Math 251, 2.

2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

x3 − 1
(1) Introduction Consider the function f (x) = . The domain of this function is
x−1
{x : x 6= 1}. Furthermore, note that x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) and thus, when we
sketch the graph of f , we can certainly use the parabola y = x2 + x + x, except we
need to make sure at x = 1, we have a hole since the function is undefined at this point.
Using the equation for the parabola, we have that at x = 1, y = 3 should be the point
to be excluded from the graph of f .
We call this point a removeable singularity or removeable discontinuity because

the function could be made continuous if we can “plug up the hole”. However, since the
value does not exist at this point, we can only talk about the behavior of the function as
x gets “closer” to 1 from either the right (values greater than 1) or from the left (values
less than 1). We summarize the results in the following table.

From reading this graph, we see that by evaluating the original expression for f ,
we get closer and closer to the point (1, 3). Although x cannot equal 1, we can get
“arbitrarily close” or “ really close” to 1. We will express this mathematically using the
notation of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz which is written as follows,

lim f (x) = 3.
x→1
We read this as “ as x gets closer to 1, f gets closer to 3, which is the limit of f (x). In
general,
lim f (x) = L
x→c
The process we use to find this value is we pick numbers close to the limiting value, and
we make them closer and closer to the value.
x
(2) Example A: Evaluate the function f (x) = √ at several x-values near 0 to guess
x+1−1
the value
x
lim √
x→0 x+1−1
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 Solution: We can see that if we were to rationalize the expression for f (assuming x 6= 0
this is the only way we can do this).
√
x x x+1+1
√ = √ ·√
x+1−1 x+1−1 x+1+1
√

x x+1+1
=
(x + 1) − 1
√
= x+1+1
Hence, our graph looks like We can guess from the simplification, that the hole at x = 0

has coordinates (1,2). So we guess that lim f (x) = 2. Making a chart of values, we
x→0
evaluate the function using values “close” to 0 through values that are both less than
and greater than 0. What we find can be summarized as follows
Sure enough, we find that our limit of f as x gets closer to 0 is indeed 2.

|x|
(3) Example B: Show that the lim does not exist.
x→0 x
Solution: Using the precise definition of absolute value, we have that
(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
So, for x < 0, f (x) = −x x
x = −1, and for x > 0 f (x) = x = 1. Thus our graph will
look like There’s no need to create a number line, because we can see that the values
of f will either be 1 or −1. But what is going on in a “small” interval around x = 0.
If we were to look at (−0.1, 0), we see that f will −1, and (0, 0.1), f will be 1. We can
close the interval more, (−0.01, 0) and (0, 0.01) and the same phenomenon. Hence, we
were to choose any interval so that (−δ, 0), f would be −1, and for (0, δ), f would be
1. Hence, no matter how close we get to 0, we cannot land on a single value from both
the left and the right. Thus, the limit does not exist.

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(4) Example C: Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin .
x→0 x
Solution: Looking at the graph, we see that as we zoom in on the origin, the graph
becomes increasingly oscillatory.
Looking at a table of values, we see that as we get closer and closer to 0, the value of

of f goes back and forth between 1 and −1. Thus, like the previous example no matter

how much we zoom in, get close, (−δ, δ) the graph never settles on a value. Thus the
limit does not exist.

(5) We summarize the results of our experiments in the following way,

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 Common Behaviors that result in Nonexistent limits

(a) f (x) approaches different numbers from the left and the right.

(b) f (x) grows without bound as in f (x) = 1/x.

(c) f (x) oscillates wildly.

Remark. You need to know the behavior of graphs in order to determine whether or
not the limit exists.

(6) Formal Definition of the Limit. We now give an official definition about what we
mean by close.

Definition of the Limit Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing

x = c, except possibly at c itself, and let L be a real number. The statement
lim f (x) = L
x→c
means that for every  > 0, we can find a δ > 0 so that whenever
0 < |x − c| < δ (whenever x is close to c)
we have that
|f (x) − L| <  (f gets closer to L)

Note that we never actually get to x = c, and so f never actually gets to L (unless
specific criteria are met...stay tuned!!). So  and δ are essentially measuring the error
or the amount of gap we have between. In order to do prove that the limits are indeed
equal to what they say, we follow this procedure,

(a) We first determine a value for  since this can be anything, and we seek a value
for δ. That is, we say, in order for us to consider f close to L, it needs to be this
specific distance. We then find out if we can find the x values near the limiting
value that will give us this result.

(b) We set up the inequality |f (x) − L| < epsilon

(c) Simplify

(7) Example D: Given lim (2x − 5) = 1. Find δ such that |(2x − 5) − 1| < 0.01 whenever
x→3
0 < |x − 3| < δ.
Solution: We are given , so set up the first part of the limit definition.

|(2x − 5) − 1| < 0.01

Simplifying now, we get that
|2x − 6| < 0.01
which means that
2|x − 3| < 0.01
. Hence, we find that |x − 3| < .0.005, so δ = 0.005.
(8) Example E: Prove lim (3x − 2) = 4. (That is, determine how close to 2 do we need to
x→2
get in order for f to be  away from 4)
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Solution: In this problem, we aren’t given a value of , but don’t let that stop you,
|(3x − 2) − 4| < 
|3x − 6| < 
3|x − 2| < 

|x − 2| <
3
Thus, δ = 3 .