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SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Transformers (continuation): Cause and effects

of harmonics, Current inrush in transformers,
Noise in transformers. Objects of testing
transformers, Polarity test, Sumpner’s test.
Direct current Generator – Review of
construction, Types, Armature windings,
Relation between no load and terminal voltage
(No question shall be set from the review
portion). Armature reaction, Commutation and
associated problems, No load and full load
characteristics.
Synchronous generators- Review of
construction and operation of salient & non-
salient pole synchronous generators (No question
shall be set from the review portion).
Armature windings, Winding factors, Emf
equation. Harmonics – causes, Reduction and
elimination. Armature reaction, Synchronous
reactance, Equivalent circuit.
Module Objective:
1. To study the operation and constructional
features of DC generator and synchronous
generator.

Transformers and Generators Module Outcome:

1. Explain the operation and construction of DC

MODULE-III
generator and synchronous generator.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES

3.1 METHODS OF EXCITATION: depending on the type of excitation of field winding, there are two
basic types of DC machine.

1. Separately excited machine: In this type of machines the field flux is produced by connecting
the field winding to an external source.
2. Self excited machine: The field flux is produced by connecting the field winding with the
armature in this type. A self excited machine requires residual magnetism for operation.

Depending on the type of field winding connection DC machines can be further classified as:

1. Shunt machine: The field winding consisting of large number of turns of thin wire is usually
excited in parallel with armature circuit and hence the nameshunt field winding. This winding
will be having more resistance and hence carries less current.
2. Series machine: The field winding has a few turns of thick wire and is connected in series
with armature.
3. Compound machine: Compound wound machine comprises of both series and shunt
windings and can be either short shunt or long shunt, cumulative, differential or flat
compounded.

Fig 3.1 Separately Excited Machine Fig. 3.2 Self Excited Machine

Fig. 3.3 Series Wound Machine Fig. 3.4 Short Shunt Compound Machine

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Fig. 3.5 Long Shunt Compound Machine

In separate excited DC machine, the field winding is connected to a separate DC source. This type of
machine is most flexible as full and independent control of both armature and field circuit is

possible. Figure 3.1 shows separately excited DC generator. Permanent magnet machines also fall in
this category.

A self excited DC generator could be excited by its armature voltage as shown in figure 3.2 (i.e.,

shunt excitation) or by its armature current as shown in figure 3.3 (series excitation). Compound
wound generator comprises of both series and shunt windings and can be either short shunt (figure

3.4) or long shunt (figure 3.5), cumulative or differential or flat compounded.

3.2 Armature Winding

Armature winding is an arrangement of conductors distributed in slots provided on the periphery of

the armature. Depending on the way in which the coils are interconnected at the commutator end of
the armature, the windings can be classified as lap and wave windings. Further they can be classified
as simplex and multiplex. The important terms used in armature
windings are given below:

COIL PITCH/COIL SPAN: represents the span of the coil. It can be

represented in terms of electrical degrees, slots or conductor. For full
pitched winding, the span is 1800 electrical or number of slots per pole.
A full pitched coil leads to maximum voltage per coil.

BACK PITCH/COIL SPAN
 : is the distance measured in

between the two coil sides of the same coil at the back end of the
armature, the commutator end being the front end of armature. It can be
represented in terms of number of slots or coil sides. Back pitch also

Figure 3.6 represents the span of coil.

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FRONT PITCH : is the distance between the two coil sides of two different coils connected in
series at the front end of the armature.

Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8

COMMUTATOR PITCH (YC): is measured in terms of commutator segments between the two
coil ends of a coil.

SINGLE LAYER WINDING: In this winding one coil is placed in each slot.

DOUBLE LAYER WINDING: In this winding two or multiples of coil sides are arranged in two
layers in each slot.

Front pitch, back pitch and commutator pitch are shown in figures 3.7 and 3.8 for lap and wave
windings respectively.

SALIENT FEATURES OF LAP AND WAVE WINDING

1. Armature winding is a closed winding. Depending on the type of winding, the closed path
gets divided into number of parallel paths and is available between the positive and negative
brushes.
2. Wave winding is used for high voltage low current machines.
3. Equalizing rings are not required in wave winding where as there are used in lap winding.
4. Lap winding is suitable for low voltage high current machines because of more number of
parallel paths.

In case of lap winding, the number of parallel path (A) = number of poles (P)

In case of wave winding, the number of parallel path (A) = 2 irrespective of number of poles.

Each path will have conductors connected in series.

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3.3 EQUATION FOR INDUCED EMF:

Let Φ= flux per pole in weber

Z = number of armature conductors = Number of slots X conductors per slot.

P = Number of poles; A= Number of parallel paths in armature.

A= P for lap wound armature; A=2 for wave wound armature

N = speed of armature in rpm; E = induced emf in each parallel path.

Ф
Average emf generated/conductor in one revolution =

Flux cut by a conductor in one revolution =dФ = PΦ weber.


Since Number of revolutions/second = ; Time taken for one revolution = dt = seconds.


Ф Ф Ф
EMF generated/conductor = =  = volts.




Since each path has conductors in series,

Ф  Ф
EMF generated in each path is E =  volts = volts…………… 1
 

Also, for a shunt generator, from figure 3.2, E= +   + ……………2

For a series generator, from figure 3.3, E= + 
 +  !  + ……3

For a short shunt compound generator, from figure 3.4, E=  +   +  !  ! + …..4

For a long shunt compound generator, from figure 3.5, E=  +   +   ! + ……5

Where V=Terminal voltage

Ia=Armature current; ra=Armature resistance

rse=Series field resistance; BCD=brush contact drop

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PROBLEMS

1. The armature of a 4 pole wave wound DC shunt generator has 144 slots and 3 conductors per
slot. If armature is rotated with a speed of 1200 rpm in a field of 0.025 wb/pole, calculate the
EMF generated.

Ф 
SOLUTION: Z = 144 X 3 = 432; " = 
= 432 &'()*.

2. An 8 pole DC generator has 960 conductors and a flux/pole of 20 m wb. Calculate the EMF
generated when running at 500 rpm for (i) A lap connected armature winding and (ii) A wave
connected armature winding.

Ф 
SOLUTION: (i) Lap winding " = = 160 


Ф 
(ii) Wave winding " = /0
= 640 

3. An 8 pole DC shunt generator with 778 conductors wave connected and running at 500 rpm
supplies a load of 12.5 Ω resistance at terminal voltage of 250 V, the armature resistance is
0.24Ω and the field resistance is 250 Ω. Find the armature current, induced emf and Ф/pole.

3 05
SOLUTION:2 =
4
= /0.5 = 20 6 " = 250 +
21  0.24 = 255.04 
05 Ф 
 7 = 05 = 1 6 "= 
Ф = 9.83 m wb.

 = 20 + 1 = 21 6

4. A 4 pole long shunt lap wound generator supplies 25 kW at a terminal voltage of 500 V. The
armature resistance is 0.03 Ω. Series field resistance is 0.04Ω and shunt field resistance is 200 Ω.
The brush drop may be taken as 1.0 V. Determine the emf generated. Calculate also the number
of conductors if the speed is 1200 rpm and Ф/pole is 0.02 wb. Neglect armature reaction.

058/ 5
SOLUTION: = = 506;  7 = 0 = 2.5 6
5

 =  +  7 = 50 + 2.5 = 52.5 6
Series field drop = 52.5 x 0.04 = 2.1 V
Armature drop  = 52.5  0.3 = 1.575 
Brush drop = 2 x 1 = 2V
" = 500 + 1.575 + 2.1 + 2 = 505.67 
Ф 
"= 
; : = 1264

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3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C GENERATORS

The three important characteristics of DC generator are

1. Open circuit characteristic or Magnetization curve or No – load saturation Curve
Open circuit characteristic is the relation between the No-load generated emf in the armature, and the
field exciting current at a fixed speed. It is the magnetization curve for the material of electro-
magnets. It is same for separately excited or self excited machine.

2. Internal or total characteristic

This characteristic curve gives the relation between the emf generated in the armature and the
armature current.

3. External characteristic

This gives the relation between the terminal voltage and the load current. This characteristic takes
into account the voltage drop due to armature circuit resistance and the effect of armature reaction.
This characteristic is of importance in judging the suitability of generator for a particular purpose.
This characteristic is also referred to as performance characteristics or voltage regulating curve.

<?
1. open circuit characteristics ;
=>

Figure 3.9

The circuit diagram for obtaining the OCC is shown in figure 3.9. Irrespective of the type of the DC
machine, namely, shunt, series, compound, the shunt field winding is disconnected and excited from
an external source.

Ф 
Induced emf E =


If the speed is constant, then E = K Ф where K is a constant.

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As iron is unsaturated under low excitation current condition,
emf increases as flux increases with increase in excitation
current. As the field current increases further the iron starts
saturating, the emf will not increase proportionately as the flux is
not varying proportionately with the current. This is shown by

the knee ‘pq’ of the characteristic curve shown in figure 3.10. A

further increase in field current leads to saturation of iron and the
flux remains almost constant and hence the induced emf will

also remain constant. This is shown by the region ‘qr’ in the figure 3.10. Figure 3.10

3.5 CRITICAL RESISTANCE FOR SHUNT GENERATOR

When the armature is rotating with armature open circuited, an emf is induced in the armature
because of the residual flux. When the field winding is connected with the armature, a current flows
through the field winding ( in case of shunt field winding, field current flows even on No-load and in
case of series field winding only with load) and produces
additional flux. This additional flux along with the
residual flux generates higher voltage. This higher voltage
circulates more current to generate further higher voltage.
This is a cumulative process till the saturation is attained.
The voltage to which it builds is decided by the resistance

of the field winding as shown in the figure 3.11. If field

circuit resistance is increased such that the resistance line

does not cut OCC like ‘om’ in the figure 3.11, then the
machine will fail to build up voltage to the rated value. Fig.3.11
The slope of the air gap line drawn as a tangent to the
initial linear portion of the curve represents the maximum
resistance that the field circuit can have beyond which the machine fails to build up voltage. This
value of field circuit resistance is called critical field resistance. The field circuit is generally
designed to have a resistance value less than this so that the machine builds up the voltage to the
rated value.

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3.6 CONDITIONS FOR VOLTAGE BUILD UP OF A GENERATOR

Following are the conditions necessary for the voltage build up of a self excited generator.

(i) Residual magnetism must be present.

(ii) For the given direction of rotation, the field coils must be properly connected to the
armature so that the flux produced by the field current reinforces the residual
residual flux.
(iii) Its field resistance must be less than the critical field resistance.

CRITICAL SPEED

Critical speed of a generator is that speed for which the field circuit resistance becomes the critical
field resistance.

@A CA
From the figure .12 
BA C

DE
Critical speed Nc = XN where N is the full speed
FE

Figure 2

Figure .12
Relation between induced emf and terminal voltage will provide an insight into the performance of
the machine. The terminal voltage of the machine under loaded condition reduces from the no-load
induced emf value because of the armature circuit voltage drop and armature reaction. Further the
contact drop of the brushes will have to be taken into account. Usually a brush contact drop of 1volt
is considered for a brush. This will be constant throughout the operating range of the machine.

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3.7 ARMATURE REACTION

The action of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux under main poles
of a DC machine is called the armature reaction.

When the armature of a DC machines carries current, the distributed armature winding produces its
own mmf. The machine air gap is now acted upon by the resultant mmf distribution caused by the
interaction of field ampere turns (ATf) and armature ampere turns (ATa). As a result the air gap flux
density gets distorted.

Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16

Figure .13 shows a two pole machine with single equivalent conductor in each slot and the main
field mmf (Fm) acting alone. The axis of the main poles is called the direct axis (d-axis) and the

interpolar axis is called quadrature axis (q-axis). It can be seen from the Figure .14 that ATais along
the interpolar axis as shown. ATa which is at 900 to the main field axis is known as cross

magnetizing mmf. Figure .14 shows the armature mmf (FA) acting alone.

Figure .15 shows the practical condition in which a DC machine operates. Both the main flux i.e.,
ATf(Field mmf) and ATa (armature mmf) are existing. Because of bothmmfacting simultaneously,

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there is a shift in brush axis and crowding of flux lines at the trailing pole tip and flux lines are
weakened or thinned at the leading pole tip. (The pole tip which is first met in the direction of
rotation by the armature conductor is leading pole tip and the other is trailing pole tip)

If the iron in the magnetic circuit is assumed unsaturated, the net flux/pole remains unaffected by the
armature reaction though the air gap flux density distribution gets distorted. If the main pole
excitation is such that the iron is in the saturated region of magnetization (practical case) the increase
in flux density at one end of the poles caused by armature reaction is less than the decrease at the
other end, so that there is a net reduction in the flux/pole. This is called the demagnetizing effect.
Thus it can be summarized that the nature of armature reaction in a DC machine is

(i) Cross magnetizing with its axis along the q-axis.

(ii) It causes no change in flux/pole if the iron is unsaturated but causes reduction in flux/pole
in the presence of iron saturation. This is termed as demagnetizing effect.

The resultant mmf ‘F’ is shown in figure .16

Graphical picture of flux density distribution is shown in figure .17

(a) Layout of armature and field of 2-poles of a DC machine.

(b) Armature mmf and flux density distribution (brushes in geometrical neutral axis)
(c) Main field and resultant flux density distribution – shift (θ) in Magnetic neutral axis.

The cross magnetizing effect of the armature reaction can be reduced by making the main field
ampere-turns larger compared to the armature ampere-turns such that the main field mmf exerts
predominantcontrol over the air gap. This is achieved by

(i) Introducing saturation in the teeth and pole shoe.

(ii) By chamfering the pole shoes which increases the air gap at the pole tips. This increases
the reluctance to the path of main flux but its influence on the cross-flux is much greater.
(iii) The best and most expensive method is to compensate the armature reaction mmf by a
compensating winding located in the pole-shoes and carrying a suitable current.

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Figure 3.17

3.8 COMPENSATING WINDINGS: $rmature reaction causes the flux density wave to be so badly
distorted that when a coil is passing through the region of peak flux densities, the emf induced in it
exceeds the average coil voltage. If this emf is higher than the breakdown voltage across adjacent
segments, a spark over could result which can easily spread over the whole commutator, resulting in
the complete short circuit of the armature. Another factor which can cause severe over voltages to
appear between commutator segments is the time variation of armature reaction and its associated
flux due to sudden changes in machine load. If the load on the machine undergoes fast changes, the
armature current Ia and armature flux/pole Φa changes accordingly resulting in statically induced emf
in the coil proportional to dΦa/dt. This voltage along with dynamically induced emf worsens the
conditions if both are additive. i.e., if the load is dropped from a generator or added to a motor.

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by
compensating winding placed in the slots cut out in pole face such that the axis of the winding

coincides with the brush axis as shown in figure 3.18 and 3.19.

Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19

The compensating windings neutralize the armature mmf directly under the pole which is the major
portion because in the interpole region the air gap will be large. The remaining small portion of
armature mmf in the interpole region is neutralized by the interpole windings. The number of
ampere-turns required in the compensating windings is given by

OPQ!RS
ATcw/Pole = 6I
JKLM N U
OPQ!OT S7

= PQ!RS
=
0 
XN U……….6
PQ!T S7

Compensating windings though expensive, must be provided in machines where heavy overloads are
expected or the load fluctuates rapidly.Ex. Motors driving steel mills.

3.9 DEMAGNETISING AMPERE TURN/POLE:

The exact conductors which produce demagnetizing effect are shown in Fig 3.20,Where the brush
axis is given a forward lead of θ so as to lie along the new axis of M.N.A. The flux produced by the
current carrying conductors lying in between the angles AOC and BOD is such that, it opposes the
main flux and hence they are called as demagnetizing armature conductors.

Figure 3.20 Figure 3.21

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Z= total no of armature conductors
I = current in each armature conductors
=
= 0Vfor wave winding
=V
= for lap winding


Фm= forward lead in mechanical or angular deg.

WXY
Total no of armature conductors in between angles AOC & BOD = Z
:
0XY
2Z=1turn, total no of turns in these angles = :
Z
0X
Y
Demagnetizing amp turns/pair of poles = Z :
Y :……..7
X
Therefore ATd/pole=Z
CROSS MAGNETIZING AT/POLE

In the figure 3.21 Conductors lying in between the angles BOC and DOA are carrying the
current in such a way that the direction of the flux is downwards i.e., at right angles to the
main flux. This results is the distortion in the main flux. Hence, these conductors are called
cross magnetizing or distorting ampere conductors.

Total armature conductors/pole=

0X
Demagnetizing conductors / pole = : Z
Y

 0X
Therefore cross magnetizing conductors/pole= − : Z
Y

/ 0XY
Cross magnetizing ampere conductors/pole= : N − Z
U

/ X
Cross magnetizing ampere turns/pole = ATc/pole= : N0 − Z
Y
U………8

For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect number of extra turns required:

\]
Number of extra turns/pole= for shunt generator …….9
=^_
\]
= =V for series generator ………10

0XefeghijgVf
`')K: bc!S7dTSQ 


When a DC generator is loaded, voltage drop occurs due to

1. The armature reaction - which causes the voltage drop because of demagnetization.
2. Armature circuit resistance - causes voltage drop in the armature.
Hence the terminal voltage of the DC generator will be less than the No-load induced emf.

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Figure .22
Figure .23
The circuit diagram for obtaining the load characteristics is shown in figure .22.
The generator is brought to its rated speed and rated voltage is built up and loaded gradually. The

plot of terminal voltage vs load current gives the external characteristic which is shown in the figure 

.23. There are three reasons for the drop in voltage (‘ab’ in figure .23) as the load increases.

1) Armature resistance drop

2) Armature reaction drop
3) Drop in terminal voltage due to 1 and 2 results in decreased field current which further
reduces the induced emf.

The portion ‘ab’ on the external characteristic curve is the working part of the generator. If the load
current is increased further, it is found that the terminal voltage rapidly decreases and comes to zero
which is nothing but short circuit. The drastic decrease in terminal voltage ‘bc’ is due to the severe
armature reaction for the large load current and increased armature resistance drop. Thus any
increase in load current beyond the point ‘b’ results in terminal voltage drastically reducing though
there would be some induced emf due to residual magnetism.

3.11 INTERNAL OR TOTAL CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 3.24 Figure 3.25

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shunt generator Ia = IL + If and E = V + Ia Ra. Hence, E vsIa curve can be obtained from V vs IL
characteristic curve as shown in the above figure 1.24. In this figure- ‘ab’ represents the external
characteristics. The field resistance ‘OB’ is drawn. The horizontal distances from ‘oy’ line to line
‘OB’ give the values of field currents for different terminal voltages. If these distances are added
horizontally to the external characteristic curve ‘ab’, then we get the curve for total armature current,
i.e., ‘ac’. The armature resistance drop line ‘or’ is plotted. For any armature current ‘ok’ armature
voltage drop IaRa = ‘mk’. If these drops are added to the ordinates of the curve ‘ac’, then we get the
internal characteristic curve ‘at’.

If the load resistance is decreased then armature current increases upto certain value and then, any
decrease in any further decrease in load resistance results in decrease in terminal voltage which is

shown in figure .25. This is due to excessive demagnetization of main poles.

3.12 SERIES GENERATOR

CHARACTERISTICS

In series generator field

windings are in series with
the generator. Hence, they
carry full load current.

Figure.26 Figure .27

As the load is increased, Ia increases and hence generated emf also increases as shown by the curve

‘Ob’ in figure .27. If the excitation current necessary to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction at full load is added, we get the internal characteristics. If IaRa drop is subtracted
from the internal characteristics, we get the external characteristics.

It will be noticed that the series generator has the rising voltage characteristics but at high load
currents the voltage starts decreasing due to excessive demagnetization effects of armature reaction.

3.13 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND GENERATOR

The figure .28 shows the characteristics of compound generator. If

the series field ampere turns are such as to produce the same voltage
at rated load as at no-load then the generator is said to be flat
compounded. If the series field ampere turns are such that the rated
load voltage is greater than the no-load voltage, then the generator is
Figure 3.28

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said to be over compounded. If the rated load voltage is less than the no-load voltage, then the
generator is said to be under compounded.

3.15 COMMUTATION

The process of reversal of current in the short circuited armature coil is called ‘Commutation’. This
process of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the interpolar axis (q-axis), the coil is
short circuited through commutator segments. Commutation takes place simultaneously for ‘P’ coils
in a lap-wound machine and two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound machine.

The process of commutation of coil ‘B’ is shown below. In figure ‘3.29’ coil ‘B’ carries current from

left to right and is about to be short circuited in figure ‘3.30’ brush has moved by 1/3 rd of its width

and the brush current supplied by the coil are as shown. In figure ‘3.31’ coil ‘B’ carries no current as
the brush is at the middle of the short circuit period and the brush current in supplied by coil C and

coil A. In figure ‘3.32’ the coil B which was carrying current from left to right carries current from

right to left. In fig ‘3.33’ spark is shown which is due to the reactance voltage. As the coil is
embedded in the armature slots, which has high permeability, the coil posses appreciable amount of
self inductance. The current is changed from +I to –I. So due to self inductance and variation in the

current from +I to –I, a voltage is induced in the coil which is given by L dI/dt. Fig ‘3.34’ shows the
variation of current plotted on the time axis. Sparking can be avoided by the use of interpoles or
commutating-poles.

Figure ‘3.29’ Figure ‘3.30’ Fig ‘3.31’

Figure ‘3.32’ Figure ‘3.33’ Figure ‘3.34’

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VALUE OF REACTANCE VOLTAGE:

Reactance voltage = co-efficient of self inductance X rate of change of current

T
=L .

Time of short circuit = Tc = (time required by commutator to move a distance equal to the
circumferential thickness of brush)–(one mica insulating strip).

Let Wb= brush width in cm

Wm = width of mica insulation in cm

V = peripheral velocity of commutator segments in cm/sec.

kl mkl
Then Tc= sec
3

Total change in current = I - (-I) = 2I

0=
Therefore self induced or reactance voltage = L X for linear commutation……..11
\g

0=
=1.11 L X for sinusoidal commutation…….12
\g

If brush width is given in terms of commutator segments, then commutator velocity should be
converted in terms of commutator segments/seconds.

3.16 METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION:

There are two methods of improving commutation. They are (i) resistance commutation(ii) E.M.F
commutation.

Figure 3.35

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(i) Resistance commutation: In this method low resistance copper brushes are replaced by

high resistance carbon brushes. From the figure 3.35. It is seen that when current ‘I’ from
coil ‘C’ reaches the commutator segment ‘b’, it has two parallel paths opened to it. The
first path is straight from bar ‘b’ to the brush and the other is via short circuited coil B to
bar ‘a’ and then to brush. If copper brushes are used the current will follow the first path
because of its low contact resistance. But when carbon brushes having high resistance are
used, then current ‘I’ will prefer the second path because the resistance r1 of first path will
increase due to reducing area of contact with bar ‘b’ and the resistance r2 of second path
decreases due to increasing area of contact with bar ‘c’. Hence carbon brushes help in
obtaining sparkles commutation. Also, carbon brushes lubricate and polish commutator.
But, because of high resistance the brush contact drop increases and the commutator has
to be made larger to dissipate the heat due to loss. Carbon brushes require larger brush
holders because of lower current density.
(ii) E.M.F commutation: in this method, reactance voltage which is the cause for sparking is
neutralized by producing an emf which is in opposite direction to that of reactance
voltage, so that the reactance voltage is completely eliminated. The reversing emf may be
produced in two ways (i) by giving a forward lead sufficient enough to bring the short
circuited coil under the influence of next pole of opposite polarity or (ii) by using inter
poles or compoles. The second method is commonly employed.

3.17 INTERPOLES OR COMPOLES

These are small poles fixed to the yoke and placed in between the main
poles as shown in figure 1.36. They are wound with few turns of heavy
gauge copper wire and are connected in series with the armature so that
they carry full armature current. Their polarity in case of generator is
that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation.

The function of interpoles is (i) to induce an emf which is equal and

Figure 3.36 opposite to that of reactance emf thereby making commutation

sparkles. (ii) Interpoles neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction in fig 3.36. ‘OF’
represents mmf due to main poles and ‘OA’ represents the cross magnetizing mmf due to armature.
‘BC’ represents mmf due to Interpoles and is in opposite to that of ‘OA’ resulting in the cancellation
of cross magnetization.

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3.18 EQUILISER RINGS

Equalizer rings are used in connection with the lap winding. It is the characteristics of lap winding
that all conductors in any parallel path will be under one pair of poles. If the fluxes from all poles are
exactly the same, then emf induced in each parallel path is same and carries the same current. If there
is any inequality in the flux/pole due to slight variations in the air gap or in the magnetic properties
of steel, there will be imbalance of emf in various parallel paths resulting in unequal distribution of
current at the brushes. This leads to poor commutation. By connecting together a number of
symmetrical points on armature winding which would be at equal potential, the difference in brush
current will be minimized. The equalizer conductors which are in the form of copper rings are
connected to equi-potential points on the backside of the armature. Such rings are called as
‘Equalizer rings’.

Hence, the function of equalizer rings is to avoid unequal distribution of current at the brushes
thereby helping to get sparkles commutation.

Equalizer rings are not used in wave wound armatures because there is no imbalance in the emf of
the two parallel paths. This is due to the fact that armature conductors are distributed under all poles.
Hence even if there are inequalities in the flux/pole they will affect all the paths equally.

3.19 USES OF DC GENERATOR

(i) Shunt Generators with field regulators are used for lighting and power supply purposes. They
are also used for charging batteries because their terminal voltage is almost constant.
(ii) Series Generators are not used for power supply because of their rising characteristics but
their rising characteristic suits to be used as boosters.
(iii) Compound Generators maintain almost constant terminal voltage over a large range of load.
Hence they are used where large load is suddenly thrown on and off. Also they are used for
power supplies.

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PROBLEMS
1. A wave wound 4 pole D.C Generator with 480 armature conductors supplies a current of
144A, the brushes are given an actual lead of 100. Calculate the demagnetizing and cross
magnetizing Amp turns/pole.
=V /WW
SOLUTION: I = 0
= 0
=72A, Z=480 ; θm = 10◦
X /
ATd/pole = : Z
Y
= 480  72  Z  960
/ X / /
ATc/pole = : N0 − Z
Y
U= 480  72  N0 8 W − ZU  3360

2. An 8 pole generator has an output of 200A at 500V; the lap connected arm has 1280
conductors, 160 commutator segments. If the brushes are advanced by 4 segments from
the no load neutral axis, estimate the armature demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing
ampere turns/pole.
0 Z
SOLUTION: I = p
= 25A, Z = 1280, θm = 4  / = 90
X / X
ATd/pole = : Z
Y
= 800 & ATc/pole = ZI N0 − Z
Y
U = 1200.

3. A 100kW 500V 6 pole D.C shunt generator has a lap armature of 600conductors. If the
brushes are given an actual lead of 100, determine the demagnetizing & distorting ampere
turns/pole. The shunt field winding has a resistance of 50Ω.
/ 5
SOLUTION: Output current = 5
 200 6, Ish = 5 =10A
0/
Ia = 200+10 = 210A, I = = 35A, Z=600, θm = 100
/
XY
ATd/pole =:  = 583
Z
/ XY
ATc/pole = N0 − Z
U = 1167.

4. A pole wave wound motor armature has 880 conductors & delivers 120A.The brushes
have been displaced through 3 angular degrees from the geometrical axis. calculate (a)
demagnetizing ampere-turns/pole, (b) cross-magnetizing ampere-turns/pole, (c) the
additional field current for neutralizing the demagnetization if the field winding has
1100turns/pole.
Z
SOLUTION: (a) ATd/p = 880  60  Z = 440
/ Z
(b) ATc/pole =880  60  N0 8 W − ZU = 6160
WW
(c) Additional If = //= 0.4A

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5. The armature of a dynamo runs at 800rpm. The commutator consists of 123 segments &
the thickness of each brush is such that the brush spans three segments. Find the time
during which the coil of armature remains short circuited.
p
SOLUTION: V = 
 123 Seg/sec
kl m kY
Zm 8 
Therefore Tc = 3g
 p 8/0Z
=1.83m.sec

6. A 4 pole wave wound D.C machine running at 1500rpm has a commutator of 30cm
diameter. If armature current is 150A, thickness of brush 1.25cm & the self inductance of
each armature coil is 0.07mH. Calculate the average value of emf induced in each coil
during commutation. Assume linear commutation.
0= /5
SOLUTION:E = r \ I= 0
= 75A. Wb = 1.25cm & Wm = 0
g

st
V= 
cm/Sec= 750π
kl mkY /.05
Tc =  sec.
3 u5 s

E = 19.8 V
7. A 4 pole lap wound arm running at 1500rpm delivers a current of 150A & has 64
commutator segments. The brush spans 1.2 segments & inductance of each arm coil is
0.05mH. Calculate the value of reactance voltage assuming (i) linear commutation & (ii)
sinusoidal commutation.
/5
SOLUTION: V =  64 segments/sec

/.0 8 
Tc = /5 8 W Sec,
/5
I= W
Amp.
0=
E = r \ = 5V (linear) & E = 1.11 X 5 = 5.55V(sinusoidal)
g

8. Calculate the No of conductors on each pole piece required in a compensating winding

for a 6pole lap wound D.C armature containing 286 conductors. The compensating
winding carries full armature current. Assume ratio of pole arc to pole pitch = 0.7.
SOLUTION:ATcw/pole = compensating winding ampere turns per pole
=V OPQ! RS
ATcw/Pole = 0 N
 OPQ! OT S7
U
 OPQ!RS
No of compensating turns/ Pole = 0 N
 OPQ!OT S7
U = 2.78 3

Number of compensating conductors/Pole = 2 X 3 [1 turn = 2 Z]

0Zu
Therefore N (N.L) = 850 X /Wp
= 1361 rpm.

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9. The open circuit characteristics of a D.C shunt Generator driven at rated speed is as
follows.
If 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Eg 60 120 138 145 149 151 152

If Rsh is adjusted to 53 Ω, calculate the O.C voltage and load current when the terminal
voltage is 100 V. Neglect armature reaction and assume an armature resistance of 0.1 Ω.
160

140

SOLUTION:
/

induced emf in volts

120
For 100 V, Ish = 5Z
= 1.89 A
E = V + IaRa. 100

IaRa = 144 – 100 = 44 V

WW 80
Therefore Ia = ./ = 440V
60

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

field current in amps

10. A 240 V compound (cumulative) DC motor has the following O.C.C at normal full load
speed of 850 rev/min.
Excitation AT/Pole 1200 2400 3600 4800 6000
Generated emf 76 135 180 215 240
The resistance voltage drop in the armature circuit at full load is 25 V at fullload. Theshunt
and the series winding provide equal AT excitation. Calculate the mmfper pole on No - load.
Estimate the value to which the speed will rise when full load is removed the resistance
voltage drop in the armature circuit under that condition being 3V. ignore armature reaction
and brush contact effects. Assume long shunt cumulative compounding.
SOLUTION:
Ea(F.L) = V – Ia(Ra+Rse) = 240 – 25 = 215 V
Wp
Therefore from graph AT (net) = 4800; then, ATsh = ATse= 2400 (i.e., 0
)
Z
Ia (N.L) = 05 Ia (F.L) &Ia (N.L) = Ish 260

Z
240

ATse (N.L) = 05  2400 = 288. And ATsh = 2400 220

200

Therefore AT (net) = 2400 + 288 =2688 180

voltage

160
Therefore Ea = 148 (graph) 140

Ea (N.L) = 244 – 3 = 237 V 120

100

EaαN 80

0Zu
60
1000 20 0 0 3000 40 0 0 5 00 0 6000
Therefore N (N.L) = 850 X /Wp= 1361 rpm. A T /P o le

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SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Introduction

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current generators. They supply the electric
power used by all sectors of modern society. Synchronous machine is an important electromechanical
energy converter. Synchronous generators usually operate in parallel forming a large power system
supplying electrical power to consumers or loads. For these applications the synchronous generators
are built in large units, their rating ranging form tens to hundreds of Megawatts. These synchronous
machines can also be run as synchronous motors.

Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an external DC source.
Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a rotating field
system called rotor.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic
field. The rotor is then driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a
3-phase voltage within the stator winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings for synchronous
machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is induced (stator windings for
synchronous machines).

3.21 Types of synchronous machines

According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are classified
as rotating armature type or rotating field type.
In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding is on the stator.
The generated emf or current is brought to the load via the slip rings. These type of generators are built
only in small units.
In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the armature windings are
on the stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair of slip rings and the induced emf or
current is supplied to the load via the stationary terminals.
Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified as

1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called
hydrogenerators. These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These generators are run
at very high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed less than
1500 rpm.

Hence the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic turbines, Steam turbines or
IC engines.
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m and above
Francis turbines: Water heads up to 380 m
Keplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m

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Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam turbines are called turbogenerators or
turbo alternators. Steam turbines are to be run at very high speed to get higher efficiency and hence
these types of generators are run at higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very small rated generators.

3.22 Construction of synchronous machines

1. Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with
concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by
hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
2. Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These machines are having
cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor
construction is employed for the machine driven by steam turbines.

1. Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed based on the water
head available and hence these machines are low speed machines. These machines are
constructed based on the mechanical consideration. For the given frequency the low speed
demands large number of poles and consequently large diameter. The machine should be so
connected such that it permits the machine to be transported to the site. It is a normal to
practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress produced at twice the
normal operating speed.
Stator core:

The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of

• The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed
into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy
currents, reducing losses and heating. CRGO laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to
reduce the iron losses.

A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated stator. The cross-
sectional area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the machine. For a 3-
phase generator, 3 sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in star. Fig. 1 shows
one stator lamination of a synchronous generator. In case of generators where the diameter is too
large stator lamination can not be punched in on circular piece. In such cases the laminations are
punched in segments. A number of segments are assembled together to form one circular
laminations. All the laminations are insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish.

Details of construction of stator are shown in Figs 3.37 - 3.41

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Figure.3.37. Nonsalient pole generator

Figure.3.38 Salient pole generator

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Figure.3.39

Figure 3.40

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 3.41 Stator lamination (a) Full Lamination (b) Segment of a lamination

Fig 3.42. (a) Stator and (b) rotor of a salient pole alternator

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Fig 3.43. (a) Stator of a salient pole alternator

Fig 3.44. Rotor of a salient pole alternator

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(a ) (b)
Fig 3.45 (a) Pole body (b) Pole with field coils of a salient pole alternator

Fig 3.46 Slip ring and Brushes

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Fig 3.47 Rotor of a Non salient pole alternator

Fig 3.48 Rotor of a Non salient pole alternator

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Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles are built with thin silicon steel
laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm thickness to reduce eddy current laminations. The laminations are
clamped by heavy end plates and secured by studs or rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the bolted
on construction for the machines with little higher peripheral speed poles have dove tailed construction
as shown in Figs. Generally rectangular or round pole constructions are used for such type of
alternators. However the round poles have the advantages over rectangular poles.
Generators driven by water wheel turbines are of either horizontal or vertical shaft type. Generators
with fairly higher speeds are built with horizontal shaft and the generators with higher power ratings
and low speeds are built with vertical shaft design. Vertical shaft generators are of two types of
designs (i) Umbrella type where in the bearing is mounted below the rotor. (ii) Suspended type where
in the bearing is mounted above the rotor.

In case of turbo alternator the rotors are manufactured form solid steel forging. The rotor is slotted to
accommodate the field winding. Normally two third of the rotor periphery is slotted to accommodate
the winding and the remaining one third unslotted portion acts as the pole. Rectangular slots with
tapering teeth are milled in the rotor. Generally rectangular aluminum or copper strips are employed
for filed windings. The field windings and the overhangs of the field windings are secured in place by
steel retaining rings to protect against high centrifugal forces. Hard composition insulation materials
are used in the slots which can with stand high forces, stresses and temperatures. Perfect balancing of
the rotor is done for such type of rotors.
Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators. Damper windings are
nothing but the copper or aluminum bars housed in the slots of the pole faces. The ends of the damper
bars are short circuited at the ends by short circuiting rings similar to end rings as in the case of
squirrel cage rotors. These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance;
provide damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of alternators.
In case of synchronous motors they act as rotor bars and help in self starting of the motor.

Relative dimensions of Turbo and water wheel alternators:

Turbo alternators are normally designed with two poles with a speed of 3000 rpm for a 50 Hz
frequency. Hence peripheral speed is very high. As the diameter is proportional to the peripheral
speed, the diameter of the high speed machines has to be kept low. For a given volume of the machine
when the diameter is kept low the axial length of the machine increases. Hence a turbo alternator will
have small diameter and large axial length.
However in case of water wheel generators the speed will be low and hence number of poles required
will be large. This will indirectly increase the diameter of the machine. Hence for a given volume of
the machine the length of the machine reduces. Hence the water wheel generators will have large
diameter and small axial length in contrast to turbo alternators.

Relation between Speed and Frequency: In the previous course on induction motors it is established
that the relation between speed and frequency and number of poles is given by
Frequency f = P x N /120 Hz

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3.23 Windings in Alternators: In case of three phase alternators the following types of windings are
employed.
(i) Lap winding,
(ii) wave winding and
(iii) mush winding.

Based on pitch of the coil

(i) full pitched

(ii) short pitched windings

Based on number of layers

(i) Single layer
(ii) Double layer

Fig 3.49

Fig 3.50

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Fig
Double layer Lap winding

Fig 

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Fig 3.53
Double layer wave winding

The above figures show the details of lap and wave windings for one phase

3.24 EMF Equation of an alternator:

Consider the following
Φ = flux per pole in wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
Z = total number of stator conductors
Zph = conductors per phase connected in series
Tph = Number of turns per phase

Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot

According to Faradays Law electromagnetic induction,
The average value of emf induced per conductor in one revolution eavg = dФ/dt
eavg = Change of Flux in one revolution/ Time taken for one revolution

Change of Flux in one revolution = p x Ф

Time taken for one revolution = 60/Ns seconds

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Hence eavg = (p x Ф) / ( 60/Ns) = p x Ф x Ns / 60

We know f = PNs /120
hence PNs /60 = 2f

Hence eavg = 2 Ф f volts

Hence average emf per turn = 2 x 2 Ф f volts = 4 Ф f volts
If there are Tph, number of turns per phase connected in series, then average emf induced in Tph turns is

Eph, avg = Tph x eavg = 4 f Ф Tph volts

Hence RMS value of emf induced E = 1.11 x Eph, avg
= 1.11 x 4 f Ф Tph volts
= 4.44 f Ф Tph volts
This is the general emf equation for the machine having concentrated and full pitched winding.
In practice, alternators will have short pitched winding and hence coil span will not be 1800, but on or
two slots short than the full pitch.

Pitch Factor:

180 - α
α
Full Pitch
Fig 

As shown in the above figure, consider the coil short pitched by an angle α, called chording angle.
When the coils are full pitched the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in magnitude and in
phase with each other. Hence the resultant emf induced in the coil will be sum of the emf induced.
Hence Ec = E1 + E2 = 2E for full pitched coils,
Hence total emf = algebraic sum of the emfs = vector sum of emfs as shown in figure below

Fig 
When the coils are shot pitched by an angle α, the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in
magnitude but will be out of phase by an angle equal to chording angle. Hence the resultant emf is
equal to the vector sum of the emfs as shown in figure below.
Hence the resultant coil emf is given by Ec = 2E1 cos α/2 = 2E cos α/2 volts.

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α/2

α/2 α/2

Fig 3.56
Hence the resultant emf in the short pitched coils is dependant on chording angle α. Now the factor by
which the emf induced in a short pitched coil gets reduced is called pitch factor and defined as the
ratio of emf induced in a short pitched coil to emf induced in a full pitched coil.

Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in a short pitched coil/ emf induced in a full pitched coil
= (2E cos α/2 )/ 2E
Kp = cos α/2
where α is called chording angle.

Distribution Factor: Even though we assumed concentrated winding in deriving emf equation, in
practice an attempt is made to distribute the winding in all the slots coming under a pole. Such a
winding is called distributed winding.
In concentrated winding the emf induced in all the coil sides will be same in magnitude and in phase
with each other. In case of distributed winding the magnitude of emf will be same but the emfs
induced in each coil side will not be in phase with each other as they are distributed in the slots under a
pole. Hence the total emf will not be same as that in concentrated winding but will be equal to the
vector sum of the emfs induced. Hence it will be less than that in the concentrated winding. Now the
factor by which the emf induced in a distributed winding gets reduced is called distribution factor and
defined as the ratio of emf induced in a distributed winding to emf induced in a concentrated winding.

Distribution factor Kd = emf induced in a distributed winding/ emf induced in a concentrated winding
= vector sum of the emf/ arithmetic sum of the emf

Let
E = emf induced per coil side
m = number of slots per pole per phase,
n = number of slots per pole
β = slot angle = 180/n

The emf induced in concentrated winding with m slots per pole per phase = mE volts.

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Fig below shows the method of calculating the vector sum of the voltages in a distributed winding
having a mutual phase difference of β. When m is large curve ACEN will form the arc of a circle of
radius r.
From the figure below AC = 2 x r x sin β/2
Hence arithmetic sum = m x 2r sin β/2
Now the vector sum of the emfs is AN as shown in figure below = 2 x r x sin mβ/2

Hence the distribution factor Kd = vector sum of the emf / arithmetic sum of the emf
= (2r sin mβ/2) / (m x 2r sin β/2)
Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

Fig 3.57

In practical machines the windings will be generally short pitched and distributed over the periphery of
the machine. Hence in deducing the emf equation both pitch factor and distribution factor has to be
considered.
Hence the general emf equation including pitch factor and distribution factor can be given as
EMF induced per phase = 4.44 f Ф Tph x KpKd volts
Eph = 4.44 KpKd f Ф Tph volts

Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph

3.25 Harmonics: When the uniformly sinusoidally distributed air gap flux is cut by either the stationary
RUrotating armature sinusoidal emf is induced in the alternator. Hence the nature of the waveform of
induced emf and current is sinusoidal. But when the alternator is loaded waveform will not continue to

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be sinusoidal or becomes nonsinusoidal. Such nonsinusoidal wave form is called complex wave form.
By using Fourier series representation it is possible to represent complex nonsinusoidal waveform in
terms of series of sinusoidal components called harmonics, whose frequencies are integral multiples of
fundamental wave. The fundamental wave form is one which is having the frequency same as that of
complex wave.
The waveform, which is of the frequency twice that of the fundamental is called second harmonic. The
one which is having the frequency three times that of the fundamental is called third harmonic and so
on. These harmonic components can be represented as follows.

Fundamental: e1 = Em1 Sin (ωt ± θ1)

2nd Hermonic e2 = Em2 Sin (2ωt ± θ2)
3rd Harmonic e3 = Em3 Sin (3ωt ± θ3)
5th Harmonic e5 = Em5 Sin (5ωt ± θ5) etc.
In case of alternators as the field system and the stator coils are symmetrical the induced emf will also
be symmetrical and hence the generated emf in an alternator will not contain any even harmonics.

Slot Harmonics: As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are induced into
the emf which is called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap reluctance
at the surface of the stator non uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a
relative motion between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any point in the
air gap. Due to this the reluctance or the air gap will be continuously varying. Due to this variation of
reluctance ripples will be formed in the air gap between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This ripple
formed in the air gap will induce ripple emf called slot harmonics.

Minimization of Harmonics: To minimize the harmonics in the induced waveforms following

methods are employed:
1. Distribution of stator winding.
2. Short Chording
3. Fractional slot winding
4. Skewing
5. Larger air gap length.

Effect of Harmonics on induced emf:

The harmonics will affect both pitch factor and distribution factor and hence the induced emf. In a
well designed alternator the air gap flux density distribution will be symmetrical and hence can be
represented in Fourier series as follows.

B = Bm1sin ωt + Bm3 sin 3ωt + Bm5sin 5ωt + ...................

The emf induced by the above flux density distribution is given by

e = Em1sin ωt + Em3 sin 3ωt + Em5sin 5ωt + ...................

The RMS value of the resultant voltage induced can be given as

Eph = √ [(E1)2 + (E3)2 + (E5)2 + …………… (En)2]

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And line voltage ELine = √3 x Eph

Effect of Harmonics of pitch and distribution Factor:

The pitch factor is given by Kp = cos α/2, where α is the chording angle.
For any harmonic say nth harmonic the pitch factor is given by Kpn = cos nα/2

The distribution factor is given by Kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

th
For any harmonic say n harmonic the distribution factor is given by Kdn = (sin m nβ/2) / (m sin nβ/2)

Numerical Problems:

1. A 3Φ, 50 Hz, star connected salient pole alternator has 216 slots with 5 conductors per slot. All
the conductors of each phase are connected in series; the winding is distributed and full
pitched. The flux per pole is 30 mwb and the alternator runs at 250 rpm. Determine the phase
and line voltages of emf induced.

Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz,

P = 120 x f/Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24 poles
m = number of slots/pole/phase = 216/(24 x 3) = 3
β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 / (216/24) = 200
Hence distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Pitch factor Kp = 1 for full pitched winding.

We have emf induced per conductor

Tph= Zph/2 ; Zph= Z/3

Z = conductor/ slot x number of slots
Tph= Z/6 = 216 x 5 /6 = 180

Therefore Eph = 4.44 KpKd f Ф Tph vlolts

= 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x 30 x 10-3 x 180
= 1150.488 volts
Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph
= √3 x1150.488
= 1992.65 volts

2. A 3Φ, 16 pole, star connected salient pole alternator has 144 slots with 10 conductors per slot.
The alternator is run at 375 rpm. The terminal voltage of the generator found to be 2.657 kV.
Dteremine the frequency of the induced emf and the flux per pole.

Soln: Ns = 375 rpm, p =16, slots = 144, Total no. of conductors = 144 x 10 = 1440
EL = 2.657 kV,

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f = P Ns/120 = 16 x 375/120 = 50 Hz
Assuming full pitched winding kp = 1
Number of slots per pole per phase = 144/(16 x 3) = 3
Slot angle β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 /9 = 200
Hence distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Turns per phase Tph = 144 x 10/ 6 = 240

Eph = EL/√3 = 2.657/√3 = 1.534 kV

Eph = 4.44 KpKd f Ф Tph vlolts

1534.0 = 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x Ф x 240

Ф = 0.03 wb = 30 mwb

3. A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 60 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The
coils are short pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread is 600, find the line voltage induced for a
flux per pole of 0.943 wb.

Slon: p = 4, f = 50 Hz, Slots = 60, cond/slot = 4 , short pitched by 3 slots,

phase spread = 600, Φ = 0.943 wb

Number of slots/pole/phase m = 60/(4 x 3) = 5

Slot angle β = phase spread/ number of slots per pole/phase
= 60/5 = 12
Distribution factor kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)
= sin ( 5 x 12/2) / 5 sin(12/2)
= 0.957
Pitch factor = cos α/2

Coils are short chorded by 3 slots

Slot angle = 180/number of slots/pole
= 180/15 = 12
Therefore coil is short pitched by α = 3 x slot angle = 3 x 12 = 360
Hence pitch factor kp = cos α/2 = cos 36/2 = 0.95

Number of turns per phase Tph = Zph/2 = (Z/3)/2 = Z /6 = 60 x 4 /6 = 40

EMF induced per phase Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph volts

= 4.44 x 0.95 x 0.957 x 50 x 0.943 x 40
= 7613 volts
Line voltage EL = √3 x Eph
= √3 x 7613 = 13185 volts

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4. In a 3 phase star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil. The
stator has 288 slots. When run at 250 rpm the line voltage is 6600 volts at 50 Hz. The coils are
shot pitched by 2 slots. Calculate the flux per pole.

Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz, slots = 288, EL= 6600 volts, 2 coilsides/slot, 16 turns /coil
Short pitched by 2 slots

Number of poles = 120f/ Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24

Number of slots /pole/phase m = 288 / ( 24 x 3) = 4
Number of slots /pole = 288 / 24 = 12
Slot angle β = 180/ number of slots per pole
= 180 / 12 = 150

Distribution factor kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)

= sin ( 4 x 15/2) / 4 sin(15/2)
= 0.9576

Coils are short chorded by 2 slots

Slot angle = 15
Therefore coil is short pitched by α = 2 x slot angle = 2 x 15 = 300
Hence pitch factor kp = cos α/2 = cos 30/2 = 0.9659

Two coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil

Total number of conductors per slot = 2 x 16 = 32 turns
Total conductors = 32 x 288
Turns per phase = 32 x 288 / 6
= 1536

Eph = 6600 / √3 = 3810.51 volts,

We have EMF induced per phase Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph volts

3810.51 = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 50 x Φ x 1536
Φ = 0.02 wb
5. A 10 pole, 600 rpm, 50Hz, alternator has the following sinusoidal flux density distribution.
B = sin θ + 0.4 sin 3θ + 0.2 sin 5θ wb/m2. The alternator has 180 slots with 2 layer 3 turn coils
with a coil span of 15 slots. The coils are connected in 600 groups. If the armature diameter is 1.2 m
and core length is 0.4 m, calculate (a) the expression for instantaneous emf/conductor (b) the
expression for instantaneous emf/coil (c) the phase and line voltages if the machine is star connected.

Slon: Area under one pole pitch = π DL/p = π x 1.2 x 0.4/10 = 0.1508 m2
Fundamental flux/pole, Φ1 = average flux density x area
= 2/ π x 1 x 0.1508
= 0.096 wb
(a) rms value of emf induced/conductor = 2.22f Φ1 = 2.22 x 50 x 0.096 = 10.656 volts

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maximum value of emf/conductor = √2 x 10.656 = 15.07 volts

rd
3 harmonic voltage = 0.4 x 15.07 = 6.02 volts
5th harmonic voltage = 0.2 x 15.07 = 3.01 volts

the expression for instantaneous emf/conductor e = 15.07 sin θ + 6.02 sin 3θ + 3.01 sin 5θ volts

(b) conductors/slot = 6 = conductors/coil, slots = 180, coil span = 15 slots

slots/pole = 18
slot angle β = 180/number of slots/ pole = 180/ 18 = 100
coil is short chorded by 3 slots
hence α = 300

Pitch factor kpn = cos nα /2

kp1 = cos α /2 = cos 30/2 = 0.9659
kp3 = cos 3 x 30/2 = 0.707
kp5 = cos 5 x 30/2 = 0.2588

Fundamental rms value of emf induced/coil = 2.22 kp f Φ1 Z

= 2.22 x 0.9659 x 50 x 0.096 x 6
= 61.76 volts
Maximum value of emf induced/coil = √2 x 61.76 = 87.34 volts
Similarly 3rd harmonic voltage = 25.53 volts
5th harmonic voltage = 4.677 volts

expression for instantaneous emf/coil e = 87.34 sin θ + 25.53 sin 3θ + 4.677 sin 5θ volts

slot angle β = 180/number of slots/ pole = 180/ 18 = 100

number of slots/pole/phase = 180/(10 x 3) = 6
Distribution factor kdn = (sin m nβ/2) / (m sin nβ/2)

kd1 = sin ( 6 x 10/2) / 6 sin(10/2)

= 0.956

kd3 = sin ( 6 x 3 x 10/2) / 6 sin (3 x 10/2)

= 0.644

kd5 = sin ( 6 x 5 x 10/2) / 6 sin (5 x 10/2)

= 0.197
Turns/phase Tph = 180 x 6/6 = 180
rms value of emf induced = 4.44 kpn kdn (nf ) Φn Tph for any nth harmonic

fundamental voltage Eph1 = 4.44 kp1 kd1 f Φ1 Tph

= 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.956 x 50 x 0.096 x 180
= 3542.68 volts
Similarly 3rd harmonic voltage Eph3 = 697.65 volts
5th harmonic voltage Eph5 = 39.09 volts

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Phase voltage = √ (E2ph1 + E2ph3 + E2ph5)

= √ (3542.682 + 697.652 + 39.092)

= 3610.93 volts

Line voltage = √3 x √ (E2ph1+ E2ph5)

= √3 x √ (3542.682 + 39.092)
= 6136.48 volts
6. A 3 phase 10 pole 600 rpm star connected alternator has 12 slots/pole with 8 conductors per
slot. The windings are short chorded by 2 slots. The flux per pole contains a fundamental of
100 mwb, the third harmonic having an amplitude of 33% and fifth harmonic of 20% of the
fundamental. Determine the rms value of the phase and line voltages.

Soln: P = 10, Ns= 600 rpm, 12 slots/pole, 8 cond/slot star connected

Slots/ploe/phase m = 4,
slot angle β = 180/number of slots/ pole = 180/ 12 = 150
chording angle α = 2 x slot angle = 2 x 15 =300

Air gap fluxes

Φ1= 100 mwb;
Φ3 = 33% of Φ1 = 0.33 x 100 = 33 mwb
Φ5 = 20% of Φ1 = 0.2 x 100 = 20 mwb

Pitch factors
kp1 = cos α /2 = cos 30/2 = 0.9659
kp3 = cos 3 x 30/2 = 0.707
kp5 = cos 5 x 30/2 = 0.2588

Distribution factors
kd1 = sin ( 4 x 15/2) / 4 sin(15/2)
= 0.9576

kd3 = sin ( 4 x 3 x 15/2) / 4 sin (3 x 15/2)

= 0.6532

kd5 = sin ( 4 x 5 x 15/2) / 4 sin (5 x 15/2)

= 0.2053

Total number of conductors = cond/slot x slot/pole x no. of poles

= 8 x 12 x 10
= 960
Turns/phase = Z/6 = 960 /6 = 160

emf induced for any nth harmonic En ph = 4.44 kpn kdn (nf ) Φn Tph

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fundamental voltage Eph1 = 4.44 kp1 kd1 f Φ1 Tph

= 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 50 x 0.1 x 160
= 3285.4volts
Similarly 3rd harmonic voltage Eph3 = 541.39 volts
5th harmonic voltage Eph5 = 37.74 volts

Phase voltage = √ (E2ph1 + E2ph3 + E2ph5)

= √ (3285.42 + 541.392 + 37.742)

= 3329.92 volts

Line voltage = √3 x √ (E2ph1+ E2ph5)

= √3 x √ (3285.42 + 37.742)
= 5690.85 volts

7. A three phase 600 kVA, 400 volts, delta connected alternator is reconnected in star. Calculate
its new ratings in terms of voltage, current and volt-ampere.

Slon: (i) when the machine is delta connected

VL = Vph = 400 volts
Volt-ampere = √3 x VL x IL = 600 kVA
Hence IL = 600 kVA/ √3 x 400 = 866 amps
and Iph = IL / √3 = 866 /√3 = 500 amps

When it is reconnected in star phase voltage and phase current will remain same, as
Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph and Iph = Vph /Zph

(ii) When star connected

Vph = 400 volts and VL = √3 x Vph = √3 x 400 = 692.8 volts
IL = Iph = 500 amps
Hence VA rating = √3 x VL x IL = √3 x 692.8 x 500 = 600 kVA

Irrespective of the type of connection the power output of the alternator remains same.
Only line voltage and line currents will change.

3.26 Operation of Alternators:

Similar to the case of DC generator, the behaviour of a Synchronous generator connected to an

external load is different than that at no-load. In order to understand the performance of the
Synchronous generator when it is loaded, consider the flux distributions in the machine when the
armature also carries a current. Unlike in the DC machine in alternators the emf peak and the current
peak will not occur in the same coil due to the effect of the power factor of the load. The current and
the induced emf will be at their peaks in the same coil only for upf loads. For zero power factor
lagging loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil which falls behind that coil wherein the induced
emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. Likewise for zero power factor leading

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loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil which is ahead of that coil wherein the induced emf is at its
peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. For simplicity, assume the resistance and leakage
reactance of the stator windings to be negligible. Also assume the magnetic circuit to be linear i.e. the
flux in the magnetic circuit is deemed to be proportional to the resultant ampere-turns - in other words
the machine is operating in the linear portion of the magnetization characteristics. Thus the emf
induced is the same as the terminal voltage, and the phase-angle between current and emf is
determined only by the power factor (pf) of the external load connected to the synchronous generator.
3.27 Armature Reaction:
Magnetic fluxes in alternators
There are three main fluxes associated with an alternator:
(i) Main useful flux linked with both field & armature winding.
(ii) Leakage flux linked only with armature winding.
(iii) Leakage flux linked only with field winding.

The useful flux which links with both windings is due to combined mmf of the armature winding and
field winding. When the armature winding of an alternator carries current then an mmf sets in
armature. This armature mmf reacts with field mmf producing the resultant flux, which differs from
flux of field winding alone. The effect of armature reaction depends on nature of load (power factor of
load). At no load condition, the armature has no reaction due to absence of armature flux. When
armature delivers current at unity power factor load, then the resultant flux is displaced along the air
gap towards the trailing pole tip. Under this condition, armature reaction has distorting effect on mmf
wave as shown in Figure. At zero lagging power factor loads the armature current is lagging by
90° with armature voltage. Under this condition, the position of armature conductor when inducing
maximum emf is the centre line of field mmf. Since there is no distortion but the two mmf are in
opposition, the armature reaction is now purely demagnetizing as shown in Figure. Now at zero power
factor leading, the armature current leads armature voltage by 90°. Under this condition, the mmf of
armature as well as the field winding are in same phase and additive. The armature mmf has
magnetizing effect due to leading armature current as shown in Figure.

Armature reaction:

(a) Unity Power Factor

Figure 3.58

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Figure 3.59 : Distorting Effect of Armature Reaction

(b) Zero Power Factor Lagging

Figure 3.60 : Demagnetizing Effect of Armature Reaction

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F =HUR3RZHU)DFWRU/HDGLQJ

Figure 3.61: Magnetizing Effect of Armature Reaction

3.28 The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

The voltage ‘E’ is the internal generated voltage produced in one phase of a synchronous generator. If
the machine is not connected to a load (no armature current flowing), the terminal voltage ‘V’ will be
equivalent to the voltage induced at the stator coils. This is due to the fact that there are no current
flow in the stator coils hence no losses and voltage drop. When there is a load connected to the
generator, there will be difference between E and V. These differences are due to:

a) Distortion of the air gap magnetic field by the current flowing in the stator called armature
reaction.
b) Self inductance of the armature coil
c) Resistance of the armature coils
d) The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.

We will explore factors a, b, and c and derive a machine equivalent circuit from them. The effect of
salient pole rotor shape will be ignored, and all machines in this chapter are assumed to have
nonsalient or cylindrical rotors.

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Armature Reaction

When the rotor is run, a voltage E is induced in the stator windings. If a load is connected to the
terminals of the generator, a current flows. The 3-phase stator current flow will produce a magnetic
field of its own. This stator magnetic field will distort the original rotor magnetic field, changing the
resulting phase voltage. This effect is called armature reaction because the armature (stator) current
affects the magnetic field.
From the phasor diagrams of the armature reaction it can be seen that E0 is the emf induced under no
load condition and E can be considered as the emf under loaded condition. It can also be understood
that the E0 is the emf induced due to the field winding acting alone and E is the emf induced when
both field winding and stator winding are acting in combination. Hence emf E can be considered as
sum of E0 and another fictitious emf Ea proportional to the stator current. From the figures it can be
seen that the emf Ea is always in quadrature with current. This resembles the emf induced in an
inductive reactance. Hence the effect of armature reaction is exactly same as if the stator has an
additional reactance xa= Ea/I. This is called the armature reaction reactance. The leakage reactance is
the true reactance and the armature reaction reactance is a fictitious reactance.

Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance

The synchronous reactance is an equivalent reactance the effects of which are supposed to reproduce
the combined effects of both the armature leakage reactance and the armature reaction. The alternator
is supposed to have no armature reaction at all, but is supposed to possess an armature reactance in
excess of its true leakage reactance. When the synchronous reactance is combined vectorially with the
armature resistance, a quantity called the synchronous impedance is obtained as shown in figure .

OA = Armature Resistance
AB = Leakage Reactance
BC = Equivalent Reactance of Armature Reaction
AC = Synchronous Reactance
OC = Synchronous Impedance

Figure 

From the above discussion it is clear that the armature winding has one more reactance called armature
reaction reactance in addition to leakage reactance and resistance. Considering all the three parameters

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the equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator can be written as shown below. The sum of leakage
reactance and armature reaction reactance is called synchronous reactance Xs. Under this condition
impedance of the armature winding is called the synchronous impedance Zs.

Hence synchronous reactance Xs = Xl + Xa Ω per phase

and synchronous impedance Zs = Ra + j Xs Ω per phase
As the armature reaction reactance is dependent on armature current so is synchronous reactance and
hence synchronous impedance is dependent on armature current or load current.

Fig.

Considering the above equivalent circuit the phasor diagram of a non salient pole alternator for various
loading conditions considered above in fig. 24 – 26 can be written as shown below.
In the phasor diagrams E is the induced emf /phase = Eph and V is the terminal voltage /phase = Vph.
From each of the phasor diagrams the expression for the induced emf Eph can be expressed in terms of
Vph, armature current, resistance, reactances and impedance of the machine as follows.

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(i) Unity power factor load

Fig 

Under unity power factor load: Eph = (V + IRa) + j (IXS)

Eph = √[ (V + IRa)2 + (IXS)2]

(ii) Zero power factor lagging

Fig 3.65
Under zero power factor lagging: Eph = V + (IRa + j IXS) = V + I(Ra + j XS)
The above expression can also be written as Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ + IXS)2]
(iii) Zero power factor leading
Under zero power factor leading:
Similarly for this case

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