FUNCTIONS; DOMAIN AND RANGE

 (a, b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy

a < x < b.

• [a, b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy

a ≤ x < b.

• (a, b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy

a < x ≤ b.

• [a, b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy

a ≤ x ≤ b.
Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical
terms. A function can be represented by an equation, a graph, a
numerical table or a verbal description.
The value of one variable quantity, say y, depends on the value of
another variable quantity, which we might call x. We say that “y
is a function of x” and write this symbolically as
y = ƒ(x) (“y equals ƒ of x”).

In this notation, the symbol ƒ represents the function, the letter;

x is the independent variable representing the input value of ƒ,
y is the dependent variable or output value of ƒ at x

DEFINITION
A function ƒ from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns
a unique (single) element ƒ(x)∊Y to each element x∊D
The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the
function.

The set of all output values of ƒ(x) as x varies throughout D is

called the range of the function.

The range may not include every element in the set Y.

Natural domain is assumed to be the largest set of real x-values

EXAMPLE
Let’s find the natural domains and associated ranges of some
simple functions.

Function
( – ∞, ∞ ) [ 0, ∞ ) y = x2
1
( – ∞, 0 )  ( 0, ∞) ( – ∞, 0 )  ( 0, ∞) y= x

[ 0, ∞ ) [ 0, ∞ ) y = √x
( – ∞, 4 ] [ 0, ∞ ) y = √ 4−x
[ – 1, 1 ] [ 0, 1 ] y = √ 1−x 2
 GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
If ƒ is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in
the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs
for ƒ. In set notation, the graph is ;
{ ( x, f(x) ), x  D }

EXAMPLE
Graph the function y = x 2 over the interval [ – 2, 2 ].

Representing a Function Numerically

Another way to represent a function is numerically, through a
table of values. Numerical representations are often used by
engineers and experimental scientists. From an appropriate table
of values, a graph of the function can be obtained using the
method illustrated in Example above, possibly with the aid of a
computer. The graph consisting of only the points in the table is
called a scatterplot.

EXAMPLE
Musical notes are pressure waves in the air. The data associated
with Figure 1.6 give recorded pressure displacement versus time
in seconds of a musical note produced by a tuning fork. The table
provides a representation of the pressure function over time. If we
first make a scatterplot and then connect approximately the data
points (t, p) from the table, we obtain the graph shown in the
figure.
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a
function. A function ƒ can have only one value ƒ(x) for each x in
its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of a function
more than once. If a is in the domain of the function ƒ, then the
vertical line x = a will intersect the graph of ƒ at the single point
(a, ƒ(a)).

Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is described in pieces by using different
formulas on different parts of its domain. One example is the
absolute value function
x = x , x≥0 First formula
–x , x0 Second formula
Let’s draw graph of this function.

EXAMPLE **
f(x)= –x , x0
x2 , 0 ≤ x≤ 1
1 , x1
Let’s draw graph of this function.
 The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer
less than or equal to x is called the greatest integer function or the
integer floor function. It is denoted as ⌊ x ⌋ .
Let’s draw graph of y = ⌊ x ⌋

 The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer

greater than or equal to x is called the least integer function or the
integer ceiling function. It is denoted as ⌈ x ⌉ .
Let’s draw graph of y = ⌈ x ⌉
 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from left to
right, we say that the function is increasing.
If the graph descends or falls as you move from left to right, the
function is decreasing.
DEFINITIONS
Let ƒ be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 and x2 be
any two points in I.
1. If ƒ(x2)  ƒ(x1) whenever x1  x2, then ƒ is said to be increasing
on I.
2. If ƒ(x2)  ƒ(x1) whenever x1  x2, then ƒ is said to be decreasing
on I.
 It is important to realize that the definitions of increasing and
decreasing functions must be satisfied for every pair of points x1
and x2 in I with x1  x2 ( or x1  x2 )
EXAMPLE
Let’s examine the graph of above example**.

Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry

The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic
symmetry properties.
DEFINITIONS
A function
y = ƒ(x) is an even function of x if ƒ( – x) = ƒ(x),
odd function of x if ƒ(– x) = – ƒ(x),
for every x in the function’s domain.
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin

EXAMPLE
Let’s examine the below functions with their graphs.
f ( x ) = x2 + 1
f(x)=x+1

Domain: ( – ∞, ∞ ) range: [ 0, ∞ )
 Domain: ( – ∞, ∞ ) range: ( – ∞, ∞ )

 A variety of important types of functions are frequently

encountered in calculus. We identify and briefly describe them
here.
Linear Functions: A function of the form ƒ(x) = mx + b, for
constants m and b, is called a linear function.
The function ƒ(x) = x where m = 1 and b = 0 is called the identity
function.
Constant functions result when the slope m = 0
 A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through
the origin is called a proportionality relationship.
DEFINITION
Two variables y and x are proportional (to one another) if one is
always a constant multiple of the other; that is,
if y = kx for some nonzero constant k
1
If the variable y is proportional to the reciprocal x, then
1
sometimes it is said that y is inversely proportional to x (because x
is the multiplicative inverse of x )
Power Functions
A function ƒ(x) = xa , where “a” is a constant, is called a power
function.
 Polynomials
A function p is a polynomial if
p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + ……+ a1x + a0 where n is a nonnegative
integer and the numbers a0, a1, a2…….an are real constants (called
the coefficients of the polynomial).
 All polynomials have domain ( – ∞, ∞).
 If the leading coefficient an ≠ 0 and n  0, then n is called the
degree of the polynomial.
 Polynomials of degree 2, usually written as
p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, are called quadratic functions.
 Cubic functions are polynomials
p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d of degree 3
Rational Functions
p (x)
A rational function is a quotient or ratio ƒ(x) = q(x ) , where p and q
are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all
real x for which q(x) ≠ 0.

Algebraic Functions
Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
taking roots) lies within the class of algebraic functions. All
rational functions are algebraic.
Trigonometric Functions

Exponential Functions
Functions of the form ƒ(x) = ax , where the base a  0 is a positive
constant and a ≠ 1, are called exponential functions. All
exponential functions have domain (-∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞), so an
exponential function never assumes the value 0.
Logarithmic Functions
These are the functions ƒ(x) = loga x, where the base a ≠ 1 is a
positive constant. They are the inverse functions of the
exponential functions, Below the graphs of four logarithmic
functions with various bases. In each case the domain is (0, ∞) and
the range is (-∞, ∞)

Transcendental Functions
These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions, and many other functions as well. A particular example
of a transcendental function is a catenary. Its graph has the shape
 of a cable, like a telephone line or electric cable, strung from one
support to another and hanging freely under its own weight.

Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients of Functions

If ƒ and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the
domains of both ƒ and g (that is, for x∊D(ƒ)  D(g)), we define
functions ƒ + g, ƒ – g, and ƒ.g by the formulas
(ƒ + g)(x) = ƒ(x) + g(x)
(ƒ – g)(x) = ƒ(x) – g(x)
(ƒ.g)(x) = ƒ(x).g(x)
 ( fg )( x ) = gf (x(x)) (g(x)≠0)
 ( c.f ) ( x ) = c.f ( x ) cR
EXAMPLE
f ( x ) = √x g ( x ) = √ 1−x
D ( f ) = [ 0, ∞ ) D ( g ) = ( – ∞, 1 ]
[ 0, ∞ )  ( – ∞, 1 ] = [ 0, 1 ]
Function Formula Domain
f+g ( f + g ) ( x ) = √ x + √ 1−x [ 0, 1 ]
f–g ( f – g ) ( x ) = √ x – √ 1−x [ 0, 1 ]
f.g ( f.g )( x ) = f ( x ). g ( x ) = √ x . ( √ 1−x ) [ 0, 1 ]
f
g ( f
g )( x ) = f (x )
g (x)
√x
= √1−x [ 0, 1 )
 ( “1” excluded)

Composite Functions
DEFINITION
If ƒ and g are functions, the composite function ƒ ∘ g
(“ƒ composed with g”) is defined by (ƒ ∘ g)(x) = ƒ(g(x)).
The domain of ƒ ∘ g consists of the numbers x in the domain of
g for which g(x) lies in the domain of ƒ.

 fog≠gof
EXAMPLE
 ƒ(x) = √ x and g(x) = x + 1
Composite Domain
(a) (ƒ ∘ g)(x) f (g( x ) ) = √ x+ 1 [–1,∞)
(b) (g ∘ ƒ)(x) g (f( x )) = √ x + 1 [ 0, ∞ )
(c) (ƒ ∘ ƒ)(x)
1
f (f( x ) )=√ √ x = x [ 0, ∞ )
(d) (g ∘ g)(x)
4

g (g( x ) )= x + 1 + 1 = x + 2 (–∞,∞)
 f(x)=x2 g ( x ) = √x
(ƒ ∘ g)(x) = f (g( x ) = ( √ x ) = x Domain of (ƒ ∘ g)(x) is
2

[ 0, ∞ ) not ( – ∞ , ∞ ) since √ x requires x ≥ 0

Shifting a Graph of a Function
Shift Formulas
Vertical Shifts y = ƒ(x) + k
Shifts the graph of ƒ up k units if k  0
Shifts it down kunits if k  0
Horizontal Shifts y = ƒ(x + h)
Shifts the graph of ƒ left h units if h  0
Shifts it right hunits if h  0
EXAMPLE
 Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x2 to get
y = x2 + 1 shifts the graph up 1 unit
 Adding – 2 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x2 to get y = x2
– 2 shifts the graph down 2 units
 Adding 3 to x in y = x2 to get y = (x + 3)2 shifts the graph 3 units to
the left, while adding – 2 shifts the graph 2 units to the right

 Adding – 2 to x in y =  x  , and then adding –1 to the result, gives

y =  x – 2  – 1 and shifts the graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit
down
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas
For c  1, the graph is scaled:
y = cƒ(x) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
1
y = c ƒ(x) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
y = ƒ(cx) Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
x
y = ƒ( c ) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
y = −ƒ(x) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
y = ƒ(− x) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis
 EXAMPLE
Given the function (a) ƒ(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 10 Find formulas to ;
(b) compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a
reflection across the y-axis.
(c) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by a
reflection across the x-axis.

Trigonometric Functions
Angles

Degrees −180 −135 −90 −45 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
 −3 π −π −π π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
 (radians) − 4 2 4
0 6 4 2 2 3 4 6
 2
2

An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its

vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray lies along the positive x-
axis
 sinθ cosθ 1 1
tan  = cosθ cot  = sinθ sec  = cosθ csc  = sinθ
π 1 π 1 π π
sin 4 = √2 cos 4 = √2 tan 4 = 1 cot 4 = 1

cos 6 = √2
π 1 π 3 π 1 π
sin 6 = 2 tan 6 = √3 cot 6 =√ 3

sin 3 = √2
π 3 π 1 π π 1
cos 3 = 2 tan 3 = √ 3 cot 3 = √3
sin0 = 0 cos0= 1 tan0= 0 cot0= undefined
sin  = 0 cos  = – 1 tan  = 0 cot =undefined
sin 2 = 0 cos 2 = 1 tan 2 = 0 cot 2=undefined
 π π π π
sin 2 = 1 cos 2 = 0 tan 2 = undefined cot 2 = 0
3π 3π 3π 3π
sin 2 = –1 cos 2 =0 tan 2 = undefined cot 2 =0

Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

DEFINITION
A function ƒ(x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that
ƒ(x + p) = ƒ(x) for every value of x. The smallest such value of p is
the period of ƒ.
Periods of Trigonometric Functions
Period : Period 2:
tan (x + ) = tan x sin (x + 2) = sin x
cot (x + ) = cot x cos (x + 2) = cos x
sec (x + 2) = sec x
csc (x + 2) = csc x

Odd Even
sin ( –x) = – sin x cos (– x) = cos x
tan ( –x) = – tan x sec ( –x) = sec x
csc ( –x) = – csc x
cot ( –x) = – cot x
Trigonometric Identities

When r = 1 we can apply the Pythagorean theorem to the

reference right triangle in figure above and obtain the equation;
cos2  + sin2  = 1
1 + tan2  = sec2 
1 + cot2  = csc2 
 Addition Formulas
cos (A + B) = cos A.cos B – sin A.sin B
sin (A ± B) = sin A.cos B ± cos A.sin B
Double-Angle Formulas
cos 2 = cos2  - sin2 
sin 2 = 2 sin  cos 
2 cos2  = 1 + cos 2
2 sin2  = 1 – cos 2
Half-Angle Formulas
1+ cosθ 1−sinθ
cos2  = 2 sin2  = 2

The Law of Cosines

If a, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if  is the angle
opposite c, then
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos 

Two Special Inequalities

–    ≤ sin  ≤    and
–    ≤ 1 – cos  ≤   
Exponential Function
ƒ(x) = ax , a > 0 is the exponential function with base a. ( a ≠ 1 )

Rules for Exponents

If a  0 and b  0, the following rules hold true for all real
numbers x and y.
1. ax . ay = ax+y
x
a
2. a
y= ax-y
3. (ax)y = (ay)x = axy
4. ax . bx = (ab) x
=( )
x x
a a
5. b
x
b

The Natural Exponential Function ex

The most important exponential function used for modeling
natural, physical, and economic phenomena is the natural
exponential function, whose base is the special number e. The
number e is irrational, and its value is 2.718281828 to nine
decimal places.
EXAMPLE
In 2014, $100 is invested in a savings account, where it grows by
accruing interest that is compounded annually (once a year) at an
interest rate of 5.5%. Assuming no additional funds are deposited
to the account and no money is withdrawn, give a formula for a
function describing the amount A in the account after x years
have elapsed.
P: 100
At the end of first year; P + ( 100 ) P = ( 1 + 0.055)P = 1.055P
5.5

At the end of second years; ( 1 + 0.055) x1.055P = 1.055 2P

At the end of x years; 1.055 xP = 1.055 x.100

One to One Function

DEFINITION
A function ƒ(x) is one-to-one on a domain D if ƒ(x1) ≠ ƒ(x2)
whenever x1 ≠ x2 in D.
The Horizontal Line Test for One-to-One Functions
 A function y = ƒ(x) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects
each horizontal line at most once

Inverse Functions
DEFINITION
Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain D with range R.
The inverse function ƒ -1 is defined by ƒ -1 (b) = a if ƒ(a) = b. The
domain of ƒ -1 is R and the range of ƒ -1 is D.
 (ƒ -1 ∘ ƒ) (x) = x, for all x in the domain of ƒ
 Only a one-to-one function can have an inverse.
EXAMPLE
1
Find the inverse of y = 2 x + 1 expressed as a function of x.
1 1
y= 2x+1 y–1= 2x 2.( y – 1 ) = x x = 2y – 2
f – 1 ( x ) = 2x – 2
Logarithmic Functions
If a is any positive real number other than 1, the base a
exponential function ƒ(x) = ax is one-to-one. It therefore has an
inverse. Its inverse is called the logarithm function with base a.
DEFINITION
The logarithm function with base a, y = loga x, is the inverse of the
base a exponential function y = ax (a  0, a ≠ 1).
 The domain of loga x is (0, ∞), the range of ax . The range of
loga x is (– ∞, ∞), the domain of ax .
 Logarithms with base 2 are commonly used in computer
science.
 Logarithms with base e and base 10 are so important in
applications that many calculators have special keys for
them.
  They also have their own special notation and names: loge x is
written as ln x. log10 x is written as log x.
 The function y = ln x is called the natural logarithm function,
and y = log x is often called the common logarithm function.
 ln x = y  e y = x ln e = 1
Properties of Logarithms
b
lnbx = lnb + lnx ln x = lnb – lnx
1
ln x = – lnx ln xr = r.lnx
=x loga ax = x ( a, x  0, a≠1)
x

a log a

e lnx = x lne x = x (x0)

lnx
log a x = lna ( a  0, a≠1)
EXAMPLE
If $1000 is invested in an account that earns 5.25% interest
compounded annually, how long will it take the account to reach
$2500?
Formula: P. ( 1 + 0.0525 ) t = P. ( 1.0525 ) t P = 1000
1000. ( 1.0525 ) t = 2500 1.0525 t = 2.5
ln1.0525 t = ln 2.5 t.ln 1.0525 = ln 2.5
ln 2.5
t= ln 1.0525  17.9 :answer
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The Arcsine and Arccosine Functions
EXAMPLE
During a 240 mi airplane flight from Chicago to St. Louis, after
flying 180 mi the navigator determines that the plane is 12 mi off
course, as shown in figure below. Find the angle a for a course
parallel to the original correct course, the angle b, and the drift
correction angle c = a + b.
 12 12
sin a = 180 a  3.8 sin b = 62 b  11.2
c = a + b  15
Identities Involving Arcsine and Arccosine

cos –1 x + cos – 1 (–x) = 

3π
sin –1 x + sin – 1 (–x) = 2