AP Chemistry Unit 3 Packet

Properties of Substances and Mixtures

Topic 3.1 : Intermolecular and Interparticle Forces
Intermolecular Forces are the attractions between atoms, ions or molecules that hold them together. There are
six different types of IMFs (listed here from weakest to strongest): London Dispersion Force, Dipole-Induced
Dipole Force, Dipole-Dipole Force, Hydrogen Bonding, Ion-Dipole Interactions and, Ion-Ion Interactions.
Intermolecular forces account for various properties such as boiling point, melting point, and state at room
temperature.
London Dispersion Force (weakest) Color code
Negative dipole RED & Positive dipole blue

e⁻
e⁻ e⁻
e⁻ e⁻
Factors that affect their strength:
e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻
e⁻ e⁻
e⁻ e⁻ e⁻

Induced Dipole Induced Dipole

Color code
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Negative dipole RED & Positive dipole blue & dipole-dipole force green

H Cl H Cl

Factors that affect their strength:

e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻
e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻ e⁻
e⁻ e⁻ e⁻
e⁻

Hydrogen Bonding is F.O.N

Hydrogen Bonding
(Fluorine, Oxygen, and nitrogen)

Fluorine

Factors that affect their strength:

oxygen

nitrogen
 Draw
Ion-Dipole Forces (Strongest) The dipoles and IMF present

Factors that affect their strength:

Properties What happens when IMF increase? Why?

Boiling/Melting/Freezing
Enthalpy of fusion/vaporization

Vapor pressure

viscosity

surface tension

solubility

lattice energy

Practice Problems

1) Both molecules contain the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Explain in terms of IMFs why
butane has a slightly higher boiling point.

butane, b.p= 272K

2-methylpropane, b.p= 261K

2) The table above shows data about two physical properties for the substances Cl₂ and HCl.
a) Identify the intermolecular forces present in each substance.

b) Explain the difference in heat of vaporization (ΔHᵥₐₚ) in terms of relative strengths of IMFs.

3) The London dispersion forces are weakest for which of the following gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure? Explain your choice.
a) H₂
b) O₂
c) Xe
d) F₂

4) Based on Coulomb’s Law and the information in the table, which of the following
anions is most likely to have the strongest interactions with nearby water molecules in
an aqueous solution?
a) Cl⁻
b) I⁻
c) S²⁻
d) Te²⁻

5) The Lewis diagrams of ethanol and dimethyl ether are shown below. One of these two molecules is liquid at
room temperature. Which molecule is liquid at room temprature? Justify your choice using their relative
intermolecular forces.
Dimethyl either Ethanol
: :

: :

6) For the molecule below, identify if the labeled area is a hydrogen bond or not. Explain your choice.
Topic 3.2: Properties of Solids
By this time in chemistry you should be familiar with the states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. In AP Chemistry
you must be familiar with the four basic types of solids. These are 1) Ionic Solids, 2) Covalent Network Solids,
3) Molecular Solids, and 4) Metallic Solids. Each type of solid has unique properties that are determined by the
strength and type of intermolecular forces present.

Ionic Solids covalent network solids

Molecular solids Metallic solids

Practice Problems

Identify the type of solid:

a) C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁(s)=_______________________________________
b) SiO₂ (s)=___________________________________________
c) MgSO₄ (s)=________________________________________
d) CO₂ (s)=___________________________________________
e) NaF (s)=___________________________________________
f) Ca (s)=_____________________________________________

Which of the following could be the identify of a white crystalline solid that exhibits the following properties
It melts at 360°C
It does not conduct electricity as a solid
It conducts electricity in an aqueous solution

a) C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁(s)
b) KOH(s)
c) C(s)- diamond
d) Ag(s)
Topic 3.3: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Properties
Solids: Liquids: Gas:
have a definite shape no definite shape No fixed shape
have a fixed position and do not flow (viscosity) can flow to take the Gases spread (diffuse) to
Almost impossible to compress shape of the container completely fill container
Expands if heated but not as much as liquids and difficult to compress easily compressed
gases

Particles:

Solid liquid

gas Practice: The box below represents a closed container with liquid
methane, CH₄ molecules. On the box on the right, represent the same
sample of methane after undergoing complete vaporization.

Topic 3.4: Ideal Gas Law

There are some gas laws that are used to describe the relationship between two variables, such as pressure
and volume. These gas laws are:

Summarize each law in your own words:

Boyle’s Law Gay-Lussac’s Law Charle’s law Boyle’s Law

Gay-Lussac’s Law

Charle’s law
Ideal Gases
These gases are labeled as such based on a few assumptions:
There are no attractive or repulsive forces between particles.
Gas particles have relatively zero volume relative to the volume of the container.

PV=nRt
Practice problems
Calculate the molar mass of a gas if 22.6 g of the gas stored in a 55 L tank exerts a pressure of
0.23atm at a constant temperature of 35.5°C.

Standard Temperature & Pressure

0°C or 273K
1 atm

At STP, 2.50L of an unknown gas has a mass of 8.75 grams. Calculate its molar mass.

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure Mole Fraction

In a mixture of gases, the total The percentage of a partial gas in a gas
pressure of the mixture is equal to mixture. You can also multiply the mole
the sum of the partial pressures of fraction by the total pressure to get the
the individual gases. partial pressure of a specific gas.
Practice problems
What is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in a container that holds 0.500 moles of carbon dioxide, 0.320
moles of nitrogen, 0.200 moles of hydrogen and has a total pressure of 1.05 atm?

In an experiment, 454 mL of hydrogen gas were collected over water. The gas mixture contains hydrogen
gas and water vapor. The temperature of this mixture is 23.0°C and the total pressure was 0.37 atm. How
many moles of hydrogen gas were prepared? The vapor pressure of water at 23.0°C is 19.8 mm Hg.

A sample of an ideal gas in a sealed container occupies a volume of 50.0 L at 200 K. The temperature of the
gas is changed to 400 K, and the pressure doubles. Which of the following must occur and why?
a) Volume must decrease because the pressure is higher.
b) Volume must increase because the temperature is higher.
c) Volume must remain the same because the pressure and temperature changed proportionately.
d) Volume cannot be predicted without knowing the number of moles of gas in the sample.

A gas mixture at 20.0°C and 2.0 atm contains 0.40 mol of H₂, 0.15 mol of O₂, and 0.50 mol of N₂. Assuming ideal
behavior, what is the partial pressure of hydrogen gas (H₂) in the mixture?
Topic 3.5: Kinetic Molecular Theory
Summarizes the following:
Gas particles are in constant random motion
Collisions are perfectly elastic
Particles have negligible volume
Constant temperature = constant kinetic energy

How does the KE remain the same with different sized particles?

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution describes the distribution of speeds among the particles in a sample of
gas at a given temperature. This is done graphicallywith particle speed on the x-axis and relative number of
particles on the y-axis.
Describe the speed of the particles
for each line in the graph: A:

B:

C:

Practice problems
The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution below shows the speed distribution for four noble gases: Helium, Neon,
Argon, and Xenon. Correctly label each line with the corresponding noble gas.

The graph below shows a sample of carbon dioxide gas (CO₂) at 200K. Illustrate the changes specified.

The temperature is increased Hydrogen gas at the same temperature Xenon gas at the same temperature
# of molecules

# of molecules

# of molecules

speed, v speed, v speed, v

Topic 3.6: Deviation from Ideal Gas Law
Ideal Gas Real Gas

Practice problems
When the actual gas volume is greater than the volume predicted by the ideal gas law, the explanation lies in
the fact that the ideal gas law does NOT include a factor for molecular:
a) Volume
b) Mass
c) Attractions
d) Shape

Ar(g) deviates more from ideal behavior at extremely high pressures than Ne(g) does. Which of the following
is one reason for this difference?
a) The particle volume of Ar is greater than that of Ne.
b) Ar atoms have more valence electrons than Ne atoms have, so Ar atoms have greater interparticle forces.
c) The intermolecular forces between Ne atoms are greater than those between Ar atoms.
d) Ar atoms are more attracted to the walls of the container than Ne atoms are.

Under which of the following conditions of temperature and pressure will H₂ gas be expected to behave most
like an ideal gas?
a) 50 K and 0.10 atm
b) 50 K and 5.0 atm
c) 500 K and 0.10 atm
d) 500 K and 50 atm
Topic 3.7: Solutions and Mixtures
Solutions: a homogenous mixture that can be composed of
solids, liquids, or gases.
Molarity: the number of moles of solute dissolved in the
total volume of a solution (units are M or mol/L)
Solute: the substance that is dissolved
Solvent: the substance that does the dissolving

Approximately what mass of CuSO₄∙5H₂O (250 g/mol) is required to

prepare 250 mL of 0.10M copper (II) sulfate solution?

If 200. mL of 0.60 M MgCl₂(aq) is added to 400. mL of distilled water, what is the concentration of
Mg²⁺(aq) in the resulting solution?

Topic 3.8: Representations of Solutions

Particulate diagrams are used to represent interactions between components of a mixture and to represent
concentrations of those components. It is a necessary skill in chemistry to illustrate what is undergoing
during a chemical reaction.
Main things to consider when drawing a particulate diagram:
Anions are larger than cations
Show the correct attraction and orientation between ions
and solvent particles
Use correct number of particles based on given
concentration

Practice Problem
In the box below, complete a particle representation diagram that includes four water molecules with
proper orientation around the Ca²⁺ ion.

Represent water molecules as:

Ca²⁺
 Topic 3.9: Separations of Solutions and Mixtures by Chromatography
Components of a liquid solution cannot be separated by filtration alone. However, there are separation
techniques that take advantage of differences in the intermolecular interactions of the components.
Chromatography Distillation
There are three types of chromatography that Distillation separates chemical species by the
you need to know for this class: paper, thin- effects different strength of intermolecular
layer, and column. Chromatography uses two forces have on the vapor pressure of the
phases and the intermolecular interactions components in the mixture. This difference in
between them- solution (mobile phase) and boiling point allows for separation of parts of
the staionary phase. a mixture.

tice
Prac
Which of the following questions about the components in a mixture could be investigated with a paper
chromatography experiment?
a) Do the components have different densities?
b) Do the components have different molecular masses?
c) Do the components have different molecular polarities?
d) Do the components have different average molecular speeds?
Topic 3.10: Solubility
Solubility: the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent.
The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature.
Highly Soluble: large/all of solute can dissolve
Slightly or Sparingly Soluble: small amount of solute can dissolve
Insoluble: solute cannot dissolve at all
miscible: when two substances can mix together
immiscible: when two substances cannot mix togther.
Water is also known as the “universal
solvent” because it can dissolve many
different substances. When a
substance is dissolved in water the
resulting solution is called an aqueous
solution. Water is able to dissolve both
polar and ionic solutes.

Remember this phrase:

Like dissolves like
What does it mean?

On the basis of molecular structure and

bond polarity, which of the following
compounds is most likely to have the
greatest solubility in water?
a) CH₄
b) CCl₄
c) NH₃
d) PH₃
Benzene, C₆H₆, has the structure shown
below. Considering the observation that
benzene is only sparingly soluble in water,
explain the intermolecular forces of
attraction between benzene and water.
Topic 3.11: Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Differencesinabsorption or emissionof photonsindifferentspectralregionsarerelated to the different
types of molecular motion or electronic transition:
i. Microwave radiation is associated with transitions in molecular rotational levels
ii. Infrared radiation is associated with transitions in molecular vibrational levels.
iii. Ultraviolet/visible radiation is associated with transitions in electronic energy levels.

Practice Problems
A student placed a sample of a food coloring that contains a mixture of a blue dye and a red
dye at the top of a chromatography column filled with a nonpolar stationary phase. When water
is poured through the column, two bands of colors are seen in the column, as shown in the
diagram above.
Which of the following techniques would be best to investigate molecular vibrations in molecules
of the red dye?
a) Infrared spectroscopy
b) UV/vis spectroscopy
c) Mass spectrometry
d) Gravimetric analysis

Which statement correctly compares what occurs when molecules absorb photons in the microwave region
with what occurs when molecules absorb photons in the infrared region?
a) Microwave photons cause the molecules to increase their rotational energy states, whereas infrared
photons cause the molecules to increase their vibrational energy states.
b) Microwave photons cause electrons in the molecules to increase their electronic energy states, whereas
infrared photons cause the molecules to increase their rotational energy states.
c) Microwave photons cause the molecules to increase their vibrational energy states, whereas infrared
photons cause electrons in the molecules to increase their electronic energy states.
d) Microwave photons cause the molecules to increase their rotational energy states, whereas infrared
photons cause electrons in the molecules to increase their electronic energy states.
3.12: Properties of Photons
When a photon is absorbed (or emitted) by an atom or molecule, the energy of the species is increased (or
decreased) by an amount equal to the energy of the photon.
The wavelength of the electromagnetic wave is related to its frequency and the speed of light by the equation:
EQN: c = λν.
The energy of a photon is related to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave through Planck’s equation:
EQN: E = ℎν.

c= E=

λ=
c = λν ℎ=
E = ℎν
ν= ν=

Practice Problems

The diagram above represents the photoelectric effect for a metal. When the metal surface is exposed to
light with increasing frequency and energy of photons, electrons first begin to be ejected from the metal
when the energy of the photons is 3.3 x 10⁻¹⁹ J.

Which of the following is closest to the frequency of the light with a photon energy of 3.3 x 10⁻¹⁹ J?
a) 5.0 x 10⁻⁵³ 1/s
b) 5.0 x 10⁻¹⁶ 1/s
c) 5.0 x 10¹⁴ 1/s
d) 5.0 x 10⁵² 1/s

Based on the wavelength information in the previous question, what is the color of the light?
a) Red
b) Orange
c) Yellow
d) Blue
 3.12: Beer-Lambert Law
The Beer-Lambert law relates the absorption of light by a solution to three variables according to the
equation: A = εbc.
The molar absorptivity, ε, describes how intensely a chemical species absorbs light of a specific
wavelength.
The path length, b, and concentration, c, are proportional to the number of light-absorbing particles in the
light path.
In most experiments the path length and wavelength of light are held constant. In such cases, the
absorbance is proportional only to the concentration of absorbing molecules or ions. The
spectrophotometer is typically set to the wavelength of maximum absorbance (optimum wavelength) for
the species being analyzed to ensure the maximum sensitivity of measurement.

What are some observations you can make from these two images?

Correct use of a spectrophotometer involves:

Rinse the cuvette with distilled water first
Rinse the cuvette with the standard solution
Wipe the cuvette to be free of fingerprints (the presence
of fingerprints can result in higher absorbance values)
Calibrating the spectrophotometer first using a cuvette
of the standard solution
Practice Problems
A student prepared five solutions of CuSO₄ with different concentrations, and then filled
five cuvettes, each containing one of the solutions. The cuvettes were placed in a
spectrophotometer set to the appropriate wavelength for maximum absorbance. The
absorbance of each solution was measured and recorded. The student plotted
absorbance versus concentration, as shown in the figure above. Which of the following is
the most likely explanation for the variance of the data point for the 0.600 M CuSO₄
solution?
a) The cuvette into which the 0.600 M solution was placed had some droplets inside.
b) The cuvette into which the 0.600 M solution was placed was filled slightly more than the the other cuvettes.
c) The wavelength setting was accidentally moved away from that of maximum absorbance.
d) The cuvette used for the 0.600 M solution had not been wiped clean before being put in the
spectrophotometer.