COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

AND ARCHITECTURE
 Just as buildings, each computer has a visible
structure, referred to as its architecture.
 In computer science and engineering computer
architecture is the practical art of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and
cost goals and the formal modeling of those
systems.
 The functional blocks in a computer are of four
types:
1. Central Processing Unit
2. Memory
3. Input Unit
4. Output Unit
DATA FLOW BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY AND
I/O DEVICES
Data Path
Control Signals
Auxiliary Storage
(Backing Storage)
To Supplement main storage

Memory
Output
Input
Unit
Unit

Control Unit ALU

Registers

Processor
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply
processor) is referred as the brain of a computer
system.
 CPU consists of three main subsystems, the
Control Unit (CU), the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), and the Registers.
 Speed of the computer system is defined by the
architecture of the processor being used.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
(CONDT…)
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
 The ALU contains electronic circuits necessary to
perform arithmetic and logical operations.
 The arithmetic operations are ADD, SUBTRACT,
MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, etc.
 The logical operations include COMPARE,
SHIFT, ROTATE, AND, OR, etc
 The control unit analyses each instruction in the
program and sends the relevant signals to all
other units – ALU, Memory, Input unit and
Output unit
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A COMPUTER..
 A computer program consists of both instructions
and data. The program is fed into the computer
through the input unit and stored in the memory.
 In order to execute the program, the instructions
have to be fetched from memory one by one.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the
control unit.
 After an instruction is fetched, the control unit
decodes the instruction.
 According to the instruction, the control unit
issues control signals to other units.
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A COMPUTER..
o After an instruction is executed, the result of the
instruction is stored in memory or stored
temporarily in the control unit or ALU, so that
this can be used by the next instruction.
o The results of a program are taken out of the
computer through the output unit.
o The control unit, ALU and registers are
collectively known as Central Processing Unit
(CPU)
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A COMPUTER
INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS
 A computer program consists of both instructions
and data.
 The program is fed into the computer through the
input unit and stored in the memory.
 In order to execute the program, the instructions
have to be fetched from memory one by one and
store it into registers (working memory) for
processing.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the
control unit.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
 Instruction are fetched and executed by the
control unit one by one. The sequences involved
for the fetch of one instruction and its execution
are known as instruction cycle.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
IAC
 Infrastructure as Code
 the process of managing and provisioning
computer data centers through machine-readable
definition files, rather than physical hardware
configuration or interactive configuration tools.
MAR
 memory address register (MAR )
 the CPU register that either stores the memory
address from which data will be fetched to the
CPU registers, or the address to which data will
be sent and stored via system bus.
OPCODE
 Operational Code
also known as
 instruction machine code
 instruction code
 instruction syllable
 instruction parcel or
 Opstring
 the first byte of an instruction in machine language which tells the
hardware what operation needs to be performed with this instruction.
Every processor/controller has its own set of opcodes defined in its
architecture.
 is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the
operation to be performed.
 most instructions also specify the data they will process, in the
form of operands. In addition to opcodes used in the instruction
set architectures of various CPUs, which are hardware devices,
they can also be used in abstract computing machines as part of
their byte code specifications.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE STEPS
INTERCONNECTIONS OF UNITS..
 Set of wires used for interconnection is known as
system bus which carry group of bits
(information) in a controlled manner.
 It is further divided into three logical units,
namely the address bus, the data bus, and the
control bus.
SYSTEM BUSES TYPES
 Data Bus: The data bus is used when any unit is
sending data, instruction or command code to
some other units.
 Address Bus: The address bus is used when one
unit is sending an address information i.e.
location of the data residing in the memory to
another unit.
 CONTROL BUS
 Control Bus: The control bus is responsible for
making CPU, memory and I/O devices work
together as a functional system, carrying signals
that report the status (ready, not ready) of
various units.
 The function of a control bus is to determine and
instruct according to the operation type (Read or
Write). For example, if the processor or an I/O
device wants to read or write a value from
memory, the control bus will specify it.
PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
 The bus is common to all the units in the
computer. Before sending some information on
the bus, an unit should verify whether the bus is
free or occupied with some communication
started by some other unit.
 CPU is the bus master in a computer which
decides who should control the bus when more
than one unit wants the bus at the same time.
 A unit who needs the bus makes a request to the
CPU and waits sanction. Till the CPU issues
sanction, the requesting unit does not attempt to
use the bus.
 INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS UNITS
VIA SYSTEM BUS

Input and
Memory
CPU Output(I/O)
Unit
Units

Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus

System
Bus
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS UNITS
VIA BUS

 Shows how the system

bus interconnects the
processor, memory
and I/O devices.
 Both processor and
memory units hold a
bi-directional
relationship with the
control and data bus.
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS UNITS
VIA BUS

 In the case of an address

bus, the communication
with the processor and
memory is
unidirectional.
 The processor provides
location of data (stored
in the register) to be
fetched from the memory
to the address bus and
the data carries the
required data to the
processor.
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTER UNITS
VIA BUS

 I/O devices have a bi-

directional
relationship with the
system bus.
REGISTERS
 It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU.
 Registers quickly accept, store and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately.
 To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU
retrieves it from main memory and places it onto a register.
 The typical operations that take place in the processing of
instruction are part of the instruction cycle or execution
cycle.
 The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the
instruction from main memory and its sub sequence at
decoding.
 The time it takes to go through the instruction cycle is
referred to as I-time.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical
functions.
 It performs arithmetic as well as logical
functions.
 The speed of the computer system is defined by
the architecture of the processor being used.
CONTROL UNIT
 It is responsible for directing and coordinating
most of the computer system activities.
 It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells
other parts of the computer system what to do.
 It determines the movement of electronic signals
between the main memory and arithmetic logic
unit as well as the control signals between the
CPU and input/output devices.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 To complete an event i.e. processing, control unit
repeats a set of four basic operations:
 Fetching is the process of obtaining a program
instruction or data item from the memory
 Decoding is the process of translating the
instruction into commands the computer can
execute.
 Executing is the process of carrying out the
commands.
 Storing is the process of writing the result to
memory.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 The internal communication inside a computer that
transforms raw data into useful information is called
processing.
 To perform this transformation, the computer uses
two components- processor and memory
 The program is fed into the computer through the
input unit and stored in the memory
 To execute the program, the instructions have to be
fetched from memory one by one which is done by
control unit
 Then the control unit decodes the instruction.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 According to instruction, control unit issues
signals to other units.
 After instruction is executed, the result of the
instruction is stored in memory or stored
temporarily in the registry, so that this can be
used by the next instruction.
 The results of a program are taken out of the
computer through the output unit.
MEMORY
 Memory is the computer's electronic scratchpad
or local store in computer terminology.
 Used for temporary storage of calculations, data,
and other work in progress.
 Two types: Primary and Secondary

 Primary memory or the main memory is part of

the main computer system. The primary memory
itself is of two types.
 The first is called random access memory (RAM)
and the other is read only memory (ROM).
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
 The processor directly stores and retrieves
information from it.
 Memory is organized into locations. Each
memory location is identified by a unique
address. The access time is same for all location.
 It is volatile: when turned off, everything in RAM
disappears.
TYPES OF RAM
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):
This type RAM retain the content of any
location only for a few milliseconds. Within that
period, each location must be written again with
the same contents. This is known as refreshing.

 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

This type of RAM preserves the contents of all
the locations as long as the power supply is
present. SRAM is generally included in a
computer system by the name of cache.
RAM

 RAM is located close to a computer's processor and

enables faster access to data than storage media such
as hard disk drives and solid-state drives.
HOW DOES DRAM WORK?
 Memory is made of bits of data or program code that
are arranged in a two-dimensional grid. DRAM will
store bits of data in what's called a storage, or
memory cell, consisting of a capacitor and
a transistor. The storage cells are typically organized
in a rectangular configuration. When a charge is sent
through a column, the transistor at the column is
activated. A DRAM storage cell is dynamic, meaning
that it needs to be refreshed or given a new electronic
charge every few milliseconds to compensate for
charge leaks from the capacitor.
 The memory cells will work with other circuits that
can be used to identify rows and columns, track the
refresh process, instruct a cell whether or not to
accept a charge and read or restore data from a cell.
TYPES OF DRAM
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) syncs memory speeds
with CPU clock speeds, letting the memory controller
know the CPU clock cycle. This allows the CPU to
perform more instructions at a time.
 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) was more widely used in
the early 2000s for graphics cards.
 Extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM) improves the
time to read from memory on microprocessors, such
as the Intel Pentium.
TYPES OF DRAM
 Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) almost
doubles the bandwidth in data rate of SDRAM by
using double pinning. This process allows for data to
transfer on rising and falling edges of a clock signal.
It has been available in different iterations over time,
including DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM and DDR4
SDRAM.
 Fast Page Mode DRAM (FPM DRAM) gives higher
performance than other DRAM types through
focusing on fast page access.
TYPES OF DRAM PACKAGES
 There are two main types of DRAM packaging: single
inline memory module (SIMM) and dual inline
memory module (DIMM). Single inline memory
module packaging is considered obsolete now and
was used in the 1980s to 1990s. SIMMs came in 30
and 72 pin sets and typically had 32 bit data transfer
rates.
TYPES OF DRAM PACKAGES
 DIMMs, on the other hand, are commonly used now
and are dual inline -- meaning that they have pins on
both sides of the chip. DIMMS commonly have 168
pin connectors -- or more -- and support a 64 bit data
transfer rate.
 DRAM package types for DIMMs are set as different
integrated circuit architectures. Some of these include
the following:
 Unbuffered DIMMs (UDIMMs) are commonly used on
desktops and laptops. These cost less and run faster,
but are less stable.
 Registered DIMMs (RDIMMs) are commonly used with
servers. These are more stable and reduce strain on a
CPUs memory controller.
 Fully buffered DIMMs (FB-DIMMs) are used in larger
memory systems. These are more reliable since they
can improve error detection methods and maintain
signal integrity.
THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF DRAM INCLUDE
THE FOLLOWING:

 Its design is simple, only requiring one

transistor.
 The cost is low in comparison to
alternative types of memory such as
SRAM.
 It provides higher density levels.

 More data can be stored using DRAM.

 Memory can be refreshed and deleted

while a program is running.
THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF DRAM
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

Memory is Volatile.
Power consumption is high
relative to other options.
Manufacturing is complex.
Data in storage cells needs to be
refreshed.
It is slower than SRAM.
 DRAM VS. SRAM
 DRAM is a successor to SRAM. Memory designers
reduced the number of elements per bit and eliminated
differential bit lines to save chip area in order to create
DRAM. As a result, DRAM is less expensive to produce
than SRAM.
 But SRAM retains some advantages over DRAM.
SRAM does not need to be refreshed because it
operates on the principle of switching the current flow
in one of two directions rather than holding a charge in
place within a storage cell. SRAM is generally used
for cache memory, which can be accessed more quickly
than DRAM.
DRAM VS. SRAM
 SRAM is capable of byte-level
reads/writes, and is faster at
reads/writes than DRAM. DRAM writes
data at the byte-level and reads at the
multiple-byte page level.
 Power differences vary based on whether
the system is in active or sleep mode.
DRAM requires less power than SRAM
in an active state, but SRAM consumes
considerably less power than DRAM does
while in sleep mode.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 Data stored in ROM cannot be
modified, or can be modified only
slowly or with difficulty, so it is
mainly used to distribute.
 The instructions in ROM are built
into the electronic circuits of the chip
which is called firmware.
 Random access in nature and non-
volatile.
TYPES OF ROM
 Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-
time programmable ROM can be written to or
programmed via a special device called a PROM
programmer.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)
can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light
then rewritten with a process that again needs higher
than usual voltage applied.
 Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar
semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its
entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically
erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need
not be removed from the computer
FLASH MEMORY
 Modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.
 Random access memories and are non-volatile.

 Use one transistor per memory cell and come in

capacities ranging from 1 MB to 32 GB by the
year 2007.
 The read time is much smaller (tens of
nanoseconds) compared write time (tens of
microseconds).
VARIETIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR RANDOM
ACCESS MEMORIES

Main memory of Read Only Memory

computers (ROM)

Read/Write
memory Factory User Erasable PROM
Programmed Programmable
PROM
SRAM DRAM
Permanent
non-erasable (Non-erasable)
UVEPROM EEPROM
CACHE MEMORY
 High speed memory kept in between processor
and RAM to increase the data execution speed.
 Kept near to the processor.

 Major reason for incorporating cache in the

system is that the CPU is much faster than the
DRAM and needs a place to store information
that can be accessed quickly.
 Cache fetches the frequently used data from the
DRAM and buffers (stores) it for further
processor usage.
CACHE MEMORY
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CACHE
 L1-cache is the fastest cache and it usually comes
within the processor chip itself. L1 cache
typically ranges in size from 8KB to 64KB and
uses the high-speed SRAM instead of the slower
and cheaper DRAM used for main memory.
 L2 cache comes between L1 and RAM and is
bigger than the primary cache.
 L3 cache is not found nowadays as its function is
replaced by L2 cache. L3 caches are found on the
motherboard rather than the processor. It is kept
between RAM and L2 cache.
PROCESSOR SPEED
 Speed of a computer system is determined by
several factors, clock speed of the processor and
the speed and size of the data bus.
 Clock speed is the rate at which the processor
processes information and this is measured in
millions of cycles per second(Megahertz)
 The more the number of hertz, the faster is the
processing speed
 The larger the bus width and the faster the bus
speed, the greater the amount of data can travel
on it in a given amount of time.
INPUT DEVICES
 Any peripheral used to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such
as a computer or other information appliance.
 Common input devices: Keyboard, Mouse

 Other devices: microphone, digital camera,

scanner.
OUTPUT DEVICES
 Any piece of computer hardware equipment used
to communicate the results of processed data to
the user.
 Examples: Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
 LET US SUMMARIZE..
 Computer organization and architecture is
defined as the science of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and
cost goals.
 The central processing unit is the brain of the
computer system where all the computing is
done. It consists of three main components, the
control unit (CU), the arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
and the registers.
 The control unit controls the Input/Output
devices and transfer of data to and from the
primary storage.
 ANSWER IN BRIEF
 Write a note on computer architecture
 What is a system bus? Name the various units of
the system bus.
 What is the significance of main memory in
proper functioning of a processor.
 What is an Instruction cycle?
ANSWER IN DETAIL
 What do you understand by Central Processing
Unit? Describe in details various units of the
CPU.
 Write a detailed note on Instruction Cycle
describing the various steps involved.
 Describe in details:

 a. Processor to Memory Communication

 b. Processor to I/O Devices Communication

LET US SUMMARIZE..
 The Arithmetic Unit is responsible for carrying
out the arithmetic calculations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 The Logic Unit provides CPU the ability to make
logical operations like comparing two data items
and taking different actions based on the results
of the comparison.
 Registers are special purpose, high-speed
temporary memory units used by the processor
for holding data.
LET US SUMMARIZE..
 The System bus is a set of wires used for
interconnection of different units of a computer
system. The three logical units of a system bus
are the address bus, the data bus, and the control
bus.
 A cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from
high-speed static RAM that reduces the access
time of the data. It is very expensive and
generally incorporated in the processor, where
valuable data and program segments are kept.
LET US SUMMARIZE..
 Instructions comprise two parts, namely, the op-
code and the operand. They are transferred one at
a time into the processor, where they are decoded
and the executed.
 The Instruction Cycle details the sequence of
events that takes place as an instruction is read
from memory and executed.
 In a Fetch Cycle, instruction to be executed is
fetched from the memory to the processor.
 The Decode Cycle is responsible for recognizing
which operation the instruction represents
activating the correct circuitry to perform that
operation.
LET US SUMMARIZE..
 During the Execute Cycle, the operation specified
by the op-code is performed on user provided data
in the ALU.
 In the Store Cycle, the results from the execution
cycle are stored back to the memory.
 Processors are built with the ability to execute a
limited set of basic operations called the
Instruction Set.
 The speed of the processor is measured in
millions of cycles per second or Megahertz (MHz).
LET US SUMMARIZE..
 Two notables factors on which the speed of a
processor depends are the clock speed of the
processor and the speed and the size of the data
bus