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List of contributors

J.P. Abraham
University of St. Thomas, School of Engineering, St. Paul, MN, United States
A. Andreozzi
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli,
Italy
Filippo de Monte
Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, University of
L’Aquila, L’Aquila, AQ, Italy
Zhipeng Duan
School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University,
Beijing, China
J.M. Gorman
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN,
United States
P. Alex Greaney
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Riverside—Riverside,
Riverside, CA, United States
A. Haji-Sheikh
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington,
Arlington, TX, United States
Jackson R. Harter
Reactor Physics Analysis, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, United States
M. Iasiello
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli,
Italy
Erfan Kosari
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States
Hao Ma
School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University,
Beijing, China
W.J. Minkowycz
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, IL, United States
Todd S. Palmer
School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR,
United States

ix
x List of contributors

Matthew Regnier
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN,
United States
C. Tucci
Dipartimento di Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso,
Italy
Kambiz Vafai
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States
Tie Wei
Department of Mechanical Engineering, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology,
Socorro, NM, United States
 CHAPTER ONE

Analyses of buoyancy-driven
convection
Tie Wei*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro,
NM, United States
*Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. Prediction of Nusselt number 6
2.1 Lessons from forced convection 12
3. Governing equations 14
3.1 Reynolds averaged equations for the mean flow and heat transport 15
3.2 Laminar DHVC solution 18
4. Dimensional analysis of buoyancy-driven convection 20
4.1 Dimensional analysis of laminar DHVC 21
4.2 Dimensional analysis of turbulent DHVC 23
5. Review of scaling patch approach 27
5.1 Layer structure of turbulent channel flow 31
5.2 Steps in scaling patch approach 33
6. Scaling analysis of laminar DHVC 44
7. Scaling analysis of the mean momentum equation in turbulent DHVC 48
7.1 Layer structure of the mean momentum balance equation 48
7.2 Properties of the Reynolds shear stress 51
7.3 Outer scaling of the mean momentum equation 53
7.4 Inner scaling of the mean momentum equation 59
7.5 Meso scaling of the mean momentum equation 62
8. Scaling analysis of the mean heat equation 67
8.1 Layer structure of the mean heat equation 68
8.2 Properties of the turbulent temperature flux Rwθ 70
8.3 Outer scaling of the mean heat equation 71
8.4 Inner scaling of the mean heat equation 75
8.5 Scaling patches in the mean heat equation 78
9. New prediction of Nusselt number 82
10. Summary and conclusions 86
Acknowledgments 89
References 89

Advances in Heat Transfer, Volume 52 # 2020 Elsevier Inc. 1

ISSN 0065-2717 All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiht.2020.09.002
2 Tie Wei

Abstract
This article investigates the multilayer structure of turbulent flow and heat transport in
buoyancy-driven convection, and in particular, introduces a relatively new scaling patch
approach. A differentially heated vertical channel (DHVC) is used as an example of
buoyancy-driven convection, and its multilayer structure is first qualitatively investi-
gated by dimensional analysis. In the near-wall region of turbulent DHVC, flow and heat
transport is strongly influenced by the molecular diffusion, and the kinematic viscosity
and thermal diffusivity are important control parameters in the dimensional analysis.
Flow and heat transport in the inner layer is controlled by two nondimensional num-
bers: the Prandtl number of the fluid and an inner Richardson number. Away from the
wall, flow and heat transport are dominated by eddy motions, largely independent of
molecular diffusion. The controlling nondimensional parameter in the outer layer of tur-
bulent DHVC is an outer Richardson number. The multilayer structure in turbulent DHVC
is then elucidated quantitatively by the scaling patch analysis. Based on the character-
istics of force balance, the mean momentum equation is divided into three layers: an
inner layer, a meso layer, and an outer layer. The inner and outer Richardson numbers,
derived from the dimensional analysis, appear naturally in the properly scaled mean
momentum equation. Another nondimensional number that appears naturally from
the scaling patch analysis is the friction Reynolds number. The characteristic length scale
in the inner layer is directly influenced by the friction Reynolds number, distinctively
different from that in forced convection. The characteristic length scale in the meso
layer is an Obukhov-style length scale. The mean heat equation can also be divided into
multiple layers. In fact, an inherent hierarchy of layer structure (scaling patches) is rev-
ealed through a simple transformation of the turbulent temperature flux. A new predic-
tion of the Nusselt number is developed based on the insight gained from the
dimensional analysis and scaling patch analysis. The new prediction is directly con-
nected to the multilayer structure of heat transport in turbulent DHVC and is fundamen-
tally different from the traditional power-law correlations.

1. Introduction
A cornerstone in the study of turbulence is the recognition that the
dynamics of turbulent flow and scalar transport operate on a great many
space and time scales (see, e.g., Monin and Yaglom [1], Tennekes and
Lumley [2]). A better understanding of the multiscale structure of turbulence
is critical in improving our predictive capabilities of turbulence, i.e., predic-
tion of skin friction and heat transport rate. Two powerful tools to uncover
the multiscale nature of turbulence are dimensional analysis and scaling anal-
ysis. This article applies these tools to elucidate the multilayer structure of
turbulent buoyancy-driven convection. In particular, one aim of this article
is to introduce a relatively new scaling approach to buoyancy-driven con-
vection. The new approach, based on the “search of scaling patches,” was
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 3

originally developed for forced wall-bounded turbulence such as shear-

driven turbulent flow over a flat plate or pressure-driven turbulent pipe
and channel flow, in a series of papers by Fife, Klewicki, McMurtry,
Wei, and coworkers [3–17]. Some concepts and ideas in the scaling patch
approach are similar to previous scaling approaches, however, the logical
trains of thought in the new approach are distinctly different.
Generally speaking, a fluid expands when being heated, resulting in a
density decrease. Density inhomogeneity can also be generated from the
mixing of fluids with different densities. In the presence of a gravitational
field, there is a net force that pushes upward a light fluid surrounded by a
heavier fluid, and this upward force is called the buoyancy force. The buoy-
ancy force gives rise to the ascending of the lighter fluid and descending of
the heavier fluid. The bulk fluid motion induced by the buoyancy force is
commonly called buoyancy-driven convection. If the fluid motion is driven
solely by buoyancy, the convection is also called natural convection or free
convection. If the fluid motion is driven by both buoyancy and shear or
pressure, the convection is called mixed convection.
Buoyancy-driven convections are encountered in a variety of natural
phenomena and industry applications. Examples include atmospheric and
oceanic convection, space heating and cooling, smoke and fire spreading,
nuclear reactor containment, and solar collectors. There have been an enor-
mous amount of studies about the effects of buoyancy on flow and heat (or
mass) transport. It is impossible to give in one article an exhaustive review of
buoyancy-driven flow and heat transport, which can be found in books
devoted to the subject, e.g. by Turner [18], Jaluria [19], Gebhart et al.
[20], Kakac et al. [21], Martynenko and Khramtsov[22], and Verman [23].
How buoyancy affects the flow and heat or mass transport is of important
practical interest, and is also of great theoretical interest. To this day, there
are still no reliable tools for predicting the heat or mass transfer coefficient in
buoyancy-driven turbulence [24]. One of the earliest studies of turbulent
flow affected by buoyancy is about the convective atmospheric boundary
layer (ABL) by Taylor [25] and Schmidt [26]. A key quantity in the under-
standing and prediction of stratified ABL is the vertical transport of momen-
tum, water vapor, sensible heat, or heat in latent form [27]. One of the
landmarks in the development of our understanding of atmospheric turbu-
lence was the formation of the concept of the Austausch coefficient by
Schmidt and Taylor. The idea was built on the knowledge of pressure-
or shear-driven wall turbulence developed by Prandtl et al. [27]. While rea-
sonable for shear dominated turbulence, the concept of eddy viscosity based
4 Tie Wei

on local properties becomes meaningless when the buoyancy effect is

strong, e.g., in convective atmospheric boundary layer [28]. A better under-
standing of the underlying physics in buoyancy-driven turbulence is critical
in developing more robust models.
To understand the essential physics of buoyancy-driven turbulence,
convection with simple geometry is typically used in physical experiments
or numerical simulations. Two buoyancy-driven convections with simple
geometry are illustrated in Fig 1: differentially heated vertical channel
(DHVC) and Rayleigh-B
enard convection (RBC). In both cases, flow
and heat transport occurs between two parallel plates, which are maintained
at different temperatures. In DHVC, the temperature gradient is perpendic-
ular to the gravity, but in RBC, the temperature gradient is aligned with the
gravity. In DHVC, hotter fluid ascends along the hot plate side, and at the
same time, colder fluid descends along the cold plate side. In turbulent
RBC, a prominent feature is the rising up of hot fluid as plumes and falling
down of cold fluid as inverted plumes.
RBC has been extensively studied in physical laboratories for more than
one hundred years. During the past thirty years, numerical simulation, espe-
cially direct numerical simulation (DNS), has become an important tool in
the study of turbulent flows, including buoyancy-driven convection, RBC

Fig. 1 Canonical configurations of buoyancy-driven convection. (A) Differentially

heated vertical channel (DHVC). The hotter fluid rises up on the left side, and the colder
fluid descends on the right side. (B) Rayleigh–B
enard convection. The mean flow is zero
def
and the mean temperature is antisymmetric about the mid-plane. Θ ¼ T hot  T is the
mean transformed temperature.
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 5

and DHVC. Analysis of turbulent quantities, especially those involved

derivatives, are often only feasible with DNS data, due to the accuracy
and resolution requirement.
In the interests of simplicity and clarity, buoyancy-driven DHVC is cho-
sen as an example to introduce the newly developed scaling patch approach,
but the approach can be readily adapted to other buoyancy-driven con-
vection. DHVC is an interesting buoyancy-driven convection to test tools
and concepts developed originally for forced convection. In turbulent
DHVC, flow is driven by buoyancy, but the turbulent kinetic energy is
produced by two mechanisms: shear-generation and buoyancy-generation
[29]. From a practical point of view, a better understanding of DHVC can
help our prediction of heat transfer from a hot or cold vertical wall, as in the
heating or cooling of building spaces. Last, DHVC is selected because there
have been direct numerical simulation (DNS) data from three independent
studies by Versteegh [30], Kiš [31], and Ng [32]. As in the analysis of forced
wall turbulence [3], high-quality DNS data are essential in the application
and evaluation of the scaling patch approach.
More details on DHVC were given in dissertations by Versteegh [30],
Kiš [31], and Ng [32]. Here, only a brief review of previous studies on tur-
bulent DHVC is provided. One of the earliest studies of buoyancy-driven
turbulence next to a vertical plate was by George and Capp [33]. They used
classical scaling arguments and proposed a three-layer structure of buoyancy-
driven turbulence: an inner layer adjacent to the solid wall, an outer layer
away from the wall, and a buoyant sublayer in between. Applying an asymp-
totic matching approach, they proposed a power-law variation of the mean
velocity profile and mean temperature profile in the buoyant sublayer. Their
scaling analysis also leads to an explicit relationship between the Nusselt
number and the Rayleigh number.
Some of the early numerical simulations of buoyancy-driven convec-
tion in a vertical slot were by Phillips [34] and Boudjemadi et al. [35]. Due
to the limit of computing power, early DNS typically used a small computa-
tional domain. The first benchmark DNS study of DHVC was by Versteegh
[30,36], who used a large domain of 24  12  2 (Lx  Ly  Lz). Using the
simulation data, they investigated the scaling behavior of the mean temper-
ature, the mean velocity profile, and the profiles of various turbulence
statistics.
Kiš [31,37] performed direct numerical simulations of DHVC over a
wider range of Rayleigh number on a large computation domain of 24 
12  2. The effect of domain size, spatial resolution, time-averaging period,
6 Tie Wei

and error analysis was examined in detail. Budgets for Reynolds stress and
turbulent heat flux were documented, and entropy generation was also
investigated.
Ng and coworkers [32,38–41] have performed the highest Rayleigh
number simulation of DHVC so far. They used the simulation data to
explore the scaling of the flow and heat transport, the structures of the flow
field, and the spectral properties of the turbulence.
The rest of the article is organized as follows. In Section 2, the current
strategy in the prediction of Nusselt number is reviewed, and its shortcom-
ing is pointed out. In Section 3, governing equations for flow and heat
transport are presented. In Section 4, dimensional analysis is applied to both
the laminar DHVC and turbulent DHVC. In Section 5, the scaling patch
approach is reviewed and demonstrated using a pressure-driven turbulent
channel flow. In Section 6, scaling analysis is applied to laminar DHVC.
In Section 7, the scaling patch analysis is applied to the mean momentum
balance equation in turbulent DHVC. In Section 8, the scaling patch analysis
is applied to the mean heat equation in turbulent DHVC. In Section 9, a
new prediction of Nusselt number is proposed. Section 10 summarizes
the article.

2. Prediction of Nusselt number

A centerpiece in many studies of convection, forced or buoyancy-
driven, is the prediction of heat transport rate. The prediction of flow
and heat transport often starts with a dimensional analysis [42]. The first step
in dimensional analysis is to identify parameters that affect the quantity being
predicted. In buoyancy-driven convection, DHVC, or RBC, the conven-
tionally used control parameters are listed in Table 1.
There are a total of nine control parameters, and three primary dimen-
sions are entailed: length L, time t, and temperature T. Following the
Buckingham-Pi theorem [43], flow and heat transport in DHVC or
RBC are governed by six nondimensional numbers. For example,
selecting ΔT, ν, and Lz (the domain size in the direction of temperature
gradient) as the repeating variables, the following six nondimensional
numbers are found accordingly
ν
Π1 ¼ Πα ¼ ¼ Pr; (1a)
α
Π2 ¼ Πβ ¼ β ΔT ; (1b)
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 7

Table 1 Parameters that affect flow and heat transport in buoyancy-driven convection.

Material ν Kinematic viscosity [L2/t]

properties
α Thermal diffusivity [L2/t]
β Thermal expansion coefficient [1/T]
!
Force g Gravitational acceleration [L/t2]
Thermal BC ΔT Temperature difference [T]
Geometry ∡ !
Angle between the temperature gradient and g [1]
Lx, Ly, Lz Domain size [L]
The last column lists the primary dimensions of the parameters: length L, time t, and temperature T.

g L 3z
Π3 ¼ Πg ¼ ; (1c)
ν2
Π4 ¼ Π∡ ¼ ∡; (1d)
L
Π5 ¼ Πx ¼ x ¼ Γ x ; (1e)
Lz
Ly
Π6 ¼ Πy ¼ ¼ Γy , (1f)
Lz
where Π1 is the ratio between the kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusiv-
ity, called the Prandtl number. For the ideal configurations of DHVC and
RBC within infinite parallel plates, the aspect ratios are Γx ≫ 1 and Γy ≫ 1.
The angle between the temperature gradient and the gravitational accel-
eration is ∡ ¼ π=2 for DHVC and ∡ ¼ 0 for RBC. Thus, three non-
dimensional control parameters remain for DHVC or RBC: Π1 ¼ Pr,
Π2 ¼ β ΔT, and Π3 ¼ g L 3z =ν2 .
In traditional analyses of buoyancy-driven convection, the non-
dimensional numbers Π2 and Π3 are combined to form a Grashof number
(the justification is given in Section 4). In this article, the Grashof number
is defined using the channel half-width δ and the temperature difference
between the wall and channel mid-plane Θmp ¼ 0.5ΔT as

def gβΘmp δ3 1 gβΔT ð2δÞ

3
Gr ¼ ¼ : (2)
ν2 16 ν2
The reason for using δ and Θmp is that the multilayer structures of flow and
heat transport in DHVC or RBC are symmetrical about the channel
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8 Tie Wei

mid-plane. Such a defined Grashof number is compatible with the friction

Reynolds number used in pressure-driven wall-bounded turbulence
def
through a pipe or channel Reτ ¼ δuτ =ν, where δ is the channel half-width
or pipe radius and uτ is the friction velocity [3]. The traditional Grashof
number is defined using the channel whole width Lz ¼ 2δ and the tem-
perature difference across the whole channel ΔT ¼ 2Θmp. Thus, the pres-
ently defined Grashof number is 1/16 of the traditionally defined Grashof
number.
Traditionally, Grashof number is interpreted as a ratio between the
buoyancy force and the viscous force [44]. However, Grashof number
can also be related to the ratio of length scales by rearranging as follows
δ
Gr1=3 ¼ : (3)
ðν2 =gβΘ mp Þ
1=3

Thus, one-third power of Grashof number can be interpreted as the ratio of

the channel half-width to a “viscous length scale” defined as (ν2/gβΘmp)1/3.
In the study of buoyancy-driven convection, a popular nondimensional
number is the Rayleigh number defined as

def gβΘmp δ3
Ra ¼ ¼ Gr Pr: (4)
να
One of the most important quantities in the study of convection is the heat
transport rate. A commonly used nondimensional number for heat transport
efficiency is the Nusselt number, which is defined as the ratio between the
convective transport rate and conductive transport rate:


dΘ

def qt
Nu ¼ Θ ¼ Θ dz wall
, (5)
mp mp
α
δ δ
def
where qt ¼ Qwall =ρref c p ¼ αdΘ=dzjwall is the temperature flux at the wall,
Qwall is the wall heat flux, ρref is the fluid density, and cp is the heat capacity.
Mathematically, Nusselt number can be interpreted as a normalized second
kind boundary condition [44], i.e., the temperature gradient at the wall nor-
malized by a temperature scale Θmp and a length scale δ.
Accurate prediction of the Nusselt number is of great importance for
engineering applications. Based on the dimensional analysis, it is obvious
that Nusselt number in DHVC or RBC is a function of the Prandtl number
of the fluid and the Rayleigh number:
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 9

Nu ¼ f ðPr, RaÞ: (6)

Historically, power-law is often used to correlate the Nusselt number with

the Rayleigh number and Prandtl number as

Nu  C Prn Ram : (7)

While experimental measurements of Nusselt number for DHVC are scant,

abundant experimental measurements of Nusselt number are available for
RBC. Hence, we will use the Nusselt number prediction in RBC to illus-
trate the current strategy of predicting the Nusselt number for buoyancy-
driven convection. Fig. 2 presents the Nusselt number data for RBC over
a wide range of Rayleigh numbers. Numerous correlations have been pro-
posed for the Nusselt number in RBC, and Table 2 lists just a few of them.
Nearly all the correlations used a power-law for the Rayleigh number
dependence as Ram. However, a long-standing, still heated debated, issue
in the study of RBC is the value of the exponent m.
In the 1950s, Malkus [45] analyzed turbulent RBC in terms of marginal
stability of the mean flow and derived an exponent of m ¼ 1/3. The work
was further developed by Howard [46]. In the 1960s, Kraichnan [47] refined

Fig. 2 Nusselt number vs Rayleigh number in Rayleigh–B
enard convection. Inset shows
the trend at ultra-high Rayleigh numbers. Data of helium (U) are from experimental
measurement Urban et al. [50]. Data of helium (N) are from the experimental measure-
ment Niemela and Sreenivasan [51]. Data of water and silicone oil AK3 are from exper-
imental measurement of Silveston [52].
10 Tie Wei

Table 2 Examples of correlations for Nusselt number in RBC.

Year Researchers Fluids Correlations
1959 Globe and Dropkin [53] Any fluids Nu ¼ 0.069 Ra0.33 Pr0.074
1969 Rossby [54] Mercury Nu ¼ 0.147 Ra0.257
1975 Threlfall [55] Helium Nu ¼ 0.173 Ra0.28
1989 Castaing et al. [48] Helium Nu ¼ 0.23 Ra0.282
1996 Takeshita et al. [56] Mercury Nu ¼ 0.155 Ra0.27
The applicable Rayleigh number ranges of the correlations are referred to the original papers.
More discussions on the correlations can be found in Ahlers et al. [57].

the similarity theory to include a double boundary layer. One interesting

result of his analysis is that at ultra-high Rayleigh number (say Ra ≳ 1018 ),
the exponent m will be larger than 1/3, because of the interaction of the
boundary layer with a horizontal fluctuating wind. Based on cryogenic
helium gas data over a wide range of Rayleigh numbers, Castaing et al.
[48] observed that the exponent is smaller than m ¼ 1/3. Moreover, they
developed a new scaling theory and suggested an exponent of m ¼ 2/7.
A more recent, and currently very popular model of RBC has been developed
by Grossmann and Lohse [49]. The model is built on a theoretical analysis of
the dissipation rate in both the boundary layer and the well-mixed core layer.
Depending on the ratio of the dissipation rate, the model provides a set of scal-
ing relations between the Nusselt number and Rayleigh number, Prandtl
number, and aspect ratio of the RBC cell.
The difference in the exponent, for example, m ¼ 1/3 vs m ¼ 2/7, can
lead to significant difference in the prediction of Nusselt number, up to a
factor of 10 at Ra  1025, as shown in the inset of Fig. 2. To better diagnose
the existence of a power law, it is common to plot the so-called compensated
Nusselt number as Nu Ram vs the Rayleigh number, as shown in Fig. 3.
The compensated Nusselt number with an exponent m ¼ 2/7 is shown in
Fig. 3A, and a constant region is observed for traditional Rayleigh numbers
between 105 and 1010. However, this compensated Nusselt number mono-
tonically increases for Rayleigh number larger than 1010. For the exponent of
m ¼ 1/3, the constant region of the compensated Nusselt number is at higher
Rayleigh numbers between 1010 and 1014, as shown in Fig. 3B. However,
the trend at ultra-high Rayleigh number (> 1014) is not clear presently.
Nevertheless, Fig. 3 shows that the dependence of Nusselt number on the
Rayleigh number in RBC can be approximated by a power-law, but over
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 11

A B

Fig. 3 Compensated Nusselt number vs Rayleigh number in RBC. (A) Nu Ra2/7 vs Ra.
(B) Nu Ra1/3 vs Ra.

A B

Fig. 4 Nusselt number in DHVC. (A) Nusselt number vs Rayleigh number.

(B) Compensated Nusselt number vs Rayleigh number.

a limited range of Rayleigh number, and the exponent varies with the
Rayleigh number. The nonconstancy of the exponent m in the power-
law prediction of Nusselt number is not just a nuisance in engineering appli-
cation, but, more importantly, it reflects an inherent drawback of the
power-law prediction: it lacks a connection to the underlying physics in
buoyancy-driven convection, i.e., the multilayer structure of turbulent flow
and heat transport.
For DHVC, the Nusselt number data are mainly from direct numerical
simulations. Fig. 4A presents the Nusselt number data vs Rayleigh number in
the turbulent DHVC regime. Like other buoyancy-driven convection,
power-law correlations are also popular in predicting the Nusselt number
in DHVC, as listed in Table 3. Compared with the RBC case, the Rayleigh
number range of DHVC data is much more limited. Curve-fitting within a
limited range of Rayleigh numbers can almost always produce a power-law
12 Tie Wei

Table 3 Correlations for Nusselt number in DHVC.

Year Researchers Correlations
1979 George and Capp Nu ¼ 0.059(Pr Ra)1/3
1998 Versteegh and Nieuwstadt Nu ¼ 0.071(Pr Ra)1/3
Ra1=3
2007 Balaji, Holling and Herwig Nu ¼
½0:101 lnðRaÞ+6:30634=3

2012 Kiš and Herwig Nu ¼ 0.186(Pr Ra)1/3.2

2014 Ng, Chuang and Ooi Nu ¼ 0.046(Pr Ra)1/3

correlation, as shown in Fig. 4A. The deviation between the data and
the power-law function seems small in Fig. 4A. However, when the com-
pensated Nusselt number is plotted, a systematic deviation is noticeable
in Fig. 4B as the Rayleigh increases, similar to the RBC case shown
in Fig. 3.
One goal of this article is to advocate that it is time to move beyond the
power-law prediction of Nusselt number in buoyancy-driven convection
using Eq. (7). In forced convection, the prediction of Nusselt number with
power-law correlation has long been superseded by more accurate equations
that were built on the underlying physics of heat transfer.

2.1 Lessons from forced convection

Power-law correlations with Reynolds number and Prandtl number were
popular in predicting Nusselt number in early studies of forced convection.
For example, for heat transfer (treated as passive scalar) through a turbulent
pipe flow, one of the earliest correlations is the well-known Dittus–Boelter
equation developed in the 1930s (see, e.g., [58–62])

Nu  0:023 Pr0:4 Re0:8

b , (8)

where Reb is the bulk Reynolds number defined by the diameter of the pipe
and the bulk mean velocity. The Dittus–Boelter equation can be found in
many textbooks on heat transfer, e.g., [44]. Now, it is generally agreed that
such power-law prediction is not accurate over a wide range of Reynolds
numbers, in particular at high Reynolds numbers. More accurate predictions
that are commonly used nowadays are the Petukhov equation [63] and the
Gnielinski equation [64]:
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 13

f
ðReb  1000ÞPr
Nu  8 rffiffiffiffi ; Petukhov equation (9a)
f 2=3
1 + 12:7 ðPr  1Þ
8
" #
 23  0:11
f
ðReb  1000Þ Pr d Pr
Nu  8 rffiffiffi 1+ , Gnielinski equation
f L Prw
1 + 12:7 ðPr  1Þ
2=3
8
(9b)
where f is the friction coefficient. The Reynolds number and Prandtl num-
ber ranges for the validity of these equations can be found in standard heat
transfer textbooks, e.g., Ref. [44].
Recently, Wei [65] and Wei and Abraham [66] showed that the Kader–
Yaglom style equation [67] gives an excellent prediction of Nusselt number,
over a wide range of Prandtl number and Reynolds numbers. The Kader–
Yaglom style equation is presented as (see [65,66])
2Pr Reτ 2PrReτ
Nu ≡  , (10)
Θmix
+ 1
lnðPr Reτ Þ + Bθ,m
κθ
where Reτ is the friction Reynolds number defined using the channel half-
width or pipe radius, Θ+mix is the mixed temperature scaled by the friction
temperature.
It is known that the mean temperature in forced wall-bounded turbulence
can be robustly approximated by a logarithmic function, except in the near-
wall region and a small, and bounded, deviation in the core of the pipe [1].
The thermal “log-law” is analogous to the well-known “log-law” for the
mean velocity that was found in the 1930s (see, e.g., Monin and Yaglom
[1]). More importantly, the log-law approximation for the mean velocity dis-
tribution has been reliably and robustly observed in the high Reynolds num-
ber experiments such as Princeton Superpipe experiments [68–70].
The logarithmic function in the Kader–Yaglom style Eq. (10) is directly
related to the “log-layer” for the mean temperature distribution. The func-
tion Bθ,m represents the temperature increments in the thermal diffusion
sublayer, and the deviation in the core (outer layer) [65,66]. The effect of
the Prandtl number in the near-wall region is also accounted for in Bθ,m.
Thus, the Kader–Yaglom style equation is directly built on the multilayer
structure of mean
14 Tie Wei

In Section 9, a new prediction of the Nusselt number in buoyancy-

driven convection, similar to the Kader–Yaglom style equation, is devel-
oped. The new prediction equation is also directly built on the multilayer
structure of mean temperature in buoyancy-driven turbulence.

3. Governing equations
For most buoyancy-driven convection, the velocity of bulk motion is
sufficiently small, and the governing equations can be approximated by the
Boussinesq–Oberbeck equations [1]. In the Boussinesq–Oberbeck approx-
imation, the fluid is assumed to be incompressible, and the density variation
is negligible except in the buoyancy term [1]. The governing equations for
the instantaneous flow and heat transfer in the Cartesian coordinate systems
can be written as follows [1]

∂e
uj
¼ 0; (11a)
∂xj
 
∂e
ui ∂ðe
uj uei Þ ∂2 uei ∂ pe
+ ¼ν  + gi ; (11b)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂x j ∂xi ρref
∂θe ∂ðe e
uj θÞ ∂2 θe
+ ¼α : (11c)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
In this article, the instantaneous flow or heat variable is denoted by a tilde.
For example, uei is the instantaneous velocity in the i direction, and θe is the
instantaneous modified temperature defined as the difference between the
mean wall temperature Twall and the instantaneous temperature T e : θe def
¼
e
T wall  T . gi is the component of the body force in the i direction.
Eq. (11a) is the continuity equation, Eqs. (11b) are the well-known
Navier-Stokes equation for the momentums in three directions, and Eq.
(11c) is the energy or heat equation. One fluid property, the kinematic vis-
cosity ν, appears in the momentum equations (11b), and another fluid prop-
erty, thermal diffusivity α appears in the heat equation (11c). In this article, the
material properties are assumed constant, and the variability of viscosity, ther-
mal diffusivity, or non-Boussinesq effects are not considered [71–74].
The coordinate system is set up that z is in the wall-normal direction. For
wall-bounded flow and heat transport, no-slip boundary conditions are
applied for the instantaneous velocity and temperature as uei jz¼0 ¼ 0 and
e
θjz¼0 ¼ 0 [1].
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 15

3.1 Reynolds averaged equations for the mean flow and heat
transport
General solutions to the instantaneous governing Eq. (11) lie beyond the
scope of existing methods. Moreover, in practical applications, the knowl-
edge of the instantaneous flow field is too cumbersome and is often not nec-
essary. Instead, we are mainly interested in the mean flow and scalar transport
properties, for example, the mean skin friction, the mean heat transfer rate,
and sometimes the average of the fluctuation level. Reynolds averaging pro-
vides an extremely common framework for studying the mean flow and sca-
lar transport [1]. It is a shortcut and erases a wealth of details about the fluid
motions being studied.
Conceptually, Reynolds averaging is ensemble averaging over a large
number of realizations of the flows under nominally the same boundary con-
ditions and initial conditions [1]. The Reynolds averaging decomposes an
instantaneous flow or heat variable into a mean component and a fluctuation
component. For example, the instantaneous velocity is decomposed as
uei ¼ U i + ui : (12)
Here, an upper case letter denotes a mean flow or heat variable, and a lower
case letter denotes its fluctuation. Similarly the instantaneous temperature is
decomposed as θe ¼ Θ + θ, where Θ is the mean temperature and θ is the
temperature fluctuation.
In an experimental or numerical study of statistically steady turbulence, a
more practical averaging is obtained by time averaging. Moreover, for tur-
bulence possessing statistically spatial homogeneity, the averaging is also
applied spatially over the homogeneous plane. For example, in turbulent
DHVC, mean flow and temperature vary only in the wall-normal z direction,
and are homogeneous in the vertical x–y plane. Therefore, the experimental
or simulation data of turbulent DHVC are both time-averaged and spatial
averaged in the x–y plane. The averaged governing equations for the mean
heat transport and mean flow in turbulent DHVC are as follows [30,75]

d2 Θ dRwθ
0¼α + ; (13a)
dz2 dz
d2 U dRwu
0¼ν 2 + + gβðΘmp  ΘÞ, (13b)
dz dz
def
where Rwθ ¼ hwθi is the turbulent temperature flux in the vertical direc-
def
tion. Rwu ¼ hwui is the turbulent flux of the streamwise momentum in
the vertical direction, commonly called the kinematic Reynolds shear stress.
16 Tie Wei

Angle brackets h i denote the conceptual ensemble averaging. β is the ther-

mal expansion coefficient, and Θmp is the mean temperature at the channel
mid-plane.
The Reynolds shear stress Rwu arises from the averaging of the nonlinear
inertial term in the Navier-Stokes equations, representing a force produced
by turbulent fluctuations. The turbulent temperature flux Rwθ arises from the
averaging of the nonlinear advective term in the instantaneous heat equation.
There are four unknowns Θ, U, Rwu, and Rwθ in two Eqs. (13a) and (13b).
This is the well-known “closure” problem in RANS modeling. Being
under-determined, the problem can yield no unique solutions by them-
selves. This conflicts with the usual image of asymptotic methods, which
provide a sequence of more and more accurate approximations to a unique
exact solution [5]. The scaling patch approach tacked this basic ill-posed
problem by adding reasonable and minimal assumptions about the qualitative
nature of the solutions [5].
The mean temperature Θ in Eq. (13a) and the mean velocity U in Eq.
(13b) are second-order, and Rwu and Rwθ are first-order. Thus, two bound-
ary conditions are required for U and Θ, and one boundary condition is
required for Rwu and Rwθ. The commonly used boundary conditions in
DHVC are

z¼0: U ¼ 0, Θ ¼ 0, Rwu ¼ 0, Rwθ ¼ 0: (14a)

z¼δ: U ¼ 0, Θ ¼ Θmp : (14b)

The boundary conditions in Eq. (14a) are the no-slip condition at the solid
surface. Note that all these boundary conditions are the first kind boundary
condition [44]. However, a second kind boundary condition can also be
applied at the solid surface as


dU
q

¼ u; (15a)
dz z¼0 ν


dΘ
qt

¼ : (15b)
dz z¼0 α
def
Here qu ¼ τwall =ρref denotes the kinematic momentum flux at the wall, where
def
τwall is the wall shear stress and ρref is the fluid density. qt ¼ Qwall =ρref c p denotes
the temperature flux at the wall. In Sections 4 and 7, qu and qt are shown to play
a key role in the multiscaling analysis of the mean equations using the dimen-
sional analysis approach and the scaling patch approach.
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 17

In the study of forced wall-bounded turbulence, two extremely impor-

tant wall variables are the friction velocity and friction temperature (see
Monin and Yaglom [1] and Tennekes and Lumley [2]) defined by the wall
shear stress and wall heat flux as
rffiffiffiffiffi
def τw pffiffiffiffi
uτ ¼ ¼ qu ; (16a)
ρ
def Q w q
θτ ¼ ¼ t: (16b)
ρref c p uτ uτ

Integrating the mean heat Eq. (13a) and the mean momentum Eq. (13b) in
the wall-normal z direction and applying boundary conditions produce a
relation for the total temperature flux and total momentum flux as [75]

dΘ
+ Rwθ ¼ uτ θτ ;
α (17a)
dz Z z
dU
ν + Rwu ¼ uτ  gβ ðΘmp  ΘÞdz:
2
(17b)
dz 0

The total temperature flux consists of the molecular diffusion (first term on
the left of Eq. (17a)) and the turbulent transport (second term). The physical
meaning of Eq. (17a) is that the total temperature flux (or heat flux when
multiplied by ρref c p) in a fully developed turbulent DHVC is a constant across
the channel, equal to the wall temperature (or heat) flux. This constancy of
total temperature flux is analogous to the constancy of total momentum flux
in turbulent plane Couette flow [76].
The total momentum flux also consists of two components: a viscous
transport (first term on the left of Eq. (17b)) and a turbulent transport (second
term). The physical meaning of Eq. (17b) is that the total momentum flux
equals to the wall momentum flux minus a spatial integral related to the tem-
perature deficit. The variation of total momentum flux in DHVC is distinc-
tively different from that in forced convection [3]. For example, in turbulent
plane Couette flow, the total momentum flux is a constant, equal to the wall
momentum flux [76]. In turbulent DHVC, the total momentum flux is
directly related to the buoyancy effect, which plays a fundamental role in
the shape and distribution of Reynolds shear stress, as shown in Section 7.
Next, we present the analytical solutions of laminar DHVC. The analytic
solutions themselves are trivial, but they provide a simple example to eval-
uate dimensional analysis and scaling patch approach.
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18 Tie Wei

3.2 Laminar DHVC solution

The governing equation for laminar DHVC can be obtained by setting tur-
bulence terms to zero in the mean heat Eq. (13a) and the mean momentum
Eq. (13b). Integrating along the wall-normal z direction and applying
boundary conditions produce the analytical solution for the temperature
and velocity distribution in laminar DHVC as
z
Θ ¼ Θmp ; (18a)
δ
 
gβΘmp δ2 1 z 1 z2 1 z3
U¼  + : (18b)
ν 3δ 2 δ 6 δ
The analytical solutions for the temperature and velocity distributions in
laminar DHVC are shown in Fig. 5A. The temperature Θ varies linearly
in the wall-normal direction, like a pure conduction distribution. The ver-
tical velocity exhibits a maximum value near the hotter plate, then decreases
in the core of the channel, and exhibits a minimum near the colder plate.
The vertical velocity is antisymmetric about the channel mid-plane. For
comparison, the mean velocity and mean temperature distributions in

A B

Fig. 5 Temperature and vertical velocity profiles in a DHVC. (A) Laminar case.
(B) Turbulent cases. Data are from the DNS of Kiš [31] at two Grashof numbers: Gr ¼
4.75  104 (solid curves) and Gr ¼ 4.4  105 (dashed curves).
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 19

turbulent DHVC are presented in Fig. 5B at two Grashof numbers. In tur-

bulent DHVC, the mean temperature varies sharply in the near-wall region,
and the variation of temperature in the core is much smaller. On the flow
side, the variation of the mean velocity is also much sharper in the near-wall
region, and the peak location of the maximum velocity moves closer to the
wall with increasing Grashof number.
The maximum vertical velocity location in laminar DHVC can be found
by setting the velocity gradient to zero. The maximum location and value
are found as

zU max ¼ ð1  31=2 Þδ  0:423 δ; (19a)

gβqt δ3 gβΘmp δ2
U max  0:064 ¼ 0:064 : (19b)
να ν
In buoyancy-driven convection, a commonly used velocity scale is the
so-called free-fall velocity defined as
def pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
U ff ¼ gβΘmp δ: (20)
Hence, the maximum vertical velocity in laminar DHVC is related the free-
fall velocity as
δ U ff U max δ U ff
U max  0:064 U ff , or  0:064 : (21)
ν U ff ν
Thus, the so-called “free-fall” velocity is not a proper or “natural” scale for
the vertical velocity in laminar DHVC, because Umax/Uff is not a constant,
but increases as δUff/ν. In Section 4, it is shown that this “free-fall” velocity
is not a proper scale for the vertical velocity in turbulent DHVC either.
Although free-fall velocity is easy to compute from the inputs of the
buoyancy-driven convection and is commonly used to normalize equations
or numerical simulation data, such scaled variables are not appropriate and
should be avoided in the scaling of buoyancy-driven convection.
Based on Eq. (19b), a better velocity scale for laminar DHVC is defined as

def gβqt δ3
U c,lam ¼ : (22)
να
As shown in Section 4, the wall temperature and momentum fluxes qt and qu
are critical in understanding buoyancy-driven convection. For laminar
DHVC, the wall temperature flux and the wall momentum flux can be
obtained from the analytical solutions as
20 Tie Wei

Θmp
dΘ

qt ¼ α
¼α ; (23a)
dz z¼0 δ

gβqt δ2
dU

qu ¼ ν
¼ : (23b)
dz z¼0 3α
Eq. (23a) indicates that the Nusselt number in laminar DHVC is Nu ¼ 1. In
other words, in laminar DHVC, there is bulk fluid motion in the vertical
direction, but the flow direction is along the isothermal line, perpendicular
to the temperature gradient. Thus the bulk fluid motion does not advect
heat, and the heat transport from the hot plate to the cold plate is by pure
molecular diffusion.
From Eq. (23b), the friction velocity uτ in laminar DHVC is
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
gβqt δ2
uτ ¼ : (24)
3α
The friction Reynolds number for laminar DHVC can be obtained as
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
def δu Gr
Reτ ¼ τ ¼ pffiffiffi : (25)
ν 3
The ratio between the Umax and uτ in laminar DHVC depends on the
Grashof number and the friction Reynolds number as
U max pffiffiffiffiffiffi
 0:11 Gr  0:19Reτ : (26)
uτ

4. Dimensional analysis of buoyancy-driven convection

Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool in the study of fluid dynamics
and heat transfer (see, e.g., Buckingham [43], Bridgman [77], Taylor [78],
Townsend [79], Sedov [80], Barenblatt [81]). According to Churchill [60],
the fundamental basis for dimensional analysis was established by Fourier in
1822. Rayleigh [82] demonstrated the power of dimensional analysis in a
short paper published in the Nature magazine in 1915, giving examples from
various fields. A fascinating example illustrating the power of dimensional
analysis is the prediction of the first atomic explosion yield by G. I.
Taylor [78], using a series of pictures published in a magazine.
We will first present a dimensional analysis of laminar DHVC, followed
by turbulent DHVC. In the dimensional analysis of laminar DHVC, we pre-
sent two options of selecting control parameters and discuss the common-
ality and difference.
Analyses of buoyancy-driven convection 21

Table 4 Dimensional analysis of laminar DHVC.

Option 1 Option 2
Control parameters gβ, ν, α, δ, Θmp gβ, ν, α, δ, qt, qu
Repeating variables gβ, ν, δ gβ, ν, δ
Nondim. parameters Π1 ¼ Πα ¼ αν ¼ Pr Π1 ¼ Πα ¼ αν ¼ Pr
gβΘmp δ3 gβqt δ4
Π2 ¼ ΠΘmp ¼ ν2 ¼ Gr Π2 ¼ Πqt ¼ ν3 ¼ Gr
Pr
qu δ2
Π3 ¼ Πqu ¼ ν2

Length scale lc ¼ δ Ψ(Pr, Gr) lc ¼ δ Ψ(Pr, Gr)

Velocity scale uc ¼ νδ ΨðPr, GrÞ uc ¼ νδ ΨðPr, GrÞ
Temperature scale θc ¼ ΘmpΨ(Pr, Gr) θc ¼ ΘmpΨ(Pr, Gr)
The generic nondimensional functions Ψ in the last three rows are, in general, different from each other,
and cannot be determined by the dimensional analysis itself.

4.1 Dimensional analysis of laminar DHVC

Proper selection of control parameters is of utmost importance in a suc-
cessful dimensional analysis of any flow or heat transport problem. For
laminar DHVC, two sets of control parameters can be selected for dimen-
sional analysis, as listed in Table 4. In both options, only three primary
dimensions are entailed: length, time, and temperature. However, there
are five control parameters in option 1, and six in option 2. Hence, based
on the Buckingham Pi theorem, option 1 produces two nondimensional
control parameters, and option 2 produces three.
The common control parameters in option 1 and option 2 are gβ, ν, α, δ,
which arise from the momentum and heat equation, and the domain size
(part of the boundary condition). The parameter g and β are grouped
together based on the observation of Eq. (13b): the effect of gravity on
the buoyancy force is always coupled with the thermal expansion coeffi-
cient. There is nowhere in the governing equations that g and β appear sep-
arately. Therefore, gβ should be treated as a single parameter, instead of as
two parameters as in Table 1.
The difference between option 1 and option 2 in Table 4 lies in the
parameter(s) related to heat. In option 1, Θmp is used. Note that Θmp can
be interpreted as the temperature difference between the wall and the chan-
nel mid-plane. In other words, Θmp is the difference of the first kind thermal
boundary conditions at z ¼ 0 and z ¼ δ. More importantly, Θmp in general
does not reflect any local rate of temperature change, at the wall, or near the
22 Tie Wei

channel mid-plane. In contrast, the two control parameters qt and qu in

option 2 represent the local rate of change at the wall (a second kind bound-
ary condition).
Applying the standard dimensional analysis procedure [43], the two con-
trol parameters from option 1 in Table 4 are the Prandtl number of the fluid
and the Grashof number. For example, based on the dimensional analysis
results, the maximum vertical velocity in laminar DHVC can be presented as
U max
¼ ΨðPr, GrÞ, (27)
ν=δ
where Ψ denotes a generic nondimensional function that depends on Pr and
Gr, which has to be determined from analytical solutions or experimental
and numerical data.
The three nondimensional parameters resulting from option 2 in Table 4
are Pr, Π2 ¼ gβqtδ4/ν3, and Π3 ¼ quδ2/ν2. However, in laminar DHVC, the
boundary conditions of qu and qt are not independent, but directly related to
each other as shown in Eq. (23b):

qu δ2 Pr gβqt δ4
¼ : (28)
ν2 3 ν2 α
Thus, the third nondimensional number Π3 from option 2 in Table 4 is
redundant, and both options in Table 4 produce identical nondimensional
control parameters.
An advantage of option 2 in Table 4 is that it leads directly to the def-
inition of a flux Grashof number. The flux Grashof number is defined using
the wall temperature flux qt as (e.g., Bejan [42])

def gβqt δ4
Gr ¼ ¼ Gr Nu: (29)
f
ν2 α
Similarly, a flux Rayleigh number can be defined as

def gβqt δ4
Ra f ¼ ¼ Pr Gr f : (30)
να2
Note that this flux Rayleigh number is similar to the H number defined by
George and Capp [33] for natural convection along a vertical plate under
constant heat flux. For laminar DHVC, Nu ¼ 1 and the flux Grashof num-
ber equals the traditional Grashof number Gr ¼ Grf and Ra ¼ Raf.
The flux Grashof number is related to the ratio of two length scales, as
showing in the following form
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Hard even to the roughest, but to those
Hungry for beauty.... Not the wisest knows,
Nor most pitiful-hearted, what the wending
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Weight to the grey skies, grey mud where goes
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Men broken, shrieking even to hear a gun.—
Till pain grinds down, or lethargy numbs her,
The amazed heart cries angrily out on God.

3. SERVITUDE

If it were not for England, who would bear

This heavy servitude one moment more?
To keep a brothel, sweep and wash the floor
Of filthiest hovels were noble to compare
With this brass-cleaning life. Now here, now there
Harried in foolishness, scanned curiously o’er
By fools made brazen by conceit, and store
Of antique witticisms thin and bare.

Only the love of comrades sweetens all,

Whose laughing spirit will not be outdone.
As night-watching men wait for the sun
To hearten them, so wait I on such boys
As neither brass nor Hell-fire may appal,
Nor guns, nor sergeant-major’s bluster and noise.
 4. HOME-SICKNESS

When we go wandering the wide air’s blue spaces,

Bare, unhappy, exiled souls of men;
How will our thoughts over and over again
Return to Earth’s familiar lovely places,
Where light with shadow ever interlaces—
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There we may wait while the long ages roll
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5. ENGLAND THE MOTHER

 We have done our utmost, England, terrible
And dear taskmistress, darling Mother and stern.
The unnoticed nations praise us, but we turn
Firstly, only to thee—“Have we done well?
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Thy love, thy love shall cherish, make us whole,

Whereto the power of Death’s destruction is weak.
Death impotent, by boys bemocked at, who
Will leave unblotted in the soldier-soul
Gold of the daffodil, the sunset streak,
The innocence and joy of England’s blue.

THE END

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