb is a verb that connects a sentence together. It does not mean anything on its own but makes

sense when used in a sentence. Common Linking Types Verbs that are used are: Is, am, are, was, were
of Verbs
These are the main kinds of verbs:
 Linking Verbs
Examples in sentences:
 Transitive Verbs
 Intransitive Verbs
 The birds are
Reflexive flying high up in the sky. She is always looking fabulous.
Verbs,
Auxiliary Verbs
In the above
Modalexamples,
Verbs. we can see that the linking verbs are connecting the subject with the rest of the
sentence. Without Linking Verbs, the sentences do not have a complete structure.
1) Linking Verbs
2) Action Verbs
Linking verb is a verb that connects a sentence together. It does not mean anything on its own but makes
Action verbsused
sense when showin aaction. TheyCommon
sentence. create an image Verbs
Linking of the that
happening
are usedinare:
yourIs,head. There
am, are, was,are two kinds of
were
action verbs:
a) Transitive
Examples Verbs
in sentences:

b) Intransitive Verbs
The birds are flying high up in the sky. She is always looking fabulous.
(a) Transitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that has a direct object is known as Transitive verb.
The verb should have something on which it is performed. The sentences containing Transitive Verbs can
In the above examples, we can see that the linking verbs are connecting the subject with the rest of the
also be converted from Active Voice to Passive Voice.
sentence. Without Linking Verbs, the sentences do not have a complete structure.
Look at the examples below:
2) Action Verbs
 The batsman hit the ball hard. She walked the streets alone.
Action verbs show action. They create an image of the happening in your head. There are two kinds of
action verbs:
In the first example, we can see that the verb hit has a direct object ball. The sentence can also be
a) Transitive Verbs
converted into passive voice: the batsman hit the ball.
b) Intransitive Verbs
The same case is with the second sentence. The verb walked has direct object streets and the sentence can
(a) Transitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that has a direct object is known as Transitive verb.
be converted into passive voice: The streets were walked by her, alone.
The verb should have something on which it is performed. The sentences containing Transitive Verbs can
also be converted from Active Voice to Passive Voice.
(b) Intransitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that does not have a direct object is known as
Intransitive verb. The sentences containing Intransitive Verbs cannot be converted from Active
Look at the examples below:
Voice to Passive Voice. Let us see the examples below:
The batsman hit the ball hard. She walked the streets alone.

In the first example, we can see that the verb hit has a direct object ball. The sentence can also be
converted into passive voice: the batsman hit the ball.

The same case is with the second sentence. The verb walked has direct object streets and the sentence can
be converted into passive voice: The streets were walked by her, alone.

(b) Intransitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that does not have a direct object is known as
Intransitive verb. The sentences containing Intransitive Verbs cannot be converted from Active
Voice to Passive Voice. Let us see the examples below:
:
  The lion cub sleeps. The house is flawed.

In both of the above examples, there is no direct object. Both cannot be converted into passive voice too.
So, the verbs; sleeps and flawed are intransitive.

 Most verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. For example:

 The child rings the bell.

Here the verb 'rings' has a direct object and is used transitively.

 The bell rings loudly.
The lion cub sleeps. The house is flawed.
Here the verb 'rings' does not have a direct object and is used intransitively.
In both of the above examples, there is no direct object. Both cannot be converted into passive voice too.

So, the verbs; sleeps and flawed are intransitive.
More Examples:
Most verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. For example:
I stopped the car. (Transitively)
The car stopped suddenly. (Intransitively)
The child rings the bell.
There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die, fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done to
Here the verb 'rings' has a direct object and is used transitively.
anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never be used transitively.
The bell rings loudly.
3) Reflexive Verbs
Here the verb 'rings' does not have a direct object and is used intransitively.
Reflexive verbs are those who’s subject and direct object are the same. They refer back to the same thing
or person. Let us see the examples below.
More Examples:
 She stays home herself. The cat cleans itself.
I stopped the car. (Transitively)

The car stopped suddenly. (Intransitively)
In both the above examples, the verbs are referring back to the same person. Their subject and object are
the same, hence they are Reflexive Verbs. The reference back is done in form of Reflexive Pronouns by
There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die, fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done to
which they are being called reflexive verbs.
anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never be used transitively.
4) Auxiliary Verbs
3) Reflexive Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb in a sentence and are called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary Verbs, when
Reflexive verbs are those who’s subject and direct object are the same. They refer back to the same thing
used with ordinary verbs help in changing the tenses, mood or voice of a sentence. They also help in

or person. Let us see the examples below.
making negatives and interrogatives of sentences. Auxiliary Verbs are also simply called Auxiliaries.

Common words that come under this category are as follows:
She stays home herself. The cat cleans itself.
 Is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc
In both the above examples, the verbs are referring back to the same person. Their subject and object are
the same, hence they are Reflexive Verbs. The reference back is done in form of Reflexive Pronouns by
Examples in sentences:
which they are being called reflexive verbs.
 I was going to the shop.
4) Auxiliary Verbs
Here the Auxiliary is used to form a continuous tense.
Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb in a sentence and are called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary Verbs, when
used with ordinary verbs help in changing the tenses, mood or voice of a sentence. They also help in
 The car door was opened.
making negatives and interrogatives of sentences. Auxiliary Verbs are also simply called Auxiliaries.

Common words that come under this category are as follows:

Is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc


Examples in sentences:

I was going to the shop.

Here the Auxiliary is used to form a continuous tense.

The car door was opened.

:
 Here it is used in formation of a sentence in passive voice.

 I have to reach the airport at 5:00 am.

To form questions, to emphasize on something, or to make a request, the Auxiliary Do is used.

 Do you know where the parking lot is?

 You do look great.
 Do visit!

5) Modal Verbs
Here it is used in formation of a sentence in passive voice.
Modal verbs are the verbs that are used before the ordinary verbs to show meanings such as: possibilities,
permission, certainty etc. They can just simply be called Modals. Common Modal Verbs that are used are
I have to reach the airport at 5:00 am.
as follows:
 questions, to emphasize on something, or to make a request, the Auxiliary Do is used.
To form
 Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought

 Do you know where the parking lot is?
Never and dare are also used as modal verbs sometimes.
You do look great.
Do visit!
Examples in sentences:
5) Modal Verbs
 You dare not do such a thing. You must be Sara's sister.
 You could have stopped them.
Modal verbs are the verbs that are used before the ordinary verbs to show meanings such as: possibilities,
permission, certainty etc. They can just simply be called Modals. Common Modal Verbs that are used are
Modals are mostly put in the category of Auxiliaries. Then they are sometimes called Modal Auxiliaries.

as follows:

Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought
Chapter.5
Adverb
Never and dare are also used as modal verbs sometimes.

An adverb

Examples is sentences:
in a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It provides us with further
information
 about a verb, adjective or another adverb. It tells us in which manner, at what place or time,
something
Youhappened,
dare not or
do is/was
such a done.
thing. You must be Sara's sister.
You could have stopped them.
Look at the examples below.
Modals are mostly put in the category of Auxiliaries. Then they are sometimes called Modal Auxiliaries.
 Ali walks swiftly.
 She took the grocery out of the shopping bags very
 That is a really sweet child.

Adverb
In Chapter.5
the first example, the adverb swiftly is modifying the verb walks and is telling us the manner in which
An adverb
Ali walks. is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It provides us with further
information about a verb, adjective or another adverb. It tells
In the second example, the adverb very is modifying another adverb, us in which manner, at what place or time,
carefully.
something happened, or is/was done.
In the third one, the adverb really is modifying the word sweet, which is an adjective.
 at the examples below.
Look
 Kinds of Adverbs
 Ali walks swiftly.
AdverbsShe
are took
categorized into many
the grocery out ofkinds,
the such as: bags very
shopping
That is a really sweet child.

In the first example, the adverb swiftly is modifying the verb walks and is telling us the manner in which
Ali walks.
In the second example, the adverb very is modifying another adverb, carefully.
In the third one, the adverb really is modifying the word sweet, which is an adjective.

Adverbs are categorized into many kinds, Kinds

such as:of Adverbs
:
  Adverbs of Time
 Adverbs of Place
 Adverbs of Frequency
 Adverbs of Degree
 Adverbs of Manner
 Adverbs of Reason
 Relative Adverbs
 Interrogative Adverbs
 Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation.

I. Adverbs of Time

 Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time tell us about which time an action was performed. These answer the question: When?
 Adverbs of Place
Common words which come under the category of adverbs of time are:
 Adverbs of Frequency
 Adverbs of Degree
 Ago, before, after, later, already, now, never, formerly, soon, since, etc
 Adverbs of Manner
 Adverbs of Reason
Examples in sentences:
 Relative Adverbs
Interrogative Adverbs
 I called my friend a few days ago.
Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation.
 I formerly worked at the pizza shop.
I. Adverbs of Time
II. Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of time tell us about which time an action was performed. These answer the question: When?

Adverbs
Common of Placewhich
words tell us about
come at what
under place anofaction
the category took
adverbs place.are:
of time These answer the question: Where?
Common words which come under the category of adverbs of place are:
Ago, before, after, later, already, now, never, formerly, soon, since, etc
 Here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc

Examples in sentences:
Examples
 in sentences:
I called my friend a few days ago.
 Mr. Saud was
I formerly visiting
worked here
at the an hour
pizza shop.ago. I'm going out with my family.

III. Adverbs of Frequency

II. Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of frequency show us about how often or how many times a thing took place. These answer the
Adverbs of Place tell us about at what place an action took place. These answer the question: Where?
question: How often? Common words used as adverbs of frequency are:

Common words which come under the category of adverbs of place are:
 Once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely, always, frequently, etc
Here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc
Examples in sentences:

Examples in sentences:
 I often go to visit my grandparents. It rarely rains around here.
Mr. Saud was visiting here an hour ago. I'm going out with my family.
IV. Adverbs of Degree
III. Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Degree inform us about to what degree or an extent something happens. These answer the
Adverbs of frequency show us about how often or how many times a thing took place. These answer the
question: How much? Adverbs of Degree are also known as Adverbs of Quantity. Common words used

question: How often? Common words used as adverbs of frequency are:
as Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are:
Once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely, always, frequently, etc


Examples in sentences:

I often go to visit my grandparents. It rarely rains around here.

IV. Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Degree inform us about to what degree or an extent something happens. These answer the
question: How much? Adverbs of Degree are also known as Adverbs of Quantity. Common words used
as Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are:
:
  Too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, quite, partly, altogether, enough, etc

Examples in sentences:

 I was pretty busy yesterday.

 The sauce I bought today was good enough for making my pizza.

In the above examples, we can see that the words pretty and enough both answer the question of how
much.

V. Adverbs of Manner
Too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, quite, partly, altogether, enough, etc
Adverbs of Manner give us information about how or in which manner some action is preceded. These
answer
 the in
Examples question: How? Adverbs of manner usually are derived from adjectives and mostly end in -ly.
sentences:
Following
 are some common words that come under the adverbs of manner category:
I was pretty busy yesterday.
 Swiftly,
The clearly, foolishly,
sauce I bought well,
today wasso,good
slowly,
enough for making my pizza.
Examples in sentences:
In the above examples, we can see that the words pretty and enough both answer the question of how
much.
 Hassan caught the loose snake bravely.
V.  Adverbs
Her hair isofalways
Mannerwell combed.
 She should do so.
Adverbs of Manner give us information about how or in which manner some action is preceded. These
VI. the
answer Adverbs of Reason
question: How? Adverbs of manner usually are derived from adjectives and mostly end in -ly.

Following are some common words that come under the adverbs of manner category:
Adverbs of Reason are the words that are used to state the reason or cause of some happening. These are
also Swiftly,
known as Adverb
clearly, of Causewell,
foolishly, and so,
answer the question: Why? The common words that come under this
slowly,
category are:

Examples in sentences:
 Because,
 hence, therefore, so, etc
 Hassan caught the loose snake bravely.
ExampleHer in hair
sentences:
is always well combed.
She should do so.
 I therefore went to the market by myself.
VI. He was hungry,
Adverbs so he went to the restaurant.
of Reason

VII.
AdverbsAdverbs
of Reason ofare
Affirmation
the words Negation
that are used to state the reason or cause of some happening. These are
also known as Adverb of Cause and answer the question: Why? The common words that come under this
Adverbs
category of
 are:Affirmation are the words that are used to affirm or declare something as true. These validate
things. These are the words that are commonly used as adverbs of affirmation:
Because, hence, therefore, so, etc
 Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously, yes, indeed, etc.

Example in sentences:
Examples:

I therefore went to the market by myself.
 Surely
He wasithungry,
rained yesterday.
so he went to the restaurant.
 I am obviously going to get an A+ on my test.
VII. Adverbs of Affirmation Negation

Adverbs of Affirmation are the words that are used to affirm or declare something as true. These validate

things. These are the words that are commonly used as adverbs of affirmation:

Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously, yes, indeed, etc.


Examples:

Surely it rained yesterday.
I am obviously going to get an A+ on my test.
:
 VIII. Adverbs of Negation

Adverbs of negation are the words which denote a statement, action or an idea as false. It is used to
negate something. Words commonly used to falsify something are:

 No, never, invalidly, etc

Examples in sentences:

 He never went to Italy.

 I no longer like to play table tennis.
VIII. Adverbs of Negation
IX. Relative Adverbs
Adverbs of negation are the words which denote a statement, action or an idea as false. It is used to
Relative
 Adverbs are
negate something. the words
Words whichused
commonly cometo before
falsify an adjectiveare:
something clause. These are:

 When, where
No, never, and why.
invalidly, etc

Examples

Examples in
in sentences:
sentences:

 That was the
He never wentreason why Harris came.
to Italy.
 The place where I parked mytennis.
I no longer like to play table car is very deserted.
 She forgot the time when we went to the States.
IX. Relative Adverbs
X. Interrogative Adverbs

Relative Adverbs are the words which come before an adjective clause. These are:
Interrogative Adverbs are the verbs used to ask questions. These are placed in the beginning of the
sentence which
When, contains
where the question. These words are commonly used as interrogative adverbs:
and why.

 
Why,
Exampleswhere, how, when
in sentences:

Examples
 Thatin was
sentences:
the reason why Harris came.
The place where I parked my car is very deserted.
 When will you
She forgot comewhen
the time to visit?
we went to the States.
 How was the roast cooked?
X. Interrogative Adverbs Degrees of Adverbs
Interrogative
Like Adverbs
adjectives, adverbsare
alsothehave
verbs used of
Degrees to Comparison.
ask questions.
But,These
only are placed
Adverbs of in thedegree
time, beginning of the
and manner

sentence which contains the question. These words are commonly used as interrogative adverbs:
admit to the comparison. Adverbs like now, then, there, once, etc cannot be compared because of their
nature.
Why, where, how, when
Degrees of Comparison

Examples in sentences:

Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time are changed in form very often to denote comparison. The degree
to which When willadverbs
these you come to visit?determines their degree. These degrees are called Degrees of
change,
How was the roast cooked?
Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison:
 Positive Degree
 Comparative Degree
Like adjectives, adverbs
Superlative also have Degrees
Degree.
Degrees of Adverbs
of Comparison. But, only Adverbs of time, degree and manner
admit to the comparison. Adverbs like now, then, there, once, etc cannot be compared because of their
nature.

Degrees of Comparison

Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time are changed in form very often to denote comparison. The degree
to which
 these adverbs change, determines their degree. These degrees are called Degrees of
Comparison.
 There are three degrees of comparison:
 Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree.
:
  Positive Degree

An adverb with a positive degree is an adverb in its simple and original form. There is no comparison
going on with anything. It just lets it known that some quality exists in something or someone. Look at
the examples below.

 She walked slowly.

 The car is parked at a near location.

 Comparative Degree

The Positive
comparative degree of an adverb shows that the presence of a quality in one thing is more or higher
Degree
than its presence in the Positive. This degree is used when the comparison of two things is happening.
Look at the with
An adverb examples belowdegree
a positive to get aismore clear idea.
an adverb in its simple and original form. There is no comparison
going on with anything. It just lets it known that some quality exists in something or someone. Look at
 She walked
the examples below.more slowly than her friends.
 The car is park at a nearer location.
She walked slowly.
The car isDegree
 Superlative parked at a near location.

The Comparative
Superlative Degree
Degreeof Comparison is used when the some quality in one thing or person is highest
than anything or anyone else. Superlative degree is used when a thing or person is in comparison against
more than one thing
The comparative or person.
degree of an adverb shows that the presence of a quality in one thing is more or higher
than its presence in the Positive. This degree is used when the comparison of two things is happening.
Look at the examples below to get a more clear idea.
Examples:

 Of Sheall the people,
walked more she walked
slowly than the
hermost slowly.
friends.
  The car is parked
park at at
a the next
nearer location.
location.

In the above examples,

Superlative Degreewe have compared the thing we were talking about with all the other things of the
like. This is the highest form of comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree.
The Superlative Degree of Comparison is used when the some quality in one thing or person is highest
Chapter.6
than anything or anyone else. Superlative degree is used when a thing or person is in comparison against
more than one thing or person.
Adjective

Examples:

An adjective is defined a word which gives information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase. It gives
Ofinformation
additional all the people, sheawalked
about noun orthepronoun.
most slowly.
It shows the quality, kind, or degree of a noun. Look at
The car
the examples is parked at the next location.
below.

 above
In the Sanaexamples,
gave me eight apples
we have compared the thing we were talking about with all the other things of the
like.This
The mouse
is the is little.
highest form of comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree.

In the first example, the word eight is telling about the quantity of apples. It is giving additional
information about the apples, hence is an adjective.
Chapter.6
In the second example, the word little is telling us about the quality of the mouse, that it is little, so it is an
Adjective
adjective too.is defined a word which gives information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase. It gives
An adjective
additional information about a noun or pronoun. It shows the quality, kind, or degree of a noun. Look at

the examples below.

Sana gave me eight apples
The mouse is little.

In the first example, the word eight is telling about the quantity of apples. It is giving additional
information about the apples, hence is an adjective.

In the second example, the word little is telling us about the quality of the mouse, that it is little, so it is an
adjective too.
:
:
:
:
:
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Corpus versus non-corpus-informed pedagogical materials: Grammar as the focus

January 2015

F. Meunier · R. Reppen

In 2000, TESOL Quarterly published an article by Susan Conrad titled “Will corpus linguistics revolutionize grammar teaching in the
21st century?” Conrad argued that three changes prompted by corpus-based studies of grammar had “the potential to revolutionize
the teaching of grammar” (2000: 549): first, monolithic descriptions of English grammar would be replaced by register-specific ...
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