UNIT II

SIGNAL PROCESSING AND ENERGY HARVESTING FOR WEARABLE DEVICES

Wearability issues-physical shape and placement of sensor, Technical challenges - sensor design,
signal acquisition, sampling frequency for reduced energy consumption, Rejection of irrelevant
information. Power Requirements - Solar cell, Vibration based, Thermal based, Human body as a
heat source for power generation, Hybrid thermoelectric photovoltaic energy harvests, Thermopiles.

2.1. WEARABILITY ISSUES

 Wearable devices and electronics present a unique interface of technology and humanity,
thus producing unique challenges that need to account both for technological and human
aspects of the problem.
 Human behavior may affect the operation of wearable as much as the technology advance.
The following aspects may be considered as some of the challenges facing the field of
wearables:

(i) Break-through applications of wearable electronics

 From the dawn of history, the evolution of wearables is driven by the practicality, utility, and
convenience they provide. The challenge of modern wearable electronics in discovering
ubiquitous applications, as its future growth is contingent on emerging applications in
health, wellness, and other personal needs. Novel applications of wearables may need to be
supported by extensions of sensing and data analytics capabilities, thus presenting a
compelling use case

(ii) Minimization of user burden and integration with everyday wear items

 The illustrations of wearable devices frequently include pictures of individuals instrumented

at every possible location on the body, such as arms, legs, torso, etc. Practically, such a
scenario represents an unrealistically high user burden and is unfeasible. A related challenge
is the seamless integration of wearable electronics in everyday wear items, such as textiles
clothing, footwear and accessories.

(iii) Efficient and informative interpretation of data generated by wearable devices

 Wearable devices may generate an abundance of data, for e.g., health-related sensor
signals. The challenge lies in the interpretation of such data streams and connection with
health outcomes, using sensor data to guide behavioral interventions and health education.
Emerging methods of artificial intelligence carry a promise of solution to the problem of data
analysis and interpretation.

(iv) Ultra - low power operation

 A wearable device should ideally sustain a lifetime operation without or minimal user
interference. In terms of power, this implies operation on a battery, energy harvested from
the body, or a combination thereof. This requires low-power operation both for analog and
digital electronics of a wearable. Wireless power delivery may be explored to seamlessly
charge many devices without need to connect each individual device to a charging circuit
 (for e.g., charging all socks in a drawer), biofuel cells and super capacitors may need to be
utilized in the power subsystems.

(v) Flexible and stretchable electronics

 Epidermal and body compliant electronic devices may be considered a subset of wearables
with additional requirements of allowing shape changes in response to body movement,
making such devices especially sensitive to motion artifacts, demanding high
biocompatibility and adaptability to variation in human body shapes, sizes, and
characteristics.

(vi) Biocompatible communications

 Communications from the body (to the outside world) and on the body (between multiple
wearables) demand new solutions, as traditional radio methods experience challenges due
to absorption by body tissue. The related challenges include development of efficient
methods for communicating through or on the body, including the organization of wearables
in body sensor networks and their integration into the Internet of Things Biodegradable
Electronics. If wearable electronics are to become the true mainstream, the challenge of
sustainable, ecologically viable manufacturing, and disposal needs to be addressed.

(vii) Privacy and Security

 By definition, a wearable is an electronic device that resides on or close to a person and is

present in a variety of life situations. The challenges include protection of personal
information, preventing the unauthorized use of wearables for biometric identification, and
ownership of the data produced by wearables

2.2. PHYSICAL SHAPE AND PLACEMENT OF SENSOR:

 The sensor such as 3-axis accelerometer can be used as body position sensor.
 This sensor provides information of patient's position i.e. standing, sitting, supine, inclined,
left and right.
 Such accelerometer based, sensor can easily be interfaced with any microcontroller boards
such as arduinouno, Arduino mega etc.
 Design for wearable BSNs focuses on specific and important -issues for developing wearable
computing system that take into account the physical shape of the sensors and their active
relationship with the human form.
 Design for wearability requires unobtrusive sensor node placement on the human body
based on application-specific criteria.
 Criteria for placement can vary with the needs of functionality and convenience.
 Functionality criteria constrain node placement to regions where relevant data can be
sensed.
 The number of nodes required to capture all relevant data can vary based on the quality of
information sensed at individual locations.
 Convenience criteria include:

 Physical interference with movement,

 Difficulty in removing and placing nodes,
 Social and fashion concerns,
  Frequency and difficulty of maintenance (charging and cleaning)

Fig. 2.1.

• For example, in continuous healthcare monitoring, patients will be expected to charge the
sensors or replace the batteries on a regular basis, as they do with cell phones and other
electronics.
• However, the frequent need.to charge and the bulk of the battery can frustrate the users,
causing themto no longer wear the sensors.
• Furthermore, batteries are the heaviest component in the system.
• By decreasing power usage, the size and weight of each sensor node can decrease, thus
increasing patient comfort and device wearability.
• This makes energy usage a primary constraint in designing BSNs, limiting everything from
data sensing rates and link bandwidth, to node size and weight.
• Thus, one of the important goals in designing BSNs is to minimize energy consumption while
preserving an acceptable quality of service.
• Energy consumption can be decreased by lower sampling frequency, decreasing processing
power, and simplifying signal processing.
• Another effective technique is deactivating nodes that are unnecessary for specific tasks.

Fig. 2.2.
2.3. TECHNICAL CHALLENGES - SENSOR DESIGN, SIGNAL ACQUISITION

• As engineers seek to develop new and innovative wearable diagnostics, many are focusing
on smaller, more energy-efficient devices.
• In the process, respondents say they are fighting the kind of typical constraints that factor
into many of today's product development efforts, citing top among them the areas of cost
(38%), durability (37%) and power management (35%).
• There are other unique challenges in designing diagnostic wearables to be used by a patient,
caregiver, or consumer in a non-medical setting. High user expectations around ease of use,
the need for intuitive user interfaces and complete documentation, as well as the need to
account for the vagaries of uncontrolled home care settings top the list of challenges cited
by engineers. Data collection and connectivity represent another area for concern.
• Nearly one third (30%) of respondents pointed to connectivity as a challenge. Over two
thirds (82%) agree that there isn't a lot of clarify about how to effectively capture and use
the data or doing something medically effective with it once collected. Nearly all (94%) cited
a need to for ownership of data security and privacy

2.4. SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR REDUCED ENERGY CONSUMPTION

• Sampling rate or sampling frequency defines the number of samples per second (or per
other unit) taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete or digital signal.
• For example: if the sampling frequency is 44100 hertz, a recording with a duration of 60
seconds will contain 2,646,000 samples.
• Long battery runtime is one of the most wanted properties of wearable sensor systems. The
sampling rate has an high impact on the power consumption. However, defining a sufficient
sampling rate, especially for cutting edge mobile sensors is difficult.
• Often, a high sampling rate, up to four times higher than necessary, is chosen as a
precaution. Especially for biomedical sensor applications many contradictory
recommendations exist, how to select the appropriate sample rate.
• They all are motivated from one point of view the signal quality. We motivate to keep the
sampling rate as Iow as possible. Therefore we reviewed common algorithms for biomedical
signal processing. For each algorithm the number of operations depending on the data rate
has been estimated.
• The Bachmann-Landau notation has been used to evaluate the computational complexity in
dependency of the sampling rate. Wearables, or wearable technology, are devices or
gadgets that a person wears on their body. However, these wearable devices are more than
the latest pair of headphones or a new digital watch.
• Wearables can be considered smart gadgets smart meaning they're equipped with all types
of sensors including accelerometers and gyroscopes, to mention a few, as well as -using
Bluetooth technology for making a wireless connection to your smartphone.
• Some wearables are designed to help you achieve goals such as staying fit, losing weight, or
becoming more organized.

2.5. POWER REQUIREMENTS OF WEARABLES

• Wearables, like the vast majority of other portable electrical technologies, require batteries,
and the device's power requirements drive the battery form factor.
• Of course, we (consumers) all want products that are smaller, thinner, and have a longer-
lasting battery life.
• There are scores of battery options for which battery technology can best fit wearables'
requirements.
• Some of the more common types of wearable batteries include:

 Alkaline
 Nickel-Metal-Hybrid (NiMH or Ni-MH)
 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) and Lithium-Ion Polymer (LiPo, LIP, Li-poly)

• Alkaline batteries are tried-and-true — they've been around since the 1960s — and are
both safe to use and are easily replaceable. A few examples of alkaline batteries are the AA
and AAA. Alkaline batteries are also available in the button cell (AKA: coin cell) form factor.
These batteries have a standard voltage of 1.5 V and a size of 11.6 mm in diameter by 5.4
mm in height. However, when compared to lithium and silver oxide batteries, alkaline
batteries offer both the least energy capacity and stable voltage — their voltage drops
gradually with use rather than providing a steady and stable voltage before experiencing a
sharp drop-off at the end of life.
• A Nickel-metal-hybrid (NiMH or Ni-MH) battery is a type of rechargeable battery. NiMH
batteries can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalently sized nickel—cadmium
battery (NiCd), and its energy density can approach that of a lithium- ion battery.
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and Lithium-ion polymer (LiPo, Li-Po, LIP, Li-poly) batteries are the most
popular batteries today for wearables. "For wearables today mostly small LiPolymer-ceIIs or
LiCoin Rechargeable cells are used."
• From lithium-ion batteries to coin cell batteries, and from battery life to size and fit, there
are many options of which battery technology best fits your needs.
• Regardless of which battery is utilized, eventually it must either be replaced or recharged. In
a perfect world the battery would last forever, but although the world is far from perfect,
there is another option — energy harvesting.
• Of course solar cells (they get their energy from sunlight) and thermoelectric generators
(they produce electricity from a temperature gradient) have both been around for a while,
albeit neither technology would be practical for wearable devices because they cannot
guarantee a continuous supply of energy — sunlight is intermit and body heat has a Iow
thermoelectricity output.
• What is needed is an energy harvester that both works continuously and allows for high
levels of electrical energy generation. Enter TENGs, or triboelectric Nano generators.
• This energy-harvesting technology was invented to generate electricity from ambient
mechanical motion such as rotary motion, vibrations, oscillating motion, and
expanding/contracting motion.
• Another approach of energy-harvesting technology is by generating small electric currents
through the relative movement of layers, a process called triboelectric charging.
• "Materials can become electrically charged as they create friction by moving against a
different material, like rubbing a comb on a sweater.
• By sandwiching layers of differently materials between two conducting electrodes, a few
microwatts of power can be generated when we move."
• No matter how wearables get their energy it is expected that wearables will become the
"must-have" gadgets for both personal and professional use.
• According to Intersil, "...wearables are such a hot trend that ABI Research forecasts the
category is growing at a CAGR of 56.1% and will reach 487 million units in 2018."
 • And given that we (consumers) all want products that are faster, better, and cheaper
"System designers are constantly challenged to create smaller, more efficient and cost
effective solutions that will place wearables on the wrists of many more people."

Wearable Device Architectures

• Intersil states, "A typical wearable device architecture- includes a microprocessor, memory,
display, sensors, communication IC and battery charger blocks, among others. It uses at least
three DC-DC converters and 3-5 low dropout (LDO) regulators, depending on the system
application."
• Perhaps a nice compromise between wearables that are battery-free (i.e. utilize energy-
harvesting technologies) and wearables that are equipped with rechargeable batteries, is
using rechargeable batteries of which incorporate wireless charging.
• Texas Instruments (T I) offers their wireless charging PMP 11311 reference design for
wearable devices.
• TI appreciates the fact that wearable technology devices "require advanced power
management to achieve long battery run times with always-on functionality.
• Additionally, the devices need to use small rechargeable batteries and enable small footprint
designs."
• TI's reference design provides a wireless charging input, a highly configurable battery
management solution using a Li-Ion battery charger, and a low quiescent current DC/DC
buck/boost converter. Figure 2.3 below illustrates TI's wireless power system.
• Another semiconductor company that realizes the coming growth explosion of the wearable
market is Linear Technology. Linear Tech offers their LTC 3331 which is a complete energy-
harvesting solution that delivers up to 50mA of continuous output current when harvestable
energy is available.

Solar Cells & Batteries used in Wearable Devices

• Wearable devices have been increasingly popular in the past few years. Everything from
smart watches as a fashionable, convenient extension of one's smartphone to thin bands for
fitness tracking, wearable devices are rising in popularity. Such devices can add value to be
Everyday life by providing a way to access information more readily. These electronic
devices, however, are no help when they are dead. Minimizing charging frequency is
important for all portable devices, but arguably even more so for wearable devices. If the
goal is to always have a device readily available, extended battery life is essential. Therefore,
some Companies have created wearable devices that can be recharged using solar cells. This
increases charge time potential while still being able to wear and operate the device as
intended without inconveniencing the user.

Basics of Solar Cells

• The most common photovoltaic cells are silicon-based. Understanding semiconductor

physics is critical to understanding the operation of solar cells. To create a solar cell, silicon
layers will be doped to have more electrons, an n-type layer, in one (or some) layer(s) and
others doped to have fewer, a p-type layer. P-type layers have an excess of holes—
effectively locations where electrons are missing. These types of doped materials are
configured so a p- type layer will be next to an n-type layer. The excess electrons and holes
flow between the layers. This flow of charge carriers and creation of ions induce an internal
electric field.
 • Photovoltaic cells have this type of structure. When sunlight hits a photovoltaic cell,
absorption of sunlight will excite electrons, creating holes in their place. The flow of the
electrons creates electricity which can then be harnessed. Silicon solar cells generally have
an efficiency hovering somewhere around 20 percent. The performance of solar cells is
highly dependent upon the duration and intensity of the light they are exposed to.

Fig. 2.3.

Solar Cells in Wearable Devices

 While large solar panels installed on building roofs might be the first thing that comes to
mind when talking about photovoltaic cells, they can be produced for much smaller
applications. Garmin currently advertises a limited offering of solar-powered watches. These
smart watches have impressive battery lives. They list their Instinct Solar watches operating
for 54 days on a single charge. Going off solar power alone and assuming 3 days outside at
50,000 lux, they claim unlimited battery life for their watch in battery saver mode. Both the
watch's screen and a photovoltaic ring around the screen can convert solar energy into
electricity. Employing virtually the entire watch face for capturing solar power maximizes the
charging power from the sun.
 Power Watch is a company that also uses solar power to recharge their watches. It is worth
noting, however, that solar power is the secondary charging method. The primary charging
method is not conventional either, but is achieved through a thermoelectric power sensor.
Their MATRIX Prometheus sensor uses the thermal energy from the wearer's body and
converts it to an electrical output that powers the watch. This is a prime example of
companies finding alternative methods for charging wearable devices.

Dawn of Solar-Powered Textiles

 Not only are photovoltaic cells being developed for powering wearable electronic devices
but to be woven in to every day clothing. Nottingham Trent University's School Of Art and
Design has a group which is researching how to create solar cells small enough to be laced
into textiles. The group is attempting to combine solar cells into clothing in a way that is
unnoticeable to the wearer. The goal is to create clothing that appears the same as all other
clothing, only while simultaneously producing electricity. The material comprises of
numerous solar cells integrated into the material measuring 3mm by 1.5mm. The cells would
be coated in resin to protect it from the wear and tear of regular usage and laundering. The
photo voltaic cells would produce electricity which could be used to charge a device via a
USB connection integrated into the clothing.
 The group out of Nottingham is not the sole party interested in creating solar cells conducive
to being part of daily fashion. Researchers at Rice University have been exploring flexible
 photovoltaic cells to be sewn into clothing or other wearable items. They see the flexibility
of the solar cells as a critical achievement as traditional solar cells are far to origid and brittle
to be practical for clothing. Flexible solar cells are able to bend with the movement of the
fabric without damage to the solar cell itself while maintaining the integrity of the garment.
While their flexible cells are less efficient than conventional solar cells (a difference of
roughly 7%), the flexibility could be well worth the deficit. The flexibility of the solar cells is
achieved through using a material that is made up of "sulfur-based thiol-ene reagents". The
researchers have reported that cells with 20% thiol-ene content provide the prime
combination of efficiency and flexibility.
 Still other researchers have been creating flexible solar cells. Organic, ultrathin photovoltaic
cells have been developed at the RIKEN research center in Japan. These solar cells were
created by using an annealing process to improve the thin cell's durability while retaining
flexibility. Their solar cells have an energy' conversion ratio of approximately 12%.
 Again, this is lower than the conventional silicon-based solar cell's energy conversion ratio by
about 10%. However, their research does show promising results with regards to the
environments in which these ultra-thin cells can be operational. They say that the solar cells
are remain stable even under high temperatures and humidifies. This type of functionality
and durability would indeed be beneficial for use in wearable devices.

Vibration based power Requirements of wearable devices

 With the vast amount of wearable technology available, the demand for compact devices
with smaller batteries, or no batteries at all, and longer charge duration has presented a
challenge. Consumers of wearable technology want the convenience of a portable device
without the need for frequent charging or bulky and expensive batteries. Producers of
wearable technology are then tasked with creating devices that meet this demand. The use
of piezoelectric components in wearable technology is a solution for this issue.
 The use of piezoelectricity stands to reduce, or even eliminate, the need for frequent
charging of devices and batteries. Consumers will no longer be burdened with having to be
near an electrical outlet, which will in turn conserve electricity. As a result, wearable devices
and more efficient batteries will have longer usable lives. This will also reduce the
environmental hazards presented by the frequent disposal of batteries and electrical
components into landfills.
 Harvesting energ' using piezo electric ceramic involves the conversion of energy from
vibrations that occur during walking, breathing, and moving on many parts of the body.

Fig. 2.4.

 When stressed, piezoelectric components create an electrical current that can be

immediately used or stored. The amount of energy' produced is still relatively small and
 required body movements aren't often regular and predictable. Also, a large surface area is
often necessary to harvest a sufficient amount of energy. This presents a challenge when
thinking of the small size needed in wearable devices.

Fig. 2.5.

Direct and inverse piezoelectric effects.

 Two promising factors in surmounting these obstacles are the versatility of piezoelectric
components and the fact that the efficiency of piezoelectric energy harvesting has increased,
while the power requirements for current wearable devices have been reduced.
 There are four different types of materials that can be used for piezoelectric energy
harvesting: ceramics, single crystals, polymers, and composites. Of these, ceramic is the
preferred material for this type of energy harvesting because of its Iow cost, effective
piezoelectric properties and easy incorporation into energy harvesting devices.
 Piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting is the preferred method for use with wearable
devices since it is the most capable of producing the power level needed for small-scale
devices.
 There are two kinds of mechanical energy that can be scavenged from the human body. The
first is related to continuous activity, such as breathing and heart beating; while the other is
related to discontinuous movements, such as walking and joint movements. Of these, the
process of walking produces the largest amount of power compared with other body
motions. It has been recorded that a 68kg man is able to generate 67 W when walking at a
speed of two steps per second. The easiest way to harvest this energy is through
piezoelectric shoe inserts.
 Body joints are also attractive locations for harvesting energy due to their high motion
amplitude, fast angular velocity, large impulse force, and high frequency of use in daily
human activities. For example, the knee joint produces high biomechanical energy since it
generates a larger torque in comparison to other human joints. Knee joint motions often
related to gait motion, where walking and running frequencies are normally in the range of
0.5-5 Hz.
 Even for relatively minor activities such as eye blinking, piezo electric transducers have
effectively been used to convert motional energy into electricity. For example, a self-
powered sensor was developed for both energy harvesting and health rehabilitation
monitoring, which was based on polymeric piezoelectric Nano/microfibers.
 Furthermore, continuous energy can be harvested from the process of human breathing.
There are two kinds of energy that can be collected in this case. The first relies on
scavenging energy due to the intake and release of air, which can produce approximately
1W of power. The other relies on chest expansion, which requires a tight band fixed around
the chest of the user to generate around 0.83 W when breathing normally.
Wearable Piezoelectric Applications

 Piezoelectric components can be used for wearable technologies and other new
technologies. Their use presents vast possibilities across many industries. Human comfort,
Convenience, health and safety have the potential to be greatly improved with the
availability and use of products containing piezo electric components. Many of these
capabilities and products are already emerging in today's society.

These include:

 A piezo electric pacemaker that is powered by the rhythm of a beating heart. This eliminates
the need for invasive and dangerous surgery for battery replacement
 Footpath lighting powered by footsteps striking energy-absorbing tiles
 The ability to power monitoring and sensor devices in remote and dangerous places
(bridges, pipelines, etc.). This eliminates the risk to humans that arises when batteries need
charging or replacing.
 A vehicle driver's seat that uses piezoelectric sensors to monitor and sense driver's heart
rate and respiration. It uses vibration sensors to allow ventilation and massage features to
be automatically activated in these at when driver stress is detected
 Wearable devices that can be charged by walking, running or other physical activity
 Some wearable sensors on the market today include fitness and activity wristband sand
monitors that observe distance, respiration, heart rate, and even sleep patterns. Wireless
blood pressure cuffs measure patient's blood pressure through a phone app. Quartz watches
have been around for a long time and employ the natural piezo electric property of quartz to
keep precise time. Monitors that detect and measure fetal heartbeats use piezoelectric
components to convert the vibration into a readable signal.
 The use of "smart" fabrics is also gaining popularity. The flexible fabrics are infused with
piezo electric materials that act as sensors to measure, monitor, and harvest energy. A single
pressure-sensitive layer is sandwiched between two conductive layers. These sensors are
currently being developed for use as shoe insoles, clothing, and wearable devices that
measure information such as pressure, steps, energy expended, etc. The amount of energy
created by the fabrics differs with factors such as the type of piezo material used and the
movement of the user.

Design Challenges in Wearables with Piezoelectric Technology

There are challenges facing the design and implementation of piezo electric technology
within wearable devices.

Material Choice

 Textiles that have a greater elasticity perform at a greater efficiency when harvesting
piezoelectric energy. The greater elasticity of the material increases the stresses occurring in
the garment and, consequently, increases the elongation of piezoelectric elements. In
addition,-the garment must be form fitting in order to increase the clothing pressure and
increase the piezo electricity efficiency by increasing the strain exerted on the harvester on
the garment. However, with this increased tightness of the garment on the user, this
subsequently restricts the user's movements and their ability to harvest energy.

Durability
Energy harvesters are required to have high environmental durability and operational reliability.
However, in the case of piezoelectric energy harvesters, the material properties may change during
the manufacturing process, even if the piezo electric effect is caused by intrinsic physical properties
such as the crystal structure of the material. When a strain is repeatedly applied to a material,
macroscopic cracks may occur resulting in a drop in the amount of power generated. Clarifying the
mechanism behind the deterioration of materials that occurs during the conversion of kinetic energy
into electric energy and taking counter measures are challenges for piezo electric technology.

Operating Frequency

 It is a well-known issue with piezoelectric energy harvesters that they do not harvest energy
efficiency at varying frequencies. These devices operate at a high frequency whereas
humans have an ultra-low frequency of around 1 Hz. As the operating bandwidth of
piezoelectric energy harvesters is quite high, this significantly limits their utility within real
world applications in wearable devices. In addition, the motion range of humans is usually
advantage of powerful magnification. The operating excitation frequency must fall in the
resonant frequency range of harvester so as to obtain the best results. Most commonly, the
frequency LIP conversion technique is used to overcome this hurdle. Mostly, mechanical
plucking by using piezoelectric bimorph was used for frequency-up conversion to power low-
powered electronics. However, these devices showed some drawbacks such as reduced
longevity due to direct contact between bimorph and plectra and noise. To overcome such
challenges, prototype for piezoelectric knee-joint EH by mechanical plucking by the non-
contact magnetic plucking device to perform the frequency-up conversion achieve n power
output. In addition, piezoelectric vibrational EHS with a flexible 3D structure fabricated by a
micro fabrication process can cover low frequencies and achieve large strain.
 Future Considerations and Complications for Wearable Technology in General before
portable wearable self-powered system can move toward large-scale practical applications,
there still many problems that should be fully addressed soon. Most wearable and portable
self-powered systems are based on flexible materials, which experience device performance
degradation during long-term operation. Therefore, in the future, we should study additional
material and structural designs to improve the stability of the system under long term work
while ensuring the wearability of the device.
 Currently, portable wearable self-powered electronic devices are mainly desktop laboratory
devices, which only demonstrate a concept. Since there is no work to propose a
standardized manufacturing process for portable and wearable self-powered electronic
devices it is impossible to achieve complete consistency with respect to the performance of
two different devices. Therefore, in the future, we need to consider the issue of
performance calibration between different devices, or we can develop standardized
processes for portable wearable devices that can be mass produced.
 Hybrid energy harvesting technology that integrates multiple transduction methods is most
likely to act [IS n power source for future self-powered systems. However, the large
differences in the frequency, amplitude, and waveform of electrical power converted
through different transduction methods make it an unsolved problem to develop power
management technologies suitable for different energy harvesting methods. Furthermore,
an increasing number of functional modules are being integrated into self- powered
systems. We need to rationally design power management circuits to improve the energy
conversion efficiency and achieve energy distribution among various functional modules:
In addition, a Wireless module is needed to realize the transmission of information.
Human body as a heat source for power generation

 Body heat applied to a thermoelectric generator plus energy harvesting to produce power
for a wearable device achieves both minimization of form factor and power consumption.
Another consideration in powering wearable devices is the necessity to impose weight and
size constraints, particularly if you initially choose a battery as the source of power. To limit
size and weight you should use energy harvesting instead of the battery. The article points
out that you can harvest energy from several environmental sources:
 Light, using photo voltaics
 Movement of the wearer
 Radio frequency energy (RF)
 Temperature differences using a thermo electric generator (TEG)
 An evaluation of these environmental sources reveals that photovoltaic or RF harvesters
limit the application of zero-power wearables to environments where sufficient ambient
light or RF emissions is provided to satisfy the energy budget. Movement-based harvesting
systems require an active wearer and usually have unstable power generation
characteristics. In contrast, the human body is a constant heat source and typically a
temperature difference exists between body core and the environment.
 Even in a scenario where the wearer is stationary and situated in a dark room (e.g., during
sleep), energy can be produced, Lower ambient temperatures, the presence of air
convection, or increased activity of the wearer can drastically increase the amount of
accumulated energy. Because the voltages produced by thermal harvesting are typically too
Iow to power wearable electronics, you must include a high-efficiency dc-dc converter into a
wearable system.
 Thermoelectric energy conversion of human body heat represents a promising alternative as
it is largely independent of external factors. The average power harvested per square
centimetre is higher using the thermal harvester than an equally sized solar cell. However"
the produced voltage is used to directly charge a super capacitor as an energy buffer and the
device is only operational if the ambient temperature is lower than 250C to 27 oc. In one
application a Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) on a human forehead powered a 2-channel
EEG system with a power consumption of 0.8mW. You can harvest up to 30 gWcm-2 before
dc-dc conversion (Voltage Regulation in Fig. 2.6). A two-stage. Custom dc-dc converter
design is used to convert the voltage produced by the TEG to 2.75V. Due to the large thermal
harvester, the system has limited wearability. Previous systems relied on custom designed
and fabricated component", including the TEG and dc-dc circuits, to optimize the output
power for a very specific application scenario. Application-specific components are
necessary to obtain the power output and physical size required for a wearable sensor
application. Plug, state- of-the-art thermal harvesters may be too bulky and uncomfortable
to achieve true wearability.

Fig. 2.6.
  Wearable devices have been used to monitor a variety of health and environmental
measures and are now becoming increasingly popular. The performance and efficiency of
flexible devices, however, pale in comparison to rigid devices, which have been superior in
their ability to convert body heat into usable energy.
 Hybrid power devices are combinations of different power technologies. Hybrid power
plants often contain a renewable energy component such as photovoltaic (PV) that is
combined with wind power, thermo electric power, solar thermal power, or a system like
battery storage or solar thermal storage. Thermo electric generators are semiconductor
devices that have no moving parts and convert heat directly into electricity. When combined
with thermal storage they can provide electricity round the clock at a slow as $0.06 per
kilowatt-hour and could achieve efficiency.
 PV cells convert the UV and visible regions of the solar spectrum while the thermoelectric
modules use the infrared region to produce electrical energy. Thus, combining both these
systems in a hybrid system provides enhanced performance. While PV panels convert up to
20% of solar energy into electricity, the solar thermal collectors capitalise on the untapped
heat energy of the PV system, thereby increasing the energy production efficiency while
occupying less space
 Global energy demand is likely to increase by 48% in the next 20 years due to population
explosion. Currently 80% of energy needs are met by fossil fuels, which emit greenhouse
gases that lead to global warming and climate change. Their negative environmental impact
is leading to development of renewable energy sources like solar, geothermal, and hydro.

Photovoltaics

 A Photovoltaic cell is made of semiconductor materials that absorb photons of the sunlight
and generate a flow of electrons. Photons are elementary particles generated by Sun that
carry solar radiation at a speed Of 300,000 km/s. When the photons strike a semiconductor
material like silicon, they release the electrons from its atoms, leaving behind a vacant space
called 'hole.' The stray electrons move around looking for a hole to fill.
 Generally, a PV cell is made up of two types of silicon. The silicon wafer that is exposed to
the sun is doped with atoms of phosphorus, which has one more electron than silicon. The
backside of the cell is made of silicon doped with atoms of boron, which has one less
electron than silicon.
 The sandwich thus constructed works like a battery. The layer that has surplus electrons
becomes the negative terminal (n) and the other side that has a deficit of electrons acts as
the positive terminal (p). An electric field is created between the two layers at the junction.
 On excitation by photons electrons are swept to the n-side by the electric field at the
junction, while the holes drift to the p-side. Both the sides are provided with metallic
electrical contacts to collect electrons and holes. Electrons then flow in the external circuit in
the form of electrical energy. Fig. 2.7 shows how a PV cell works.

Fig. 2.7.
Working of a PV cell

 Thermoelectricity, as the name suggests, stands for the conversion of thermal energy
(temperature difference) into electricity. It encompasses mainly two phenomena: the
Seebeck effect and Peltier effect.
 Seebeck effect is the phenomenon that a potential difference will appear between the two
ends of a metal or semiconductor wire when they are kept at different temperatures. The
potential difference is proportional to the temperature difference and the material's
property known as Seebeck coefficient.
 All materials are made of atoms, and atoms contain positively charged nucleus with
negatively charged electrons moving around them. The electrons that are closer to the
nucleus are bound more strongly, whereas the outer ones are loosely bound. When the
temperature is uniform, the distribution of negative electrons is uniform and neutralises
positive ions everywhere in the material, as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8. Uniform distribution of neutral atoms

 But when one end of the wire is heated and the other end is kept cool, electrons at the hot
end gain more energy and higher speed than those at the cool end, which is indicated by the
longer arrows in Fig. 2.9. So, at any instant more electrons move to the cold end than those
moving back. so, the hot end becomes positively charged and the cold end becomes
negatively charged, and current flows through the external conductor of a thermoelectric
generator (TEG).

Fig. 2.9. Generation of potential difference due to heating in TEG

 A single thermoelectric device is constructed from two solid-state devices that are usually
made from bismuthteIIuride (Bi2Te3), as shown in Fig. 2.10. One of these pellets of
semiconductor is doped with acceptor impurity to create a p-type component to have more
positive charged carriers or holes, thus providing a positive Seebeck coefficient. The other is
doped with donor impurity to produce an n-type component to have more negative charged
carriers, thus providing a negative type of Seebeck coefficient. The two semiconductor
components are then physically connected serially on one side, usually with a copper strip,
 and mounted between two ceramic outer plates that provide electric isolation and structural
integrity'.

Fig. 2.10. Thermoelectric generator (TEG)

 The Seebeck effect is a direct energy conversion of heat into a voltage potential. It occurs
due to the movement of charge carriers within the semiconductor. Charge carriers diffuse
away from the hot side of the semiconductor. This diffusion leads to a build-up of charge
carriers at one end. This build-up of charge creates a voltage potential that is directly
proportional to the temperature difference across the semiconductor.
 The power generated in a TEG is single-phase DC that equals I2RL, where I is the Current and
RL is the load resistance. The output voltage and output power are increased either by
increasing the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends or by connecting
several TEGS in series, as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11. Series-connected thermoelectric generator

 The current flows as long as heat is applied to the hot junction. The process is reversible. If
the hot and cold junctions are interchanged, the valence electrons flow in opposite direction
and direction of the current changes. The thermoelectric effect allows converting waste heat
into electric power.
 By combining thermoelectric and PV effects, higher solar electricity conversion efficiency is
possible. PV absorbs about 58% of solar energy between 200nm and 800nm wavelengths.
The rest of the solar energy from 800nm to 2500nm cannot be converted to electricity by
PV. But this spectrum of solar radiation can generate electricity through thermoelectric
effect by heating TEG.

Thermoelectric figure-of-merit
  The performance of thermoelectric materials is defined by unit less figure-of-merit as given
below:
 ZT = ơ S2T/ k where ZT is the thermoelectric figure-of-merit while ơ, S, k, and T are electrical
conductivity, the Seebeck coefficient, the thermal conductivity, and the absolute
temperature, respectively.
 The Seebeck coefficient of a material is the induced thermoelectric voltage per Kelvin
generated in response to a temperature difference across the material, as induced by the
Seebeck effect. It is often given in microvolts per Kelvin. The Seebeck coefficient depends on
factors like temperature, work functions of the two TE materials, electron densities of the
two components, and scattering mechanism with each solid. Performance of a TEG is
determined by the Seebeck coefficient of the pair of materials forming the TEG.

Peltier Effect

 In a circuit, when DC current flows through two dissimilar material, say copper and bismuth,
the junction where the current passes from copper to bismuth would be hot and the
junction where current passes from bismuth to copper would be cold. This effect, known as
Peltier effect, is used to build devices like Peltier heater, solid-state refrigerator, and heat

A good thermoelectric material should have following qualities:

1. Its Seebeck coefficient should be as high as possible. It is important to maximise energy

conversion. The open circuit voltage generated by a TEG is proportional to the Seebeck
coefficient and temperature difference across the TEG. Hence high Seebeck coefficient leads
to a high voltage.
2. To minimise thermal loss through the thermoelectric material and to have large
temperature difference across the TEG, thermal conductivity of the TE material should be as
Iow as possible.
3. Its electrical conductivity should be as high as -possible for reducing internal Joule heating
losses of the thermoelectric elements.

A TEG's efficiency depends very much on the operating temperature difference between the
junctions. The bigger the temperature difference, the more efficient the TEG.

There are three main types of thermoelectric materials used in thermoelectric generators:

1. Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) alloy. It is a semiconductor that has high electrical conductivity
but is not good at transferring heat. The best working temperature of this class of material is
below 4500C. Bismuthtelluride materials with -high figure of merit (ZT) and TEG modules, as
shown in Fig. 2.12, have high conversion efficiency of more than 8% over temperatures of
250C to 2500C and are widely utilised in energy generation and refrigeration.
 Fig. 2.12. Conversion efficiency of improved Bi-Te material

With improved techniques, p-type Bi-Te TE material that has average ZT of 1.08 and n-type
Bi-Te with 0.84ZT has been made. The significant enhancement in ZT could be achieved
through compositional and defect engineering.

Type I module is constructed using p-type Bi0.5Sbl.5Te3 and n-type using Bi2Te
2.7Se0.3S0.01. Type 11 material is constructed from p-type BiO.4SbI.6Te3 and n-type Bi2Te
CuO.01 materials. Fig.2.13 and Fig.2.12 show the Seebeck coefficient and Bi-Te materials,
respectively.

Fig. 2.13. Seebeck coefficient of improved Type 1 and Type 11 Bi-Te material

1. Lead telluride (PbTe) alloy: Low conversion efficiency is a big obstacle that impedes large
scale application of TE materials for power generation. Lead telluride alloy is recognised as
an excellent compound for power generation in the mid temperature range of 500-8000K. It
has highly symmetric rock salt crystal structure, which is chemically and thermally stable.
Lead telluride can be made either a p-type or n-type semiconductor.

Recently researchers have enhanced the ZT of a sintered material to 1.8 (6000C) using a
nanostructure forming technology. Further, an electrode material has been developed that
contacts very well electrically and thermally with PbTe containing MgTe Nano structures,
achieving a conversion efficiency of about 11% with hot side at 6000C and the cold side at
IOOC.

This breakthrough has made the way to convert waste heat and solar thermal power to large
scale practical application. Because the nanostructures formed in the PbTe sintered material
 effectively scatter heat carrying phonons, but have no effect on the charge carrier transport,
there is dramatic improvement in the ZT.

2. Silicon-germanium alloy: It is a kind of semiconductor that is often used for thermoelectricity

generation with a working temperature around 13000C. Combining Si and Ge allows to retain high
electrical conductivity of both components and reduce the thermal conductivity due to the increased
phonon scattering as Si and Ge have different lattice properties. Due to this reason Si-Ge alloys are
currently the best TE material for high temperature application.

Conventional Si-Ge materials have ZT values of 0.9 and 0.5 at 1200K for n-type and p-type materials,
respectively. By adopting Nano composite approach reducing the grain size to around 5nm, ZT
values can be increased by a factor of two and conversion efficiency can also be increased
considerably. Ge is a scarce material and hence this alloy is costly. However, using only 5% of Ge it is
possible to have Si-Ge alloy with improved performance

The advantage of the newly developed Nano composites is that its ZT values consistently remain
above 1 over high temperature range between 6000C and 10000C. Hence, these are the best TE
materials for high temperature application for power generation by solar radiation, radio isotope
devices, and waste heat recovery system. Table 2 shows the ZT values of bulk and improved
nanostructured Si-Ge TE materials.

A thermoelectric device with a ZT of 1.25 will have an efficiency of about 10%. A segmented Si-Ge TE
device over temperature range of 300K to 1300K will have an efficiency of about 12.1%.

Block diagram of a typical thermoelectric power harvesting system

Fig. 2.14. Block diagram of thermoelectric power harvesting system

A thermoelectric power generation system has low energy conversion efficiency. According to the
principle of maximum power transfer, the system would transfer the maximum power when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the TEG. Based on this principle, several
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms may be selected with different control logic to
harvest the maximum power from the TEG. If a TEG is connected directly to the load, the load
impedance will set the operating point which might result in the TEG output being less than the
maximum output power.

The MPPT technique is considered an efficient mechanism to improve the performance of TEG by
increasing the conversion efficiency. In this system, the operating point of the TEG is moved
promptly towards an optimal point to increase energy harvesting by using a variable fractional order
fuzzy logic controller (VFOFLC) based MPPT technique. The variable tracking step size is applied using
a dynamic variable fractional factor whose value is calculated based on the voltage output of the
TEG. The fraction order term introduced in the MPPT algorithm would contract or expand the input
domain of the fuzzy logic controller to shorten the tracking time and maintain a steady- state output
around the maximum power point.

Optimization of the TEG

It has been found that the output power is correlated with the geometry of the device. By changing
the leg height and the number of thermoelectric pellets to an optimum value it is possible to
maximise electric power or efficiency at given operating conditions. There is interdependence
between optimal leg geometry and the electrical load resistance.

If number of legs is low, the energy conversion is low, because the load resistance (RL) is not
sufficient to obtain an adequate high voltage and vice versa. A reduction of the leg length leads to a
reduction of the electrical resistance, and an increase of the leg length leads to the higher
temperature difference across the TEG. If the geometric parameters like leg length, number of
semiconductor pellets, and the base area ratio of the semiconductor columns are optimised, the
output power and thermal efficiency are considerably improved.

The shape of the legs of TEG devices has considerable effect on the device performance. The
conventional rectangular leg shape found in commercial TEGs is not the optimal shape for heat-to-
power energy conversion. The hour glass shaped TE legs result in more than double the electrical
potential and maximum power compared to conventional rectangular shape. The trapezoid leg with
the largest cross-sectional area at the hot side results in about double the electrical potential and a
50% increase in the power output .compared to the conventional rectangular shape. The electrical
output power values, if optimised, can be 890% higher than a random value without optimisation.

Heat sink is required at the TEG when a high heat flow rate is applied on the hot side of

the TEG. In order to have quick heat dissipation at the cold side cooling radiators are

provided there, so that bigger temperature difference across the TEG can be obtained. The

fins attached to the heats inks are very important for enhancing the heat transfer at the hot

and cold sides. The heat transfer increases when the number of fins are increased and the 'fin

height is more, due to more heat transfer area. However, increase of heat transfer area is

limited to an optimum value beyond which the change in the output electrical power

becomes less significant.

The thermal resistance of the heat sink(Rhs) is:

Rhs = (Theat sink - Tamb)/Qh where, The at sink is the sink temperature, Tamb is the

environmental temperature, and Qh is the heat flow. Experimental results show that

increasing the thermal resistance of both cold and hot side heat sinks by 10% improves the

Aerogel

Aerogels are a class of synthetic porous materials derived from a gel, in which the liquid

component has been replaced with a gas without collapsing the gel structure by freeze

drying. It can be made from silica, carbon, iron oxide, gold, copper, polymer, etc.
The final product is extremely porous (80-98% porosity) with very little solid material; up

to 99.8% ofthe aerogel may have nothing but air. It has a typical density of about 0.001gm

cm-3. Its thermal conductivity is extremely low, about 0.017W/mK, which makes the

material an ideal insulator. It can be made transparent.

By reducing heat losses and simultaneously being transparent, aerogels allow a solar plant

to operate at higher temperature and at higher efficiency without using any vacuum device•

Signal Processing and Energy Harvesting for Wearable Devices

2.23

These advantages make an aerogel assisted solar thermal plant very economical' and

eliminates lot of maintenance problems.

concentrated high-efficiency Solar Thermoelectric Generator

A solar thermoelectric generator (STEG) is a solid-state device that can convert solar

energy at around 15% efficiency.

It has three sections: solar absorber, thermoelectric generator, and the thermal

management system comprising insulation, heat exchangers, and vacuum/aerogel enclosure,

etc.

There are no moving parts and there is no need of high-temperature operating fluids. Its

robustness in harsh temperatures makes it very useful for stand alone power conversion or

making hybrid solar thermal power generator in conjunction with a PV system.

The efficiency of STEG depends on both the efficiency of solar absorber and on the

thermoelectric efficiency of the device. There are mainly two. approaches to increase the

efficiency of STEG devices: increasing temperature difference between the hot and cold

ends and using improved materials with ZT more than l. Recently, several nanostructured

materials have been developed that have higher ZT values suitable for STEG.

There are two routes to increase the temperature difference in a STEG: first, optical

concentration of sunlight enabling to increase the heat flux at the absorber surface, and

second by providing thermal concentration where the area of a highly thermally conducting

absorber is greater than area of the thermoelectric legs increasing the heat flux through the

legs.

It is possible to construct a durable STEG device with more than15% efficiency using

improved material consisting of a segmented n-type leg composed of skutterudite and

LalTe4 and p-type leg of skutterudite and Yb14MnSb11, and also using nanostructured

Bi2Sb3 based alloys (all these three types have an effective ZT of about 1.4 to I .6 at 800K).

Solar Absorber

n-type SKU

n-type

Bi2, Te3

Copper Electrodes

Sunli ht

Concentrati O tics

Heat Sink

Load

Glass Vacuum

Enclosure

Copper Heat Spreader

p-type SKU

p-type

Bi2, Te3

Fig. 2.15. Schematic arrangement of concentrated STEG system

Operating temperatures across Thot-Tqold = 9000C—2000C are maintained using fresnel

lens to concentrate sunlight. In order to reduce heat losses from the solar collector a vacuum

system is provided, which is costly. Skutterudite is a type of arsenide mineral having general

Wearable vevtcef

TPn3, where T is a u-ansition metal like Co, Rh, or Ir, and Pn is Sb, As, or p.

Typical arrangement 0fSTEG system is shown in Fig. 2.15 and Fig. 2.16.

n hot electrode

skutterudite

p hot electrode

skutterudite

p mid electrode

n mid electrode

p-type Bi2 Te3

n-type Bi2 Te3

p cold electrode

n cold electrode

Fig. 2.16. Arrangement ofcomposite segmented thermoelectric LEG

Radiation

Glass

Fig. 2.17.

Another excellent way to reduce heat losses is by using high-temperature transparent

aerogels for insulation instead of vacuum system, as shown in Fig. 2.17.

Transparent aerogel for insulating STEG

Aerogel, being transparent but an excellent insulator, allows sunlight to enter but blocks

the heat from escaping from the receiver of the STEG. It offers many advantages like higher

effciency, minimises heat loss, boosts solar thermal conversion, eliminates costly vacuum

system and its maintenance cost. Due to efficient thermal transport system provided by

aerogels, most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the cermet composite pad attached to the

thermoelectric elements.

It is desirable to thermally insulate the TE legs to suppress lateral heat leaks that degrade

thermal effciency. Encapsulation of thermoelectric legs with aerogels prolongs the life Of

TE devices.

The primary cause of deterioration of most thermoelectric materials is thérmal

decomposition or sublimation at high operating temperatures. For example, aerogel present

Signal Processing and Energy Harvestingfor Wearable Devices

2.25

near the surface of skutterudite material, such as CoSb3, prevents transport of Sb vapour by

establishing a highly localised equilibrium Sb-vapour atmosphere at the surface of

skutterudite.

Some solar absorbers are painted with black paint to increase the heat absorption and are

fabricated from metal dielectric multilayer cermet composites that are capable of

withstanding more than 9500C.

photovoltaic/thermoelectric Hybrid System

Solar light and its thermal energy can provide sufficient electricity to meet the global
energ demand. The range of wavelengths that photovoltaic materials generally use to

convert in to electricity is between 400nm and 1200nm, the ultra-violet(UV) and visible

range. Excess solar radiation is Ivasted as heat, which decreases the efficiency of PV cells

and lowers their life.

TEGS are bidirectional devices that act as heat engines, converting the excess heat into

electricity through the thermoelectric effect. Thermoelectric devices utilise the IR region of

sunlight to generate electricity and reduce the amount of heat that PV cells dissipate. It is

possible to combine PV cells and TEGs to make a hybrid system that can generate more

energy. The overall power output of this system would be the sum of the power output from

the PV module and the TEG.

The hybrid systems generally follow two co•nfigurations - with or without reflective

components.

With reflective arrangement the spectral splitting method splits the solar spectrum in to

two bands. The spectrum below the 800nm cut-off wavelength gets transmitted to the PV

module and above 800nm to the TEG. This system has a reflective component called

wavelength segregator or prism, where the PV module and the TEG are installed

perpendicular to each other. When sunlight passes through the prism, a part of the sunlight is

reflected at cut-off wavelength of approximately 800nm and is absorbed by the solar cell.

The radiation that is longer than the cut-off wavelength - above 800nm - is reflected to the

TEG, as shown in Fig. 2.18.

The PV module and the TEG convert solar enery into electricity independently. A

cooling system is installed on the TEG to maintain the temperature difference. A

- concentrator increases the light intensity and hence PV modules of reduced surface area can

be installed, which results in a reduced installation and maintenance cost. The spectrum

splitter allows for Iow operating temperature and hence maximising the conversion

efficiency.

Thermoelectric legs have different values of ZT at different temperatures. Hence the TE

materials elected depends on the operating temperature. Generally, bismuthtelluride is used

under 500K, lead telluride between500-900K, and germanium silicon above 900K operating

temperatures.

2.26
Fresnel Lens

Sunlight Collector

Reflection Lens

Wavelength

Segregator

UV and Visible Light

(200-800 nm)

solar Cell (T<800C)

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IR (800-3000 nm)

Heat

Collector

Cooling

Thermoelectric

Generator (T>5000C)

Fig. 2.18. Arrangement of hybrid pv/teg system using spectral splitting

In configurations without reflective component the PV module is placed as upper

component and TEG device as lower component, as shown in Fig. 2.19. When sunlight falls

on it, the PV device absorbs the UV and visible light and rest of the solar spectrum passes

through the PV module to the underlying TEG. The IR radiation heats up the TEG top side

creating a temperature difference with the cold side. The solar module is coated with tedlar

PVF film that offers the best protectioh against UV, thermal, moisture, chemical and

mechanical stress. Combination of PV and TE generators can make a very efficient device

for solar energy utilisation, A PV/TE hybrid system. with high concentration ratio and using

multijunction PV and Bi2Te3 thermoelectric legs has conversion efficiency of about 32%.

The direct electrical contribution of the TEG to the hybrid system's efficiency is enhanced

by increasing the Sun's concentration by about 300 times. Even higher efficiency and power

values can be achieved by using more advanced PV devices and improved TE materials,

with a potential to reach 50% total efficiency.

Concentrator

Tedlar
Heat Sink

VL

RL

Fig. 2.19. Hybrid system without reflective component

Signal Processing and Energ-' Harvestingfor Wearable Devices

Hybrid PV and Solar Thermal System

2.27

A technique that combines PV and solar thermal systems to efficiently convert solar

radiation to electricity for immediate use and store the remaining inexpensive thermal energy

(not utilised by P V) to convert to electricity on demand has been developed recently. It is

called hybrid electric and thermal solar (HEATS) system. The prototype performs at

a potential to achieve35.2%)solar to electricity ' efficiency and 81%

dispatchability of electrical energy from thermal energy' at an operating temperature of 775K

using silicon PVcell (galliumarsenide PV cell canal so be used).

Glass

Aerogel

Heat Collecti

Light Pipe

Aerogel

Incident

Solar Spectrum

Light pipe absorbs high 7 - " -

and low energy photons, ,

converting them to heat

Mid-energy photons are ,

guided to the PV cell :

To

Concentrated

Sunlight

PV Band Gap

To
To Hea

Light pipe collects

heat at high temperature,

but insulating aerogel

keeps the PV and

receiver surface cool

Temperature

Fig. 2.20. Hybrid PV andsolar thermal system

HEATS contains a PV module as well as a thermal absorber to utilise the best of both. In

this system photons in the PV band are directed to the PV cells whereas these are

mOstefficientIyconvertedintoeIectricity.Low-energyphotons(longwavelengths)that cannot be

converted by PV cells and high-energy photons (short wavelengths), which would be

converted inefficiently, are directed to the thermal absorber instead of being wasted.

This technique improves overall system efficiency and provides additional thermal

energ', which can be stored at low cost to be used for electricity generation or for heating on

demand. Dispatchability is the ratio of electricity generated from heat engine and total

electricity generated by both heat engine and the PV modules. The arrangement of HEATS is

shown in Fig. 2.20.

Fig• 2•20 (A) shows the receiver concept with a cutaway section to show its internal

Stmcture. The HEATS receiver is used. in conjunction with a solar concentrator, like a

Parabolic trough or a linear Fresnel reflector, to increase the intensity of solar radiation. The

stacked Structure consists Of a glass protective cover, a thermally insulating transparent

Wearable Devices

aerogel layer, the spectrally selective light pipe by another insulating

aerogel layer, and finally the pv module.

The SSLP stNCture consists of a series of parallel fins attached to the heat collection

pipes carrying a heat transfer fluid like Therminol VP-I, which collects the thermal energy

absorbed by the SSLP. The SSLP structure is formed from parallel fins made•ofa thermally

conductive copper sheet substrate coated with a spectrally selective material in multilayers.

The SSLP absorbs high and low energy photons as thermal energy, while directing the

midenerg photons to the PV module down below as shown in Fig. 2.20(B). Transparent
aerogel on either side allows the light to pass through but does not allow the heat to escape

The aerogel layers serve to thermally insulate the SSLP from the pv module to keep the

latter cool. It ensures that the SSLP can be operated at a high temperature without heat loss

while the pv module and the glass cover remainat a safe low operating temperature. The

transparent silica aerogels used have high solar transmittance of about 96% and low thermal

conductivity ofabout 0.055W/m/K. As aerogels are not very strong, it is ensured that no load

is transferred to it.

The advantages of hybrid PV- thermal system are mainly:(a) both solar thermal and PV

cells can be housed in the same module and operated simultaneously, (b) the solar energy

that would have been lost otherwise, if single PV module was used, can be recuperated

usefully, and (c)the amount of energy that is generated per unit area by this tandem system is

more and the payback period is less due to more energy extraction.

2.6. THERMOPILE

A thermopile is a device that converts heat into electricity by using the thermoelectric

effect.

It consists of several thermocouples, which are pairs of wires made of different metals

that generate a voltage when exposed to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are

connected in series or sometimes in parallel to form a thermopile, which produces a higher

voltage output than a single thermocouple. Thermopiles are used for various applications,

such as measuring temperature, generating power, and detecting infrared radiation. A

thermopile works on the principle of the thermo electric effect, which is the direct

conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa. This effect was

discovered by Thomas Seebeck inl 826, who observed that a circuit made of two different

metals produced a voltage when one junction was heated and the other was cooled.

A thermopile is essentially a series of thermocouples, each of which consists of two wires

ofdifferent metals with large thermoelectric power and opposite polarities.

Thermoelectric power is a measure of how much voltage a material generates per unit

temperature difference. The wires are joined at two junctions, one hot and one cold. The hot

junctions are placed in a region with higher temperatures, while the cold junctions are placed

Signal Processing and Enerc Harvestingfor Wearable Devices

in a region with lower temperatures. The temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions causes an electric current to flow through the circuit, generating a voltage output.

The voltage output of a thermopile is proportional to the temperature difference across the

device and the number of thermocouple pairs.

The proportionality constant is called the Seebeck coefficient, which is expressed in volts

per millivolts per kelvin(mV/K). The Seebeck coefficient depends on the type

and combination of metals used in the thermocouples.

The diagram below shows a simple thermopile with two sets of thermocouple pairs

connected in.series.

The two top thermocouple junctions are at temperature T I, while the two bottom

thermocouple junctions are at temperatureT2. The output voltage from the thermopile, AV, is

directly proportional to the temperature difference, AT or TI — T2, across the thermal

resistance layer and the number of thermocouple pairs. The thermal resistance layer is a

material that reduces the heat transfer between the hot and cold regions.

Diagram ofa differential temperature thermopile TI

Thermopiles can also be constructed with more than two sets of thermocouple pairs to

increase the voltage output.

Resistance

Layer

T2

Fig. 221.

Thermopiles can be connected in parallel as well, but'this configuration is less common

because it increases the current output rather than the voltage output.

Wearable Devices

230

Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature, but only to temperature differences

or gradients.

Therefore, they can be used to measure heat flux, which is the rate of heat transfer per

unit area. Heat flux can be calculated by dividing the voltage output by the thermal

resistance and the area of the device.

Thermopiles use infrared radiation as a means of heat transfer and a real so used for non_

contact temperature measurement.

Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between700nm and

1 mm, which corresponds to temperatures between 300K and 5000K. Infrared radiation is

emitted by any object with anon zero temperature and can be detected by a thermopile

sensor.

Types of Thermopile Sensors

A thermopile sensor is a device that uses one or more thermopiles to measure temperature

or infrared radiation from an object or a source.

Thermopile sensors are based on non-contact measurement principles and have various

advantages over contact-based sensors, such as higher accuracy, faster response time, wider

range, and lower maintenance.

+ There are different types of thermopile sensors, depending on the number,

configuration, and material of the thermocouples, as well as the design of the infrared

absorber and the filter. Some of the common types of thermopile sensors are: Single-

element thermopile sensor: This type of sensor has only one thermopile with a single

hot junction and a single cold junction. The hot jUnction is attached to a thin infrared

absorber, usually a micro-machined membrane on a silicon chip. The cold junction is

connected to a heat sink or a reference temperature. The sensor measures the

temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions, which is proportional to the

infrared radiation absorbed by the membrane. This type of sensor is suitable for

measuring Iow to medium infrared radiation levels and has a fast response time.

Multi-element thermopile sensor: This type of sensor has multiple thermopiles

arranged in parallel or in series. Each thermopile has its own hot and cold junctions,

which are connected to a common infrared absorber and a common heat sink. The

sensor measures the sum of the voltage outputs from each thermopile, which is

proportional to the total infrared radiation absorbed by the membrane. This type Of

sensor is suitable for measuring high infrared radiation levels and has a high sensitivity.

+ Array thermopile sensor: This type of sensor has an array of thermopiles arranged in

rows and columns on a substrate. Each thermopile has its own hot and cold junctions,

which are connected to individual infrared absorbers and heat sinks. The sensor

measures the voltage output from each thermopile separately, which is proportional to

the local infrared radiation absorbed by each absorber. Thistypeofsensorcancreateatwo-

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dimensionalimageoftheinfraredradiation distribution and can detect the position, shape,

and movement of an object.

pyroelectric thermopile sensor: This type Of sensor combines a pyroelectric material

with a thermopile. A pyroelectric material is a material that generates an electric charge

when heated or cooled. The pyroelectric material is attached to thc hot junctions of the

thermopiles, while the cold junctions are connected to a heat sink. The sensor measures

the voltage output from the thermopiles plus the charge output from the pyroelectric

material, which is proportional to the rate of change of infrared radiation absorbed by

the material. This type of sensor can detect rapid changes in infrared radiation and can

measure both static and dynamic temperatures.

Applications of Thermopile Sensors

Thermopile sensors have various applications in different fields, such as:

+ Medical devices: Thermopile sensors are widely used in medical devices that measure

body temperature, such as ear thermometers, forehead thermometers, tympanic

thermometers, and thermal imaging cameras. Thermopile sensors can provide accurate

and non-invasive temperature measurements without contact with the skin or mucous

membranes.

Industrial processes: Thermopile sensors are used in industrial processes that involve

high temperatures, such as metal processing, glass manufacturing, plastic molding,

welding, soldering, and laser cutting. Thermopile sensors can provide fast and reliable

temperature measurements without contact with hot objects or surfaces.

Environmental monitoring: Thermopile sensors are used in environmental monitoring

devices that measure ambient temperature, humidity, air quality, soil moisture, fire

detection, and solar radiation. Thermopile sensors can provide accurate and stable

temperature measurements without interference from other factors.

Consumer electronics: Thermopile sensors are used in consumer electronics devices

that require temperature sensing or infrared detection, such as smartphones, tablets,

laptops, cameras, remote controls, smartwatches, gaming consoles, and virtual reality

headsets. Thermopile sensors can provide low-cost and Iow-power solutions for various
functions, such as face recognition, gesture control, proximity sensing, biometric

authentication, and thermal imaging.