Chapter 1

### Summary
Geotechnical Engineering (AE 421) focuses on soil identification, testing, and properties, emphasizing the relationship between soil behavior and civil engineering structures. Key topics include
foundation types, soil compressibility, slope stability, and various applications such as dam and tunnel engineering. The field has evolved significantly since the 18th century, maturing into a
specialized engineering discipline essential for safe and effective construction on or with soil.
### Highlights -
1. **Soil Identification & Testing**: Understand soil types and their properties.
2. **Foundation Types**: Explore shallow vs. deep foundations and their applications.
3. **Soil Compressibility**: Assess how soil compresses under load.
4. **Slope Stability**: Analyze the stability of slopes in engineering projects.
5. **Historical Development**: Learn about the evolution of geotechnical engineering theories.
6. **Applications**: Discover real-world applications like tunnel and dam engineering.
7. **Civil Engineering Materials**: Differentiate between man-made materials and naturally deposited soils.
### Key Insights -
1. **Interrelationship of Soil and Structures**: The foundation of all civil engineering lies in understanding soil behavior, emphasizing its role in load transmission and stability of structures.
2. **Unique Properties of Soil**: Unlike man-made materials, soil exhibits inelastic, nonlinear, and time-dependent behaviors, making its study crucial for accurate engineering predictions.
3. **Historical Significance**: The field’s development from empirical methods to a scientific discipline showcases the importance of research and theory in advancing engineering practices.
4. **Foundation Engineering Importance**: The choice between shallow and deep foundations significantly impacts structural integrity and performance, requiring careful analysis of soil
characteristics.
5. **Tools and Techniques**: Modern geotechnical engineering relies heavily on lab testing and simulation tools, reinforcing the need for practical skills alongside theoretical knowledge.
6. **Diverse Applications**: The versatility of geotechnical engineering spans various sectors, including earthquake engineering and geoenvironmental projects, highlighting its relevance in
addressing global challenges.
7. **Material Differences**: Understanding the distinct characteristics of earth materials compared to synthetic ones is essential for effective civil engineering design, ensuring safety and
sustainability.
• Course Description:-Soil identification and testing.-Properties of soil-
Soil and water system.-Compressibility of soil and soil bearing
capacity.-Failure theories and foundation settlement.-Types of
foundations, including shallow and deep foundations.-Retaining walls.-
Lab measurements.
• 7• Foundation Engineering• Tunnel Engineering• Dam Engineering•
Retaining Walls • Slope Stability• Geoenvironmental Engineering•
Pavement Engineering• Earthquake Engineering• Geosynthetics• Etc.
Applications of Geotechnical Engineering
• 9What is Geotechnical Engineering? Geotechnical engineering is the
sub discipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials found
close to the surface of the earth.The term geotechnical engineering is
defined as the science and practice of that part of civil engineering
involving the interrelationship between the geological environment and
the works of man. The engineer doing this specific type of eng. Work is
"GEOTEHNICAL ENGINEER".The word geotechnical (GEOTEKNISKA) is a
combination of geology and civil engineering technology (first used by
the commission of the Swedish railways).
• 10Historical Development• Before mid -1700's only experience and rule of
thumb• Mid 1700's to 1925 some theories were developedCoulomb
(1776), Rankine (1856), D'Arcy (1856), Atterberg (1911), Boussinesq
(1885).(However, still not accepted as independent discipline)• 1925 –
1960 many authorities date the beginning of soil mechanics as an
engineering science to the publication of "Erdbaumechanik" by Karl
Terzaghi.• 1960 – Present: There has been a real information explosion in
the number of conferences, technical journals, and books.The profession
of geotechnical engineering has matured and is now an established branch
of engineering, and thousands of engineers declare geotechnical
engineering to be their preferred area of specialty.
• 16Earthen Materials• The earth crust is composed of soils and rocks.•
Rock can be defined as a natural aggregate of minerals and mineraloids
that are connected by strong bonding or attractive forces.• In engineering
practice, soil is defined as the uncemented or weekly cemented
accumulation of solid particles that have resulted from disintegration of
rocks.
• 16Earthen Materials• The earth crust is composed of soils and rocks.•
Rock can be defined as a natural aggregate of minerals and mineraloids
that are connected by strong bonding or attractive forces.• In engineering
practice, soil is defined as the uncemented or weekly cemented
accumulation of solid particles that have resulted from disintegration of
rocks.
• 17• In soils, voids exist between particles, which may be filled with a
liquid, usually water, or gas, usually air. • It should be noted that the
dividing line between soil and rock is arbitrary, and many natural materials
encountered in engineering practice cannot be easily classified. They may
be either a "very soft rock" or a "very hard soil".
• 18Importance of Soil in Civil Engineering • Soil is one of the most widely
encountered materials in civil engineering.• All structures, regardless of
the material they are constructed, rest ultimately upon soil or rock. • Soil
is the medium through which loads applied at the surface are transmitted
to underground structures like sewers, culverts, tunnels, etc.• It is used as
a construction material in many engineering structures like earth-fill and
rock-fill dams, etc.
• 19Why soil is unique compared to other engineering materials?• Most of
civil engineering materials are man-made and their properties are
controlled and easily measured. Soil on the other hand is naturally
deposited.• Behavior is usually: inelastic, nonlinear, anisotropic, and
time-dependent.• Soils are different from one location to another
location.• Contrary to soils, rocks are generally more sound and pose no
problems with regard to both bearing and deformations.
• Resources (Listed in Course Specifications)•Coduto, Donald.
Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices•Search the web for
sites that include design and information about soil mechanics and free
software to analyze and design simple geotechnical systems.
Chapter 2
• ### Summary

• Chapter Three discusses the weight-volume relationships in partially saturated soils, which consist of solid particles, water, and air. The concepts of void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation,
moisture content, and various unit weights are explored, along with equations to derive relationships among these parameters. The chapter concludes with practical applications and problems
related to soil density and compaction.

• ### Highlights -

• 1. **Three-Phase Soil**: Soil consists of solids, water, and air.

• 2. **Void Ratio**: Ratio of void volume to solid volume (e = Vv/Vs).

• 3. **Porosity**: Ratio of void volume to total volume (n = Vv/V).

• 4. **Degree of Saturation**: Ratio of water volume to void volume (S = Vw/Vv).

• 5. **Moisture Content**: Ratio of water weight to solid weight (w = Ww/Ws).

• 6. **Unit Weights**: Definitions for moist, dry, and saturated unit weights (γ, γd, γsat).

• 7. **Relative Density**: Indicates the compactness of granular soil (Dr).

• ## Key Insights -

• 1. **Soil Composition**: Understanding that soils are composed of three phases is crucial for analyzing their mechanical behavior under load. This knowledge helps in predicting soil stability
and settlement, impacting construction and civil engineering projects.

• 2. **Void Ratio and Porosity**: The relationships between void ratio and porosity are foundational in geotechnical engineering. By manipulating these ratios, engineers can optimize soil
conditions for construction, ensuring proper drainage and foundation stability.

• 3. **Degree of Saturation**: The degree of saturation significantly affects the mechanical properties of soil. Higher saturation levels typically lead to reduced shear strength, which must be
considered in design and construction practices, especially in wet conditions.

• 4. **Moisture Content Importance**: Moisture content is a pivotal parameter that influences soil behavior, affecting compaction and consolidation. Engineers routinely assess moisture content
to ensure effective soil management during construction.

• 5. **Unit Weight Relationships**: Understanding the relationships among different unit weights is vital for calculating soil loads in structural designs. Accurate unit weight assessments ensure
that foundations and structures are adequately supported.

• 6. **Relative Density Applications**: Relative density provides a measure of soil compactness and is essential for evaluating the stability of granular soils. This metric aids in determining the
suitability of soil for construction and predicting performance under load.

• 7. **Practical Problem Solving**: The chapter emphasizes practical applications through problems that help reinforce theoretical concepts. Solving these problems enhances understanding
and prepares engineers for real-world challenges in geotechnical engineering.
• Chapter Three Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase Relationships) 1
Chapter 3: Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase Ralationships) Partially saturated soil
(three-phase soil) is composed of solids (soil particles), liquids (usually water), and gases
(usually air). The spaces between the solids are called voids. The soil water is commonly called
pore water and it plays a very important role in the behavior of soils under load. If all voids are
filled with water, the soil is saturated (two-phase). Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated. If all the
voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry (two-phase). 3.1 Weight-Volume Relationships
Figure (3.1a) shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would exist in a natural
state. To develop the weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three phases (that is,
solid, water, and air) as shown in Figure (3.1b). Thus, the total volume of a given soil sample can
be expressed as V= Vs + Vv = Vs+ Vw+ Va (3.1) where Vs = volume of soil solids Vv =
volume of voids Vw = volume of water in the voids Va =volume of air in
the voids Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can give the total weight of the
sample as W= Ws + Ww (3.2) where Ws = weight of soil solids Ww = weight of water
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element are void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to
the volume of solids. Thus, 𝑒=𝑉𝑣𝑉𝑠 (3.3)
• Chapter Three Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase Relationships) 2
Figure (3.1a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of the soil element Porosity (n) is
defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, or 𝑛=𝑉𝑣𝑉
(3.4) The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids, or 𝑆=𝑉𝑤𝑉𝑣 (3.5) It is commonly expressed as a
percentage. The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived from Eqs. (3.1),
(3.3), and (3.4) as follows: 𝑒=𝑉𝑣𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑣𝑉−𝑉𝑣=(𝑉𝑣𝑉)1−(𝑉𝑣𝑉) =𝑛1−𝑛 (3.6)
Also, from Eq. (3.6), 𝑛=𝑒1+𝑒 (3.7) The common terms
used for weight relationships are moisture content and unit weight. Moisture content (w) is also
referred to as water content and is defined
• Chapter Three Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase
Relationships) 3 as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
volume of soil: 𝑤=𝑊𝑤𝑊𝑠 (3.8) Unit weight (γ)
is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus, 𝛾=𝑊𝑉
(3.9) The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the
moisture content, and the total volume. From Eqs. (3.2), (3.8), and (3.9),
𝛾=𝑊𝑉=𝑊𝑠+𝑊𝑤𝑉=𝑊𝑠[1+(𝑊𝑤𝑊𝑠)]𝑉=𝑊𝑠(1+𝑤)𝑉 (3.10) Soils engineers
sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by Eq. (3.9) as the moist unit weight.
Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume of
soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, 𝛾𝑑. Thus,
𝛾𝑑=𝑊𝑠𝑉 (3.11) From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), the relationship of unit
weight, dry unit weight, and moisture content can be given as
𝛾𝑑=𝛾1+𝑤 (3.12) Sometimes it is convenient to express soil
densities in terms of mass densities (ρ). The SI unit of mass density is kilograms
cubic meter (kg/m3). We can write the density equations [similar to Eqs. (3.9) and
(3.11)] as
• Chapter Three Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase
Relationships) 4 𝜌=𝑀𝑉 (3.13) and
𝜌𝑑=𝑀𝑠𝑉 (3.14) where ρ = density of soil (kg/m3) 𝜌𝑑 = dry
density of soil (kg/m3) M = total mass of the soil sample (kg) Ms = mass of soil
solids in the sample (kg) The unit of total volume, V, is m3. The unit weight in kN/m3
can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as γ (kN/m3) =
g𝜌(𝑘𝑔𝑚3)1000 and γd (kN/m3) = g𝜌𝑑(𝑘𝑔𝑚3)1000 where g =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2. Note that unit weight of water (γw) is
equal to 9.81 kN/m3. 3.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio,
Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity To obtain a relationship among unit
weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture content, let us consider a volume of soil
in which the volume of the soil solids is one, as shown in Figure 3.2. If the volume of
the soil solids is one, then the volume of voids is numerically equal to the void ratio,
e [from Eq. (3.3)]. The weights of soil solids and water can be given as
Ws= Gs γw Ww = wWs = wGs γw where Gs = specific
gravity of soil solids w = moisture content γw = unit weight of water
• Chapter Three Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase
Relationships) 6 𝑆𝑒= 𝑤𝐺𝑠
(3.18) This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase
relationships. If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void spaces
are completely filled with water (Figure 3.3)—the relationship for saturated
unit weight (γsat) can be derived in a similar manner:
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡=𝑊𝑉=𝑊𝑠+𝑊𝑤𝑉=𝐺𝑠𝛾𝑤+𝑒𝛾𝑤1+𝑒=(𝐺𝑠+𝑒)𝛾𝑤1+𝑒 (3.19) Also,
from Eq. (3.18) with S=1, 𝑒= 𝑤𝐺𝑠
(3.20) As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities
in the SI system, the following equations, similar to unit–weight relationships
given in Eqs. (3.15), (3.16), and (3.19), will be useful: Figure
(3.3) Saturated soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
Density =𝜌=(1+𝑤)𝐺𝑠𝜌𝑤1+𝑒 (3.21) Dry
density = 𝜌𝑑=𝐺𝑠𝜌𝑤1+𝑒 (3.22) Saturated
density = 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡=(𝐺𝑠+𝑒)𝜌𝑤1+𝑒 (3.23) where ρw = density of water =
1000 kg/m3.
• Resources (Listed in Course Specifications)•Coduto, Donald.
Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices•Search the
web for sites that include design and information about soil
mechanics and free software to analyze and design simple
geotechnical systems.

• 19Why soil is unique compared to other engineering materials?•

Most of civil engineering materials are man-made and their
properties are controlled and easily measured. Soil on the other
hand is naturally deposited.• Behavior is usually: inelastic,
nonlinear, anisotropic, and time-dependent.• Soils are different
from one location to another location.• Contrary to soils, rocks are
generally more sound and pose no problems with regard to both
bearing and deformations.
Chapter 3
• Summary
• Soil behavior varies with moisture content and can be categorized into four states: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid. The Atterberg limits—liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit—help
classify fine-grained soils based on their moisture content. Understanding these limits is crucial for predicting soil behavior in engineering applications.
• Highlights -
1. Soil States: Soil can exist in four states based on moisture: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.
2. Atterberg Limits: These limits define critical moisture contents for soil classification.
3. Engineering Relevance: Atterberg limits inform about soil strength, compressibility, and permeability.
4. Consistency Indices: Plasticity Index (PI) and Liquidity Index (LI) help assess soil behavior.
5. Testing Methods: Various methods exist to determine Atterberg limits, such as the Multi-Point and Fall-Cone methods.
6. Soil Classification: The plasticity chart aids in classifying soils under the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).
7. Clay Influence: Different clay minerals significantly affect soil properties and behavior.
• Key Insights -
1. Soil Behavior and Water Content: The transition between soil states is heavily influenced by water content, which is vital for understanding soil mechanics in engineering. This knowledge
enables engineers to predict how soil will behave under different conditions, ensuring stability in construction.
2. Atterberg Limits and Engineering: Knowing the Atterberg limits allows engineers to make informed decisions about soil suitability for construction projects, affecting design and safety
measures. This classification is crucial for preventing structural failures due to inappropriate soil conditions.
3. Plasticity Index (PI): The PI measures the plasticity of soils, indicating how much water is needed to alter the soil’s state. A higher PI suggests greater plasticity, impacting construction materials
and methods. This metric is key in predicting how soil will respond to stress.
4. Liquidity Index (LI): The LI offers insight into the in-situ behavior of soil by comparing natural water content with Atterberg limits. It helps to predict whether the soil will behave as plastic,
brittle, or liquid, which is essential for assessing risk in construction.
5. Testing Standardization: The evolution of testing methods, such as those standardized by Casagrande, has increased the reliability of Atterberg limit measurements, which are crucial for
consistent soil classification across different projects.
6. Impact of Clay Minerals: The specific type and amount of clay in soil can drastically alter its physical properties. Understanding these characteristics is critical for predicting soil behavior and
developing effective mitigation strategies for challenges like shrink-swell behavior.
7. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): The plasticity chart developed by Casagrande is foundational in soil classification, allowing engineers to categorize soils efficiently and determine
suitable applications based on their properties. This classification supports better project planning and execution.
• 3 Depending on the moisture content, the behavior ofsoil can be divided into
four basic states:•Solid•Semisolid•Plastic•Liquid The consistency of clays
and other cohesive soils(fine-grained soils) is greatly influenced by thewater
content of the soil. The water content at which a soil passes from onestate to
another is different for different soils andcan be used in a qualitative way, to
distinguishbetween, or classify different fine-grained soil types.
• 4In Summary1. Water influences consistency of fine-grained soils.2. Soils
passes from one state to another state as watercontent changes.3. Different
soils passes from state to state at differentwater contents.4. The water
content at which different soils pass fromone state to another state can be
used to classify ordistinguish different fine-grained soils.5. How we can find
the water content at which a givensoil passes from a given state to
another?.Atterberg (A Swedish scientist) developed a method
todescribetheconsistencyoffine-grainedsoilswithvarying degrees of moisture
content. He defined severallimits of consistency which are called Atterberg
limits.
• 5Atterberg Limits0water contentLiquidlimitShrinkagelimitPlasticlimitbrittle-
solidsemi-solidplasticliquidBorder line water contents, separating the
different states of a fine-grained soil
• 6Atterberg or Consistency LimitsLiquid Limit (LL):The moisture content, in
percent, at the point oftransition from plastic to liquid statePlastic Limit (PL):The
moisture content, in percent, at the point oftransition from semisolid to plastic
stateShrinkage Limit (SL):The moisture content, in percent, at the point
oftransition from solid to semisolid state
• 7Importance of Atterberg limits If we know how the water content of our sample
isrelative to the Atterberg limits, then we already knowa great deal about the
engineering response of oursample. The Atterberg limits are water contents at
certainlimiting or critical stages in soil behavior. The Atterberg limits along with
the natural watercontent,arethemostimportantitemsinthedescription of fine-
grained soils.
• 3. For soil classification4. In construction specificationsRemarkAtterberg limits
are conducted on completely REMOLDED soils.They therefore do not account
for the importance of the structureof the soil as related to the soil behavior. So
there mainusefulness is in classification of soils and only qualitatively theygive
some ideas about behavior.2. Used in empirical correlations for some
engineeringproperties.1. To obtain general information about a soil and
itsstrength,compressibility,permeability,shrinkage,and swell properties.The
Atterberg limits are used for four generalapplications:
• 3. For soil classification4. In construction specificationsRemarkAtterberg limits
are conducted on completely REMOLDED soils.They therefore do not account for
the importance of the structureof the soil as related to the soil behavior. So there
mainusefulness is in classification of soils and only qualitatively theygive some
ideas about behavior.2. Used in empirical correlations for some
engineeringproperties.1. To obtain general information about a soil and
itsstrength,compressibility,permeability,shrinkage,and swell properties.The
Atterberg limits are used for four generalapplications:
• 3. For soil classification4. In construction specificationsRemarkAtterberg limits
are conducted on completely REMOLDED soils.They therefore do not account for
the importance of the structureof the soil as related to the soil behavior. So there
mainusefulness is in classification of soils and only qualitatively theygive some
ideas about behavior.2. Used in empirical correlations for some
engineeringproperties.1. To obtain general information about a soil and
itsstrength,compressibility,permeability,shrinkage,and swell properties.The
Atterberg limits are used for four generalapplications:
• 132. One-Point Method (ASTM D-4318)Proposed by the USACE in 1949 based on
the analysisof hundreds of liquid limit tests.wN = moisture content of the soil
closed in N blows (Nshould be between 10 and 40).N = number of blows required
to close the standardgroove for a distance of ½ inch (12.7mm)121.0tan=
• The presence of even small amounts of certain clayminerals in soil can have a significant effect on
theproperties of the soil. Identifying the type and amount of clay minerals maybe necessary in order to
predict the soil’s behavioror to develop methods for minimizing detrimentaleffects. It is known that for a
given amount of clay mineral,the plasticity resulting in a soil will vary for thedifferent types of clays. The
plasticity index (PI) of a soil increases linearlywith the percentage of clay-size fraction (%finer than2
micrometer by weight present).
• We can see form the plot below that different clayshave different correlation of PI with clay-size
fraction.This is because that different clay minerals havedifferent plasticity characteristics.
• The Activity factor gives information on the type andeffect of clay minerals in soil. It indicates water
absorption capacity or indicatesswelling and shrinkage characteristics. A quantity called Activity is
defined as the slope of theline correlating PI and %finer than 2 micrometer andexpressed as:
• 33 Above A-line ClaysBelow A-line Silts and organic soils (silt and clays) Left of B-line --→Low plasticityRight of
B-line--→High plasticity U-lineisapproximatelytheupperlimitoftherelationship of PI and the LL for any soil found
sofar. All the lines (A, U, and B) are empirical. The plasticity chart is the basis for the classificationof the fine-
grained soils according to Unified SoilClassification System
 Chapter 4
• Summary
• Soil compaction is crucial in geotechnical engineering to enhance weak, compressible, or permeable soils for construction purposes. It involves the densification of soil by removing air through
mechanical energy, improving properties like strength, stability, and bearing capacity. The Proctor compaction test determines the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content, while field
compaction is achieved using various roller types. Successful compaction depends on soil type, moisture content, lift thickness, and compaction effort.
• Highlights -
1. Definition: Compaction densifies soil by removing air.
2. Benefits: Increases strength and stability, decreases settlement.
3. Proctor Test: Determines maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture.
4. Field Methods: Various roller types enhance compaction.
5. Factors: Soil type and moisture greatly affect compaction efficiency.
6. Compaction Standards: Aim for 90-95% maximum dry unit weight in the field.
7. Testing Methods: Includes sand cone, rubber balloon, and nuclear methods.
• Key Insights -
1. Importance of Compaction: Compaction significantly improves the mechanical properties of soil, making it suitable for structures and preventing future issues related to weak or compressible soil. This
is vital for infrastructure like roads and dams.
2. Proctor Compaction Test: The Proctor test is essential for determining the optimal moisture content and maximum dry unit weight, which informs construction practices. Understanding these values
helps engineers design effective compaction strategies.
3. Field Compaction Techniques: Different types of rollers, such as vibratory and sheepsfoot rollers, are tailored for specific soil types and conditions, ensuring effective compaction. Choosing the right
roller can enhance project efficiency and safety.
4. Moisture Content Role: The moisture content during compaction plays a critical role. Too little or too much moisture can reduce compaction efficiency, emphasizing the need for precise moisture
management on-site.
5. Gradation and Soil Type: Soil gradation affects compaction results; fine-grained soils may require more moisture to reach optimal compaction. Understanding soil characteristics is key to effective
engineering solutions.
6. Specifications and Standards: Adhering to compaction specifications ensures structural integrity. Contractors often aim for a relative compaction of 90-95%, highlighting the importance of following
established guidelines.
7. Innovative Testing Methods: Advanced techniques, such as nuclear density testing, provide quick and accurate assessments of soil density in the field, facilitating timely decision-making in construction
projects.
• SOIL COMPACTION🖸In Geotechnical engineering practice, the soils at a
given siteare often less than desirable for the intended purpose. Theymay
be:❑Weak (strength)❑Highly compressible❑Have a high
permeabilitySolution❑Relocate the project❑Articulate design for
structure members❑Stabilize or improve the properties of the soilThe
third alternative may be in most cases the most economicalalternative.
There are different techniques for improvement of soils(This subject is
covered in details in CE 486 “Improvement ofGeotechnical Materials”).We
will consider in this course only compaction.
• SOIL COMPACTION🖸Compaction is also very important when soil is used
as an engineering material, that is the structure itself is made of
soil.Ex. Earth dams Highways Airfields etc.DefinitionCompactionis the
densification of soils by removal of airthrough the application of
mechanical energy.The degree of compaction is measured in terms of its
dry unitweight.
• SOIL COMPACTION❑Increases unit weight❑Increases shear strength❑Increases
bearing capacity❑Increases stability of slopes of embankments❑Decreases
settlement of structures
• SOIL COMPACTIONAirWaterSolidAirWaterSolidCompactionreduced
• SOIL COMPACTIONSoil SolidSoil SolidwaterThe degree of compaction of soil is
measured by its dry unit weight.When water is added during compaction it acts
as a softening agenton the soil particles. d(max)When the moisture content
isgradually increased, the weightofthesoilsolidsinaunitvolume gradually
increases.🖸Optimum moisture content (OMC) is the water content atwhich the
maximum dry unit weightd (max) is attained.
• SOIL COMPACTIONTypes of Compaction Methods in the Laboratory•Impact or
dynamic (The most common type)•Kneading•Static🖸The laboratory test generally
used to obtain the maximum dryunit weight of compaction and the optimum
moisture content iscalled the Proctor compaction test.🖸It is named after R. R.
Proctor (1933) (engineer in LA). Heestablished that compaction is a function
of:1.Moisture Content2.Compactive Effort3.Soil Type❖Standard Proctor test (ASTM
D-698 & AASHTO T-99)❖Modified Proctor test (ASTM D-1557 & AASHTO T-
180)🖸There are two methods or tests:
• SOIL COMPACTIONTypes of Compaction Methods in the Laboratory•Impact or dynamic (The
most common type)•Kneading•Static🖸The laboratory test generally used to obtain the
maximum dryunit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture content iscalled the
Proctor compaction test.🖸It is named after R. R. Proctor (1933) (engineer in LA).
Heestablished that compaction is a function of:1.Moisture Content2.Compactive Effort3.Soil
Type❖Standard Proctor test (ASTM D-698 & AASHTO T-99)❖Modified Proctor test (ASTM D-
1557 & AASHTO T-180)🖸There are two methods or tests:
• 1. Each data point on the curve represent a single compaction test.2. Four or five tests
are required3. The curve is unique for:- A given soil type- Method of compaction-
(constant) compactive effort4. d(max) is only a maximum for a specific compactive
effort and method ofcompaction. This does not necessarily reflect the maximum dry unit
weightthat can be obtained in the field.5. Typical OMC are between 10% and 20%.
Outside maximum range 5% to40%.Standard Proctor Test
• Increasing the compactive effort tends to increase the maximum drydensity, as expected,
but also decrease the OMC. (This is why the curvenever be to the right of zero curve).7. In
practice less amount of water is used but higher compactive effort orvise versa.8. For clay
soils d(max) tends to decrease as plasticity increases.9. The approximation to field is not
exact because the lab. test is a dynamicimpact type, whereas field compaction is essentially a
kneading-typecompaction.10. In the field, compactive effort is the number of passes or
“coverage” of theroller of a certain type and weight on a given volume of soil.Standard
Proctor Test