Ministry of Secondary Education Republic of Cameroon

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Progressive Comprehensive High School Peace – Work – Fatherland
 * *
PCHS Mankon – Bamenda SCHOOL YEAR 2013/2014
Department of Computer Studies

COMPUTER NETWORK & DATA COMMUNUCATION

Class: Upper Sixth By: DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to share
data and programs among various computers. With the advancement of data communication
facilities the communication between computers has increased and thus it has extended the
power of computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate
with computers of any remote site through communication channel. The aim of this lesson is to
introduce you the various aspects of computer network and data communication.

Learning objectives

It is expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to
- Understand basics of the various types network technologies in the area of computers,
Local Area Network (LAN) and different components of computer network
- explain the features and the use of computer network and data communication
- describe the OSI model and its 7 layers
- Give some network security problems and eventual solutions

Contents
I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS ................................................................................................. 2
II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK ............................................................................ 4
III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ............................................................................................................. 8
IV. COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK ..................................................................................... 13
V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA ................................................................................................................. 16
VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS ............................................................................................. 20
VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................................................................. 23
VIII. NETWORK ADRESSING ............................................................................................................. 25
IX. NETWORK SECURITY ................................................................................................................ 26

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I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS

I.1- Definition and Network Basics

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network is a set of

interconnected objects (roads, computers, …) with something to share. A computer network is
therefore a group of interconnected systems sharing resources and interacting using a shared
communications link. All networks must have the following:

- A resource to share (resource)

- A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
- A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

Having a transmission pathway does not always guarantee communication. When two entities
communicate, they do not merely exchange information; rather, they must understand the
information they receive from each other. The goal of computer networking, therefore, is not
simply to exchange data but to understand and use data received from other entities on the
network.

I.2- BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

One of the main reasons to build computer network is to share things. Specifically, networks are
about sharing three things: information, resources, and applications.

 Sharing information: networks allow users to communicate with each other in various
ways: email, chat, forums, etc.
 Sharing resources: Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be
set up so that network users can share them. Sharing hard drives involves also sharing of
files and folders. A network can be used to share an Internet connection.
 Sharing applications: One of the most common reasons for networking in many
businesses is so that several users can work together on a single business application. For
example, an accounting department

Apart from sharing, other benefits of a computer network are:

 Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout
the network.
 Reducing of cost: Instead of buying a printer for each computer of a big network, a
single printer can be shared, and then cost is considerably reduced

I.3- DOWNSIDES (SHORTCOMMINGS) OF NETWORKING

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Although networks are one of the best things that ever happened to computers, not everything
about networks is rosy. The following sections describe some disadvantages of using a network:

 Viruses: If a virus is introduced to the network, either intentionally or unintentionally,

it will rapidly spread around all of the workstations and could start to cause havoc to
peoples' files or to the efficient working of the network.
 Network failure: If the file server fails then no-one on the network can access any files
or folders. This means that nobody can do any work. For an organization, this would be
extremely costly and disruptive.
 Slow service: As more users log onto the network and request files, send things to be
printed and open more software applications, the network can start to slow down.
 Cost: Building a network isn't cheap.

I.4- Networking hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. Some examples of
networking hardware are: File Servers, Workstations, Network Interface Cards, Hubs, Switches,
Repeaters, Bridges, and Routers:

 Workstations: Each user computers connected to a network is called workstations. A

typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card,
networking software, and the appropriate cables.
 Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is an internal device that provides the physical
connection between the network and the computer workstation.
 Hub: In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or
connections to be connected to a computer. It is the most basic networking device that
connects multiple computers or other network devices together.
 Switch: It is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through the network,
but often not capable of much more. The first network device that was added to the
Internet was a switch called the IMP. Switches (or concentrators) work the same way as
hubs, but they can identify the intended destination of the information that they receive,
so they send that information to only the computers that are supposed to receive it.
 Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary
to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies
the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
 Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks. The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum
performance on both sides of the network. Bridges can be used to connect different types
of cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with
the same protocol.

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 Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks,
creating an overlay internetwork. A router has a lot more capabilities than other network
devices such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions.
 Gateway: A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On
the Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point)
node. When a computer server serves as a Gateway node, the gateway node also operates
as a firewall and a proxy server.
 Firewall: A software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to a
computer or local network by blocking or restricting ports. Firewalls are a great step for
helping prevent un-authorized access to a company or home network.
 Modem: The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive
information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your computer
into an analog signal used on phone lines and then converting it back once received on
the other end.
 Proxy: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of the gateway
server or another computer that separates a local network from outside networks. A
proxy server will cache all pages accessed through the network allowing users who may
wish to visit that same page to load it faster and reduce the networks bandwidth.
Programs and devices that connect to the Internet may ask for a proxy, proxy address, or
proxy server.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks can be classify in different ways: according to the geographical area
covered, the strategy used or type of connection

II.1 ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF CONNECTION

According to the type of connection, there exist two types of connections. Wired connection and
wireless connection

II.1.1 Wired connection

A wired home network is when you physically connect your computer or other compatible
device to your Super Hub with an Ethernet cable. The best thing about a wired connection is the
reliability and speed it gives you (wired is faster than wireless). This makes it ideal for things
that use a lot of bandwidth, like playing online games on your Xbox.

Advantages and disadvantages of wired network

Here are the advantages and the disadvantages of a computer network.

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Pros Cons

 Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are very  Need to run cables in difficult
inexpensive. environments through walls,
 Some connection sharing software packages, floors and ceilings.
like ICS, are free.
 Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are  Cables need to be run from
extremely reliable. computer to computer and switch
 Wired LANs offer superior performance. to switch. Process can be time
 Broadband routers offer equivalent firewall consuming.
capability built into the device, configurable
through its own software.  Loose cables likely remain the
 Wired connections can reach networking single most common and
speeds of up to 1000 Mbps with Gigabit annoying source of failure in a
Ethernet networking equipment, necessary for wired network.
bandwidth hungry.

II.1.2 Wireless connection

A wireless network, as its name would suggest, is a network of computers and computer
peripherals that are connected to each other without wires.

Advantages

 It is easier to add or move workstations.

 It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable.
 Installation is fast and easy, and it can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls
and ceilings.
 Access to the network can be from anywhere within range of an access point.
 Portable or semi-permanent buildings can be connected using a WLAN.
 Although the initial investment required for WLAN hardware can be similar to the
cost of wired LAN hardware, installation expenses can be significantly lower.

Disadvantages

 As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to
each computer will decrease accordingly.
 As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access
points.
 Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
 Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point.

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II.2 ACCORDING TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED

According to the geographical area covered, there exist three main types of network: LAN,
MAN and WAN

II.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area such as an office, home
or building. A like is useful to share resources like files, printers, games and other application.
The infrastructure in a LAN is private. The distance between computer in a LAN cannot be more
than 15 Km. Ex: A school network

II.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network of computers spread over a city or closed cities. It may be a single network
such as a cable television network, or it may be many LANS connected together. A MAN may
be operated by one organization (a cooperate with several offices in one city) or be shared and
used by several organizations in the same city. It can be either a private network or a public
network

Ex: A network of all the agencies of CAMCCUL in Bamenda

II.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a system of interconnecting many computer over a large geographical area such as
states, countries or even the whole world.These kind of networks use telephone lines, satellite
link and other long-range communication technologies to connect. Such networks are design to
serve an area of hundreds kilometres such as national telephone network. For instance a
company like Express Union with agencies at Fundong, Bamenda, Douala, Bafoussam, Yaoundé
use a WAN to connect all its agencies. Although a WAN may be owned or rented by private
business, it is usually a public network, designed to connect LANs or MANs together. The most
known and the most largest WAN is Internet.

II.2.4- Other types of network

 VPN (Virtual Private Network). VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer
data securely on the Internet to a remote access server on your workplace network. Using
a VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet instead of making long–
distance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two ways
to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting
directly to Internet.
 A valued-added network (VAN) is a private network, provided by a third party, for
exchanging information through a high-capacity connection.

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II.3 ACCORDING TO THE STRATEGY USED

According to the strategy used there exist two main types of network: Client/Server network and
Peer to Peer (P2P) network:

II.3.1 Client/server networks

Computers that perform a service on behalf of other network devices are called servers. There
are several types of servers. For example, a computer that provides other network nodes with
access to network storage devices is called a file server. Print servers provide other network
nodes with access to network printers.

Computers that use the services of a server are called clients. Networks in which servers control
access to network storage and other network resources are called client/server networks.

In a Client/server network, the role of the server is to provide services demanded by client
computers

II.3.2 Peer-to-peer networks

Computers that perform similar functions on a network are called peers. Networks in which no
single, centralized computer controls network functions are called peer-to-peer networks.

The idea of peer-to-peer networking is that each computer on the network can be both a server
and a client. Since any computer on the network can share a resource for other to use. Users can
configure their computers so that they can share directories or printers with other users on the
network. All computers are considered to have equal, or peer, status.

II.3.3 Comparison between Peer to Peer network and Client/Server network

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

Client/Server · Heavy processing power can be localized when · Administrative tasks not
needed. entirely centralized.
· Overall installation costs are less than a · Expensive to add nodes.
hierarchical network.
· Servers provide clients with access to shared
printers, network storage (including shared
applications), network security features, and
other network resources.
P2P · Relatively inexpensive to implement, can often · Decentralized
be implemented on existing equipment. administration.
· Potentially, all resources can be made available · Security can be difficult to
over a network. control
· Processing power can be localized to the point
of need.

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III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes,
etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology
means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation.
Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical
design. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape does
not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The
computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it
represents a ring topology.

In general, physical topology relates to a core network whereas logical topology relates to basic
network.

The main types of physical topologies are: Bus Topology, Star Topology, Ring Topology, Mesh
Topology, Tree Topology, Hybrid Topology

III.1 Physical Topology

It is the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are
connected. Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.

III.1.1- Bus Topology

Bus Topology is the simplest of network
topologies. In this type of topology, all the
nodes (computers as well as servers) are
connected to the single cable (called bus), by
the help of interface connectors. This central
cable is the backbone of the network and is
known as Bus (thus the name). Every
workstation communicates with the other device
through this Bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations
connected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient,
whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. A terminator is added at ends of the
central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.

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4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e.
bus) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
4) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
5) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
6) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
7) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

III.2- Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in
such a way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is
connected to two other components on either side, and it
communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels
around the network, in one direction. Sending and receiving of
data takes place by the help of TOKEN. Token contains a piece
of information which along with data is sent by the source
computer.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
5) Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.

III.3- Star Topology

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In Star topology, all the components of network are

connected to the central device which may be a hub, a
router or a switch. Here all the workstations are
connected to central device with a point-to-point
connection. So it can be said that every computer is
indirectly connected to every other node by the help of
the central device. All the data on the star topology
passes through the central device before reaching the
intended destination. This later acts as a junction to connect different nodes present in Star
Network, and at the same time it manages and controls whole of the network.

Advantages of Star Topology

1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t necessarily
get transmitted to all the workstations. Performance of the network is dependent on the capacity
of central hub.
2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily
without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time its easy to
detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1) Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
2) The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is depended
on capacity of central device.

III.4- Tree Topology

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus
Topology. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are
connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of
a tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called
Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used
in this type of topology. The diagram below will make it clear.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

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2. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily
managed and maintained.
3. Error detection and correction is easy.
4. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
5. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks
whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

III.5- Mesh topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer
and other devices, are interconnected with one another. Every node
not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes.
In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is
connected to every other node in the network.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.

This topology can withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network
is tough.

III.6 Hybrid topology

Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two or
more than two different things. Similarly in this type of
topology we integrate two or more different topologies
to form a resultant topology which has good points(as
well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic

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topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1) Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology.
2) Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization
and by optimizing the available resources.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs
are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot
of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

III.2 Logical topology

The logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies.
Logical topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the
network. Different network access existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing

a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to manage media access, as defined in the IEEE 802.3 specification.
Devices that have data to transmit listen for an opening on the line before transmitting (Carrier
Sense) and when a device detects an opening, it transmits its data. However, several devices may
simultaneously sense that the line is clear and they may all transmit at the same time. If this
happens, the data packets collide and the data is lost. This is called a collision.

Using the CSMA/CD protocol, the devices will each detect that a collision has occurred
(collision detection) and each of them will wait a random amount of time before retransmitting.
The likelihood of two or more devices randomly selecting the same delay is almost zero, so
retransmission is likely to be successful.

b) CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a media access protocol that
is related to CSMA/CD and is also used on multiple access networks. With CSMA/CA, a device
listens for an opportunity to transmit its data in a similar fashion to CSMA/CD. However, when a
device senses an opening, it does not immediately transmit data. It first transmits a signal
notifying other devices that it is transmitting before actually sending the data. This means data
packets will never collide, although warning packets might. Unfortunately, CSMA/CA creates a
significant overhead as it adds unnecessary traffic to the network, slowing everything down.

CSMA/CA was commonly used by older AppleTalk networks, but nowadays most Apple
systems can use Ethernet hardware and use of CSMA/CA has declined. The preferred method of
dealing with collisions is the CSMA/CD as employed in Ethernet networking technologies.

One area where CSMA/CA continues to be used is in wireless networks.

c) Token Passing

In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the
network increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a
host want to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is
circling the network in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait
for the token. When the token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token
from the network, fill it with data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the
network.

IV. COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK

IV.1 What is data communication?

A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that
facilitates intersystem exchange of information between different devices. When we
communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local (face-to-face
communication) or it may be remote (communication over distance).

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or
wireless transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the
preservation of data during the transfer process. To initiate data communication, the
communicating devices should be a part of an existing communication system.

IV.2 Characteristics of data communication

For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should
be considered:

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 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the intended destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

IV.2- Data Communication Components

There are five basic components in a data communication system

 Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.

 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
 Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message
from the sender to the receiver.
 Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information.
Both the sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.

IV.3- Data Transmission Mode

Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There
are three types of transmission modes—simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

1) Simplex: Simplex transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one

direction across the circuit, with no capability to support response in the other
direction.
2) Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and
transmit information, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other
can only receive at that point of time.
3) Full-duplex: allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with traffic
flowing in both directions.

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IV.4- Data Communication Measurement

The measurement of the quantity of data that can be passed over a communication link in a given
time is done in terms of bandwidth. Fundamentally, bandwidth refers to the maximum volume
of data that can be transferred over any communication medium at a given point of time. The
more the data needed to transmit in a given period, the more is the bandwidth required. On
digital circuits, bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps), which refers to the number of
bits transmitted per second; 1000 bps is 1 kilobit per second (Kbps). In the digital context, the
level of bandwidth falls into three categories.

 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less.

There can be a number of 64 Kbps channels (N × 64 Kbps), but total capacity is not more
than 1.544 Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth lies between 1.544 Mbps (also called T1 line)
and 45 Mbps (T3 line).
 Broadband: In broadband, the bandwidth capacity is equal to 45 Mbps. Broadcast
television, cable television, microwave and satellite are examples of broadband
technologies.

IV.5 Analog and Digital Data Transmission

The major role of the physical medium is to move the data from one communicating device to
another. Depending on the form of signal used, data transmission can be analog data
transmission or digital data transmission.

 Analog Signals: An analog signal is a

continuous waveform that changes
smoothly over time. Analog signals are
perfect for carrying data such as voice
or sound. However, these signals are
prone to errors or noise that can be
caused by the outside sources.
Attenuation is another problem with analog signals because the amplitude of the wave
naturally changes over distance.
 Digital Signals: Digital signal is the data stored
in the form of 0s and 1s. When the signal is at a
high point, its value is 1 and when it is low, its

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value is 0. A signal in digital format has precise voltages that are not affected by noise or
attenuation as compared to analog signals, which are highly prone to noise. Digital
signals can be represented by a graph similar to a bar graph.

IV.6 Serial and Parallel Communication

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent
with each clock tick.

IV.7 Data Transmission Method

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous.

 With synchronous transmission Data transfer method in which a continuous stream of

data signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to
ensure that the transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.
The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.
 supports high data transfer rate
 needs clock signal between the sender and the receiver
 requires master/slave configuration
 In contrast, asynchronous transmission works in spurts and must insert a start bit before
each data character and a stop bit at its termination to inform the receiver where it begins
and ends.
o does not need clock signal between the sender and the receiver
o slower data transfer rate

V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA

A transmission medium (plural transmission media) refers to the physical media through which
communication signals (data and information) can be transmitted from one point to another.
media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications:

- Guided Media (or Bounded Media, or Wired Media)

- Unguided Media (or unbounded Media, or Wireless Media)

V.1- Guided Media

Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called guided media. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed,
good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance

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communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These
are: coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and Fiber optic cables

a) Twisted-Pair Wiring

Twisted-pair wiring refers to a type of cable composed of four (or more) copper wires twisted
around each other within a plastic sheath. The wires are twisted to reduce outside electrical
interference. The RJ-45 connectors on twisted-pair cables resemble large telephone connectors.
Twisted-pair cables come in two varieties: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) and unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP).

→ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) UTP cable is the most common type of
telecommunication medium in use today and is generally the best option for school
networks. It is most suited for both data and voice transmission and hence is commonly
used in telephone systems. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair
is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from
adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. UTP cost less than STP and easily available.
There are five levels of data cabling
- Cat 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
- Cat 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
- Cat 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
- Cat 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
- Cat 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
→ A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.
b) Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables have a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper).
This conductor is surrounded by an insulator over which a sleeve of metal mesh is woven to
block any outside interference. This metal mesh is again shielded by an outer covering of a thick
material (usually PVC) known as jacket. Coaxial cable is very robust and is commonly used in
Cable TV network. As compared to twisted pairs, it also offers higher bandwidth. A coaxial
cable is capable of transmitting data at a rate of 10 Mbps.

c) Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber optic (or optical fiber) refers to the technology associated with the transmission of
information as light impulses along a glass wire or fiber. Optical fiber cable can transmit data
over long distances with little loss in data integrity. In addition, because data are transferred as a
pulse of light, optical fiber is not subject to interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to

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transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the
capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of
fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and
modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig 4: bounded media

V.2- Unbounded Transmission Media

Unguided media facilitate data transmission through the Earth's atmosphere (air, water or
vacuum) at a much faster rate and provide wide area coverage. The data signals are not guided or
bound to a fixed channel to follow. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission
include radio frequency (RF) propagation, microwave transmission, satellite transmission,
infrared wave transmission, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

a) Radio Frequency Propagation

In radio frequency propagation, the signal is carried over carrier

waves (waves, which carry signals over them), which have
frequencies in the range of radio frequency spectrum. There are
three types of radio frequency propagation—ground wave,
ionospheric and line of sight.

b) Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission use microwave signals that travel at

a higher frequency and are popularly used for transmitting
data over long distances. Microwave communication uses
parabolic antennas (satellite TV dish antennas) that are
mounted on the tower, which could be tens of kilometers

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away, but in line of sight. Due to long distances, repeaters are used at regular intervals in
between the transmitter and the receiver to boost the signals

c) Infrared Wave Transmission

Infrared frequencies are just below the visible light spectrum. These are the
high-frequency waves used for short-range communication. The waves are
cheap, directional and can be easily built; however, the waves do not pass
through solid objects. Infrared waves are used in TV remotes, garage doors
and wireless speakers. Computer machines in an office can easily be
connected to a wireless LAN using infrared waves

d) Satellite Transmission

Satellite transmission is similar to microwave

transmission except instead of transmission involving
another nearby microwave dish antenna, it involves a
satellite many miles up in space. The communication
is carried through uplinks and downlinks. The uplink
transmits the data to the satellite and downlink
receives the data from the satellite. Uplinks and
downlinks are also called earth stations because they
are located on the Earth.

e) Bluetooth transmission

The Bluetooth technology is used to create a personal area

network (PAN) or piconet that lets electronic devices such as
computers, cell phones, PDAs and wireless keyboards to
communicate with each other within the range of 10 m. It uses
radio signals that are omnidirectional, that is, signals travel in
all directions from the source. Hence, the communicating
devices need not be aligned with each other.

f) Wi-Fi transmission

The term Wi-Fi, which stands for Wireless Fidelity is widely used for creating wireless LANs
and also for providing wireless Internet access. To create wireless LAN, the devices in the
network such as computer, laptop and PDA should be equipped with wireless network
interfacecard (NIC) to send and receive Wi-Fi signals. A WI-Fi-enabled device should be within
a specific range (i.e. up to 50 m) from the network to connect.

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Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Transfer rate

Error Rate
Twisted-pair (LAN) 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
Coaxial cable (LAN) 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9) 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
Microwave (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 6 Mbps – 54 Mbps
Satellite (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Fiber (WAN) 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Table 2: Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. If one
computer is sending information to another and they both follow the same protocol, the message
gets through; regardless of what types of machines they are and on what operating systems they
are running. As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol,
communication is possible.

VI.1 Network protocol

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented.
 Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.
 Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent.

Some important protocols are:

Protocol Full meaning Its job

FTP File Transfer Protocol Allows file transfer between two computers
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol used in the web service
Protocol
TCP Transmission Control A reliable connection oriented protocol used to control
Protocol the management of application level services between
computers.
IP Internet Protocol identifier of each computer or communication devices
on the network and internet.
ARP Address resolution enables the packaging of IP data into ethernet package
protocol
ICMP Internet control message provides management and error reporting to help

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protocol manage the process of sending data between

computers.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
Protocol
POP post office protocol Transfert of e-mail, used to synchronize messages
Telnet Telephone Network A method of opening a user session on a remote host.
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol Data transfer using modem
UDP User Datagram Protocol An unreliable connection less protocol used to control
the management of application level services between
computers.
DHCP Dynamic host is a method of assigning and controlling the IP
configuration protocol addresses of computers on a given network

VI.2 The OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication
between two end users in a network. In 1983, the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) published a document called 'The Basic Reference Model for Open
Systems Interconnection', which visualizes network protocols as a seven separate but related
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

 Upper Layers: The upper layers of the OSI model

consist of the application, presentation and session
layers. Primarily, these layers deal with application
issues and are implemented only in the software.
 Lower Layers: The lower layers of the OSI model
comprise the transport, network, data link, and physical
layers. These layers handle the data transport issues. The
physical layer and data link layer are implemented in
both hardware and software. The network and transport
are generally implemented only in software.

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal --
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the
Physical hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining
(Layer 1) cables, cards and physical aspects
Protocols: Fast Ethernet, ATM Data Unit: Bit
Device: Hubs, Repeaters, Cables and Connectors

Data Link Physical addressing, Provides low-level error detection and correction. For
(Layer 2) example if a packet is corrupted this layer is responsible for retransmitting the

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packet.
Protocols: PPP, FDDI, Token ring, Ethernet, SLIP
Device: NIC, Token Ring switches, Bridges
Data Unit: Frame

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths,
known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and
Network forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking,
(Layer 3) error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
Protocols: IPv4, IPV6, IPX, OSPF, NWlink, NetBEUI, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Data Unit: Packet, Datagram

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts,
and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures
Transport
complete data transfer.
(Layer 4)
Protocols: TCP, SPX and UDP
Device: Router, gateway Data Unit: Segments

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.

The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges,
Session
and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and
(Layer 5)
connection coordination.
Protocols: NetBIOS Device: gateway Data Unit: data

The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application
layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network,
Presentation
providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax
(Layer 6)
layer.
Protocol: SSL, WEP, WPA, Kerberos Device: Gateway

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners

are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are
considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this
Application layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file
(Layer 7) transfers, e-mail, and other network software services.
Protocol: DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP4, NNTP, POP3, SMTP, SNMP,
SSH, TELNET and NTP
Device: PC Data Unit: Data

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VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES

Each computer in a LAN can effectively send and receive any information addressed to it. This
information is in the form of data 'packets'. The standards followed to regularize the
transmission of packets, are called LAN standards. There are many LAN standards as Ethernet,
Token Ring , FDDI etc. Usually LAN standards differ due to their media access technology and
the physical transmission medium.

VII.1- Ethernet Media Standards

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineer) 802 Standards comprises a family of
networking standards that cover the physical layer specifications of technologies. Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are the LAN technologies most commonly used today. They are
identified by three-part names, which is also known as Media Standard. An example of Media
Standard is 10BASE-T.
 The first part of the Media Standard specifies the transmission speed (10, in this
case specifies 10 Mbps)
 The second part of the name "BASE" specifies that the Ethernet signal is a
Baseband signal.
 The final part of the Ethernet Media Standard specifies the kind of cable used. Here
T specifies twisted-pair cable. The following table shows the common Ethernet
Media Standards.
Name Cable Type Connector Maximum Length Speed
10Base-T Category 3 or better RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 10 mbps
UTP cable
10Base-FL Fiber optic cable ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 10 mbps
100Base-TX Cat 5 twisted pair RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 100 mbps
100Base-FX Fiber Optic ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 100 mbps
1000Base-T CAT5e or higher RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 1 gbps

Note: X represents a higher grade of connection, and 100BaseTX is twisted-pair cabling that can
use either UTP or STP at 100 Mbps. With fibre-optic cable such as 100BaseFX, the speed is
quicker than standard 10BaseF. The ―L‖ stands for ―Long‖ in long wave length lasers and "S"
stands for Short Wave Length.

VII.3- LAN protocols

a) Ethernet / fast Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses called CSMA/CD method.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over
wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to

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1000 Mbps. To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed
a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet.
Advantages of Ethernet are
• Low cost components
• Easy to install
• Easy to troubleshoot

b) Local Talk
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is CSMA/CA. The Local Talk protocol allows for
linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local
Talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

c) Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair
or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the
increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

d) FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that
is used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks,
often over large distances. The access method used by FDDI
involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology.
Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a
break occurs, the system keeps information moving by
automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new
complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over
fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

e) ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155
Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas,
other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video,
CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber optic
as well as twisted pair cable.

Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method

Twisted Pair, Linear Bus, Star,
Ethernet 10 Mbps CSMA/CD
Coaxial, Fiber Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star CSMA/CD

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LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star CSMA/CA

Token Ring Twisted Pair 4 Mbps - 16 Mbps Star-Wired Ring Token passing
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring Token passing
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps Bus, Star, Tree
Table Compare the Network Protocols

VIII. NETWORK ADRESSING

XI.1- What is an IP address?

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP

network. An IP address version 4 (IPv4) is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4
decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by
decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140.179.220.200 becomes
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node.
The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network
address and which part belongs to the node address.

XI.2- Address Classes

The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate networks of
varying sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses assigned to hosts. The
class of address defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used for the
host ID. It also defines the possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.

Class 1st Octet 1st Octet Network/Host Default Subnet Number of Hosts per Network
Decimal High ID Mask Networks (Usable Addresses)
Range Order (N=Network,
Bits H=Host)
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2) 16,777,214 (224 – 2)
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 (214 – 65,534 (216 – 2)
2)
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 (221 254 (28 – 2)
– 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Note:

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→ Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for

loopback and diagnostic functions.
→ Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses. The four high-order bits in a
class D address are always set to binary 1110. The remaining bits are for the address that
interested hosts recognize.
→ Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use. The high-order bits in a
class E address are set to 1111.
→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 1. All 1's in the network ID are reserved for
use as an IP broadcast address.
→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 0. All 0's in the network ID are used to
denote a specific host on the local network and are not routed.

Private IP Addresses

There are addresses used in the private networks

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range

A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

IX. NETWORK SECURITY

Network security deals with the security of information during its transmission from user on one
computer network to another.

IX.1 Network Security Problems

Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy,
authentication, nonrepudiation and integrity control.

1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of the
hands of unauthorized users.

2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing sensitive
information or entering into a business deal.

3. Nonrepudiation: This deals with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Kartik indeed
placed an order for a book, which Kartik claims he never placed?

4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent,
and not something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

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IX.2 Types of attacks over a network

We will also classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive attacks and active
attacks.

a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,
transmissions. The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted.
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect since they do not involve the alteration of the
data. Two types of passive attacks are:
 release of message contents where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is
being transmitted. This can be prevented by encryption
 traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of
messages being exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the
communication that is taking place.
b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation
of a false stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would
require physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times. Instead,
the goal is to detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.

IX.3 Data compression and data encryption

In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to compress it in other to reduce
space for storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the process of
converting data from a large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm.
The data can be expanded back to its original state, usually by means of decompression
algorithm. The procedure for compressing data are known as data compression techniques or
coding schemes. Some popular examples of data compression techniques include:

a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is
used for storing and transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer
network such as Internet
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for
storing and transferring colour photograph and high quality images in relatively small
files over computer network such as Internet
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for
storing and transferring digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files
over computer network
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a
data file are converted to a binary code, where the most common characters in the file
have the shortest binary code, and the least common have the longest.

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e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing,

long, repetitive character strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a
monochrome image file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio
of a compressed file to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data
compression: lossless compression and lossy compression.

- Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be
restores exactly.(ex: zip)
- Lossy compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be
restored exactly due to loss of some of its elements (ex: mp3)

Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform
plaintext into cyphertext, a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of an
encrypted message uses a key which triggers the algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data,
transforming it to the original plaintext version.

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