WEEK 1/2

Linear Transformation
A linear transformation is a function from one vector space to another that respects each
vector space's underlying (linear) structure of each vector space. A linear transformation is
also known as a linear operator or map.

is, for each vector v ∈ V, f(v) denotes exactly one vector of W.)
Definition Let V and W be vector spaces, and let f : V → W be a function from V to W. (That

Then f is a linear transformation if and only if both of the following are true:

(1) f( v 1+ v 2) = f( v 1) + f( v 2), for all v 1, v 2 ∈ V

(2) f(cv) = cf(v), for all c ∈ R and all v ∈ V.

Properties (1) and (2) insist that the operations of addition and scalar multiplication give the
same result on vectors whether the operations are performed before f is applied (in V) or
after f is applied (in W). Thus, a linear transformation is a function between vector spaces
that “preserves” the operations that give structure to the spaces.

Kernel and image

Suppose T : V → W is a linear transformation. Its kernel is the set of all elements v ∈ V such
that T(v) = 0 and its image is the set of all elements w ∈ W that have the form w = T(v) for
some v ∈ V.

Dimension formula

Suppose T : V → W is a linear transformation. Then the kernel of T is a subspace of V, the

image of T is a subspace of W and
dim(ker T) + dim(im T) = dim V.

Injective linear transformations

A linear transformation T : V → W is injective when T(x) = T(y) if and only if x = y. This is the
case if and only if ker T = {0}.

Surjective linear transformations

A linear transformation T : V → W is surjective when im T = W.

 Properties of linear transformations

Let V and W be two vector spaces. Suppose T : V →W is a linear transformation. Then

2. T(−v) = −T(v) for all v ∈ V.

1. T(0) = 0.

3. T(u − v) = T(u) − T(v) for all u, v ∈ V.

4. If
v = c 1 v 1 + c 2 v 2 + · · · + c n v nthen
T(v) = T (c 1 v 1 + c 2 v 2 + · · · + c n v n) = (c 1T ( v 1)+ c 2T ( v 2)+· · ·+c nT ( v n).

Proof. By property 1, we have

T(0) = T(00) = 0T(0) = 0

So, (1) is proved. Similarly,

T(−v) = T((−1)v) = (−1)T(v) = −T(v).

So, (2) is proved. Then, by property (1), we have

T(u − v) = T(u + (−1)v) = T(u) + T((−1)v) = T(u) − T(v).
The last equality follows from (2). So, (3) is proved.

To prove (4), we use induction, on n. For n = 1 : we have T(c 1 v 1) =c 1T ( v 1) by property (2) of

the definition 6.1.1.
For n = 2, by the two properties of the definition, we have
T(c 1 v 1 + c 2 v 2) = T(c 1 v 1) + T(c 2 v 2) = c 1T ( v 1) + c 2T ( v 2).

So, the proof is complete.

EXAMPLES:

1. Let
T( v 1, v 2, v 3) = (2 v 1 + v 2, 2 v 2 − 3 v 1, v 1 − v 3)

Compute T(−4, 5, 1).

Solution: T(−4, 5, 1) = (2∗(−4)+5, 2∗5−3∗(−4), −4−1) = (−3, 22, −5).

2. Determine whether the function T : R2 → R2 T(x, y) = ( x 2, y) is linear?

SOLUTION:
We have
T((x, y) + (z, w)) = T(x + z, y + w) = ((x + z)2 , y + w)≠ ( x 2, y) + ( z 2, w) = T(x, y) + T(z, w).
So, T does not preserve additivity. So, T is not linear.

Alternately, you could check that T does not preserve scalar multiplications.
Alternately, you could check this failure(s), numerically. For example,
T((1, 1) + (2, 0)) = T(3, 1) = (9, 1) 6= T(1, 1) + T(2, 0).

3. Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation such that

T(1, 0, 0) = (2, 4, −1), T(0, 1, 0) = (1, 3, −2), T(0, 0, 1) = (0, −2, 2).
Compute T(−2, 4, −1).

SOLUTION:

We have
(−2, 4, −1) = −2(1, 0, 0) + 4(0, 1, 0) − (0, 0, 1).
So,
T(−2, 4, −1) = −2T(1, 0, 0)+4T(0, 1, 0)−T(0, 0, 1) = (2, 4, −1)+(1, 3, −2)+(0, −2, 2) = (3, 5, −1).

4. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation such that T(1, 1) = (0, 2) and T(1, −1) = (2, 0)
a. Compute T(1, 4).
b. Compute T(−2, 1).

SOLUTION:
a. We have to write
(1, 4) = a(1, 1)+b(1, −1).
Solving (1, 4) = 2.5(1, 1)−1.5(1, −1).
So,
T(1, 4) = 2.5T(1, 1)−1.5T(1, −1) = 2.5(0, 2)−1.5(2, 0) = (−3, 5)

b. We have to write
 (−2, 1) = a(1, 1)+b(1, −1). Solving (−2, 1) = −.5(1, 1)−1.5(1, −1).
So,
T(−2, 1) = −.5T(1, 1)−1.5T(1, −1) = −.5(0, 2)−1.5(2, 0) = (−3, −1)

Homomorphism Theorems
Linear transformations are also called vector space homomorphisms. There is a basic
theorem that uses the properties of homomorphisms to show the isomorphism of
certain quotient spaces. It is simple to prove. But is very important
because it is always being used to prove more advanced theorems on vector spaces.

Homomorphisms are the maps between algebraic objects. There are two main
types: group homomorphisms and ring homomorphisms. (Other examples include vector
space homomorphisms, which are generally called linear maps, as well as homomorphisms
of modules and homomorphisms of algebras.)

Generally speaking, a homomorphism between two algebraic objects A,B is a

function f:A→B which preserves the algebraic structure on A and B. That is, if elements
in A satisfy some algebraic equation involving addition or multiplication, their images
in B satisfy the same algebraic equation. The details of the definitions of homomorphisms in
various contexts depend on the algebraic structures of A and B.

If the operations on A and B are both additions, then the homomorphism condition
is f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b). If A and B are both rings, with addition and multiplication, there
is also a multiplicative condition: f(ab)=f(a)f(b).

A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism. An isomorphism between two

algebraic objects A and B identifies them with each other; they are, in an algebraic sense,
the same object (possibly written in two different ways). The most common use of
homomorphisms in abstract algebra is via the three so-called isomorphism theorems, which
allow for the identification of certain quotient objects with certain other subobjects
(subgroups, subrings, etc.)

DEFINITIONS:

Let A and B be groups, with operations given by ∘A and ∘B respectively. A group

homomorphism f:A→B is a function f such that f(x∘Ay)=f(x)∘Bf(y) for all x,y∈A.

Let R and S be rings, with operations + and ⋅ (this is a slight abuse of notation, but the
formulas below are more unwieldy with subscripts on the operations). A ring
homomorphism f:R→S is a function f such that

 f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b) for all a,b∈R

 f(ab)=f(a)f(b) for all a,b∈R
  f(1R)=1S.
In both cases, a homomorphism is called an isomorphism if it is bijective.

THE VECTOR SPACE L (U, V)

Definitions:

Two vectors u = (u1, u2, . . . , un ) and v = ( v 1, v 2, . . . , v n) in Rn are called equal

if
u1 = v 1, u2 = v 2, . . . , un = v n

The sum u + v is defined by

u + v = (u1 + v 1, u2 + v 2, . . . , un + v n)

Let k be any scalar, then the scalar multiple ku is defined by

ku = ( K u1, K u2, . . . , K un)

These two operations of addition and scalar multiplication are called the standard
operations on Rn

The zero vector in Rn is denoted by 0 and is defined to be the vector

0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0)

The negative (or additive inverse) of u is denoted by -u and is defined by

−u = (−u1, −u2, . . . , −un )

The difference of vectors in Rn is defined by

v − u = v + (−u)

Theorem 1.1. If u = (u1, u2, . . . , un ), v = ( v 1, v 2, . . . , v n), and w = (w 1, w 2, . . . , w n)

are vectors in Rn and k and l are scalars, then:

1. u + v = v + u

2. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

3. u + 0 = 0 + u = u

4. u + (−u) = 0; that is, u − u = 0

5. k(lu) = (kl)u

6. k(u + v) = ku + kv

7. (k + l)u = ku + lu

8. 1u = u

A vector space V over a field F is a nonempty set on which two operations are
defined - addition and scalar multiplication. Addition is a rule for associating with

for associating with each scalar k ∈ F and each object u in V an object ku such that
each pair of objects u and v in V an object u + v, and scalar multiplication is a rule

1. If u, v ∈ V , then u + v ∈ V .

2. If u ∈ V and k ∈ F, then ku ∈ V .

3. u + v = v + u

4. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

5. There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V , such that u+0 = 0+u = u
for all u in V .

6. For each u in V , there is an object -u in V , called the additive inverse of u,

such that u + (−u) = −u + u = 0;

7. k(lu) = (kl)u

8. k(u + v) = ku + kv
9. (k + l)u = ku + lu

10. 1u = u

Remark The elements of the underlying field F are called scalars and the elements
of the vector space are called vectors. Note also that we often restrict our attention
to the case when F = R or C.

Examples of Vector Spaces

A wide variety of vector spaces are possible under the above definition as illustrated by the
following examples. In each example we specify a nonempty set of
objects V . We must then define two operations - addition and scalar multiplication,
and as an exercise we will demonstrate that all the axioms are satisfied, hence entitling
V with the specified operations, to be called a vector space.

1. The set of all n-tuples with entries in the field F, denoted F n (especially note Rn and
C ).
n

2. The set of all m × n matrices with entries from the field F, denoted M mxn (F).
3. The set of all real-valued functions defined on the real line (−∞,∞).
4. The set of polynomials with coefficients from the field F, denoted P(F)

Some Properties of Vectors

It is important to realise that the following results hold for all vector spaces. They
provide a useful set of vector properties.

Theorem: If u, v, w ∈ V (a vector space) such that u + w = v + w, then u = v.

Corollary: The zero vector and the additive inverse vector (for each vector) are
Unique

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over the field F, u ∈ V , and k ∈ F. Then the
following statement are true:

(a) 0u = 0
(b) k0 = 0
(c) (−k)u = −(ku) = k(−u)
(d) If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0

Rank and Nullity

Definitions: If T : U → V is a linear transformation,

• the dimension of the image of T is called the rank of T and is denoted by

rank(T),
• the dimension of the kernel is called the nullity of T and is denoted by nullity(T).

The Range Space and the Kernel

Let U and V be vector spaces over a field F. Let T:U → V be a linear transformation.
We will define the range of T as well as the Kernel of T. At first, you will see them as sets. We
will prove that these sets are also vector spaces over F.

Definition: The range of T, denoted by R(T), is the set {T(x)] x ∈ U}/ The kernel
(or null space) of T, denoted by Ker T, is the set {x U] T(x) = 0 }

To clarify these concepts consider the following examples.

(Refer to material for examples)