LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Average and Instantaneous Speed

EXAMPLE**
Find the speed of the falling rock at t = 1 and t = 2 sec. y = 16x2
Solution
We can calculate the average speed of the rock over a time
interval [ t0, t0 + h] , having length ∆t = h, as
2 2
∆y 16(t 0 +h) −16 t 0
∆t = h
(1)

We cannot use this formula to calculate the “instantaneous” speed

at the exact moment t0 by simply substituting h = 0, because we
cannot divide by zero. But we can use it to calculate average
speeds over increasingly short time intervals starting at t0 = 1 and
t0 = 2. When we do so, by taking smaller and smaller values of h,
we see a pattern below.

The average speed on intervals starting at t0 = 1 seems to approach

a limiting value of 32 as the length of the interval decreases. This
suggests that the rock is falling at a speed of 32 ft/sec at t0 = 1 sec.
Let’s confirm this algebraically.
If we set t0 = 1 and then expand the numerator in Equation (1)
16 ( 1+2 h+h2 )−16
2 2 2
∆y 16(1+h) −16. 1 16 h +32 h
and simplify, we find that ∆t = h
= h
= h
= 32 + 16h.
For values of h different from 0, the expressions on the right and
left are equivalent and the average speed is 32 + 16h ft/sec. We can
now see why the average speed has the limiting value 32 + 16(0) =
32 ft/sec as h approaches 0. Similarly, setting t0 = 2 in Equation
∆y
(1), the procedure yields ∆ x = 64 + 16h for values of h different
from 0. As h gets closer and closer to 0, the average speed has the
limiting value 64 ft/sec when t0 = 2 sec, as suggested by Table 2.1.

Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines

DEFINITION
The average rate of change of y = ƒ(x) with respect to x over the
interval [x1, x2] is
∆y f ( x 2 )−f (x 1) f ( x 1+ h )−f (x 1 )
∆x = x2 −x1
= h
, h≠0

Defining the Slope of a Curve

EXAMPLE
Find the slope of the parabola y = x2 at the point P(2, 4). Write an
equation for the tangent to the parabola at this point.
SOLUTION
We begin with a secant line through P(2, 4) and Q(2 + h, (2 + h)
2
) nearby. We then write an expression for the slope of the secant
PQ and investigate what happens to the slope as Q approaches P
along the curve:
∆y ( 2+ h )2−22 2
h +4 h
Secant slope = ∆x = 2+ h−2
= h
= h + 4.
If h  0, then Q lies above and to the right of P, as in figure below.
If h  0, then Q lies to the left of P (not shown). In either case, as Q
approaches P along the curve, h approaches zero and the secant
slope h + 4 approaches 4. We take 4 to be the parabola’s slope at
P.
The tangent to the parabola at P is the line through P with slope 4:
y – 4 = 4. ( x – 2 ) y = 4x – 8 + 4 y = 4x – 4
Instantaneous Rates of Change and Tangent Lines
Instantaneous rates and slopes of tangent lines are closely
connected, as we see in the following examples.
EXAMPLE
Figure below shows how a population p of fruit flies (Drosophila)
grew in a 50-day experiment. The number of flies was counted at
regular intervals, the counted values plotted with respect to time t,
and the points joined by a smooth curve (colored blue in the
figure). Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.
Solution
There were 150 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the
number of flies increased by 340 - 150 = 190 in 45 - 23 = 22 days.
The average rate of change of the population from day 23 to day
45 was
∆ p 340−150 190
Average rate of change: ∆ t = 45−23 = 22 ≈ 86 flies/day
EXAMPLE
How fast was the number of flies in the population of Example
above growing on day 23?
Solution
To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change
over increasingly short time intervals starting at day 23. In
geometric terms, we find these rates by calculating the slopes of
secants from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching P
along the curve

The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from 8.6 to
16.4 as the t-coordinate of Q decreases from 45 to 30, and we
would expect the slopes to rise slightly higher as t continued on
toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate counterclockwise
about P and seem to approach the red tangent line in the figure.
Since the line appears to pass through the points (14, 0) and (35,
350), it has slope;

350−0
35−14
= 16.7 flies/day (approximately).

On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 16.7

flies / day. The instantaneous rates in Example ** were found to
be the values of the average speeds, or average rates of change, as
the time interval of length h approached 0. That is, the
instantaneous rate is the value the average rate approaches as the
length h of the interval over which the change occurs approaches
zero. The average rate of change corresponds to the slope of a
secant line; the instantaneous rate corresponds to the slope of the
tangent line as the independent variable approaches a fixed value.
In Example **, the independent variable t approached the values t
= 1 and t = 2.
Limits of Function Values
Frequently when studying a function y = ƒ(x), we find ourselves
interested in the function’s behavior near a particular point c, but
not at c. This might be the case, for instance, if c is an irrational
number, like  or √ 2, whose values can only be approximated by
“close” rational numbers at which we actually evaluate the
function instead. Another situation occurs when trying to evaluate
a function at c leads to division by zero, which is undefined. We
encountered this last circumstance when seeking the
instantaneous rate of change in y by considering the quotient
function ∆y/h for h closer and closer to zero. Here’s a specific
example in which we explore numerically how a function behaves
near a particular point at which we cannot directly evaluate the
function
EXAMPLE
2
x −1
How does the function f ( x ) = x−1
behave near 1 ?
Solution
( x−1)(x +1)
f(x)= x −1 =x+1 for x ≠ 1
The graph of ƒ is the line y = x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed.
This removed point is shown as a “hole” in Figure. Even though
ƒ(1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of ƒ(x) as
close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1.

Generalizing the idea illustrated in the example , suppose ƒ(x) is

defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c itself. If
ƒ(x) is arbitrarily close to the number L (as close to L as we like)
for all x sufficiently close to c, we say that ƒ approaches the limit L
as x approaches c, and write
lim ƒ(x) = L
x c
which is read “the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches c is L.” For
instance, in the example, we would say that ƒ(x) approaches the
limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write
2
x −1
lim ƒ(x) = 2 lim x−1
=2
x c x 1

 (a) If ƒ is the identity function ƒ(x) = x, then for any value of c

lim ƒ(x) = lim x = c
x c x c

 (b) If ƒ is the constant function ƒ(x) = k (function with the

constant value k), then for any value of c
lim ƒ(x) = lim k = k
x c x c
The Limit Laws
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
3 2
x + 4 x −3 (−1 )3+ 4 (−1 )2−3 −1+ 4−3 0
lim 2
x +5
= 2
(−1 ) +5
= 1+5 = 6=0
x – 1
EXAMPLE
2
x + x−2 ( x−1)(x +2) ( x +2) 3
lim 2
x −x
= x ( x−1) = x = 1=3
x 1
EXAMPLE
√ x 2 +100−10 √ x 2 +100−10 √ x 2 +100+10 2
x +100−100
lim x2
= x2
. √ x 2 +100+10 = x . √ x 2 +100+10
2 =
x 0
2
x 1 1 1 1
lim x .( √ x +100+ 10)
2 2 = . √ x +100+10 = . √0 +100+10 =
2 2
10+10 = 20

x 0
EXAMPLE
2 2

1 – x4 ≤ u ( x ) ≤ 1 + x2 given. For all x ≠ 0 find lim u ( x ) no

matter how complicated u ( x ) is. x 0
Solution
2 2
x x
lim 1 – 4
=1 lim 1 + 2
= 1 According to Sandwich Theo.
x 0 x 0
lim u ( x ) = 1
x 0
EXAMPLE

L=2
Finding Deltas Algebraically for Given Epsilons
EXAMPLE

We will find a value δ  0 placed in interval;

that also proves to fall in ( 2, 10 )

If we take δ = 3 we can also take δ = 1
EXAMPLE

We will find a value δ  0 placed in interval;

that also proves to fall in

We must seperate
ε value 0 ε ≤ 4 and ε  4
δ = min { 2 – √ 4−ε , √ 4 +ε – 2 } ( means that to which end point it has
the nearer distance so that when we substact that value
 δ
( min ) from 2 in interval , this interval will fall

in which proves to fall in

for 0    4
When we take δ in this way,

If  ≥ 4 , then δ = min { 2 , √ 4 +ε – 2 } which will again prove;


Approaching a Limit from One Side
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE

Continuity at a Point
 The unit step function U(x) , is right-
continuous at x = 0, but is neither left-continuous nor continuous
there. It has a jump discontinuity at x = 0.
(c) has removable discontinuity
(d) has jump discontinuity
(e) has infinite discontinuity
(f) has ocsillating discontinuity
 The function y = 1/x is continuous over its
natural domain. It has a point of discontinuity at the origin, so it is
discontinuous on any interval containing x = 0

 Every polynomial P(x) = an xn + an-1xn-1 +……+ a0 is

continuous because lim P(x) = P(c)
x c
 If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational function
P(x) / Q(x) is continuous wherever it is defined (Q(c) ≠ 0)
 The function ƒ(x) = x is continuous.
EXAMPLE
Show that the following functions are continuous on their natural
domains.

(a) The square root function is continuous on [0, ∞) because it is a

root of the continuous identity function ƒ(x) = x . The given
function is then the composite of the polynomial ƒ(x) = x2 – 2x – 5
with the square root function g(t) = √ t , and is continuous on its
natural domain.
(b) The numerator is the cube root of the identity function
squared; the denominator is an everywhere-positive polynomial.
Therefore, the quotient is continuous.
(c) The quotient (x – 2) / (x2 – 2) is continuous for all x ≠ ±√ 2, and
the function is the composition of this quotient with the
continuous absolute value function. g ( x ) = x g ( f ( x ) )
(d) Because the sine function is everywhere-continuous, the
numerator term x sin x is the product of continuous functions, and
the denominator term x2 + 2 is an everywhere-positive polynomial.
The given function is the composite of a quotient of continuous
functions with the continuous absolute value function .
lim √ x +1 .lim etanx
x →0 x →0

The continuity of ƒ on the interval is essential to Theorem above.

If ƒ is discontinuous at even one point of the interval, the
theorem’s conclusion may fail, as it does for the function graphed
in Figure below (choose y0 as any number between 2 and 3).
EXAMPLE

−5
ƒ(x) = √ 2 x +5+ x2 is continuous on the interval [ 2 , ∞). ƒ(0) = √ 5 ≈

finite closed interval [0, 2] ⊂ [ 2 , ∞). Since the value y0 = 4 is

2.24 and ƒ(2) = √ 9 + 4 = 7, and note that ƒ is also continuous on the
−5

Theorem there is a number c ∊ [0, 2] such that ƒ(c) = 4. That is,

between the numbers 2.24 and 7, by the Intermediate Value

the number c solves the original equation

Continuous extension to a Point
 EXAMPLE

Limits involving infinity; Asymptotes of graphs

 –   f(x ) – L  
−1 1
x ε x ε

All the Limit Laws are true when we replace

lim by lim or lim
xc x∞ x – ∞

Limits at infinity of rational Functions

When power of x in denominator = power of x in numerator, limit =
ratio of coefficients which is with the biggest x power
When power of x in denominator  power of x in numerator, limit =
0
When power of x in denominator  power of x in numerator with
one unit, limit = ±∞ ( there is oblique asymptote( divide nume. to
denom.)
Horizontal Asymptotes

EXAMPLE



EXAMPLE

Solution

0 ≤ sinx ≤ 1

EXAMPLE

Solution
Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater
than the degree of the denominator, the graph has an oblique or
slant line asymptote. We find an equation for the asymptote by
dividing numerator by denominator to express ƒ as a linear function
plus a remainder that goes to zero as x  ± ∞
We divide (2x – 4) into (x2 – 3 )

an asymptote of the graph of ƒ. The line y=g(x) is an asymptote both

to the right and to the left. The next subsection will confirm that the
function ƒ(x) grows arbitrarily large in absolute value as x2
(where the denominator is zero), as shown in the graph.

1
2(x−2)

=y
 Infinite limits

EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE
Solution

x0=1
Vertical Asymptotes
As x  ± ∞, the curve approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 1;
as x  – 2 , the curve approaches the vertical asymptote x = – 2.
We see that the curve in question is the graph of ƒ(x) = 1 / x
shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left.