Chapter 12

Controlling the Process

12.1 THE NEED FOR PROCESS CONTROL

Up to this point, the description of the acid-neutralization problem has used an aver-
age ow rate and concentration of HCl, and from these the ow rate and concentration of
NaOH needed to neutralize the HCl were determined. If the HCl ow rate and concen-
tration and the NaOH concentration all remained perfectly constant, the NaOH ow rate
could likewise be kept constant. However, process variables rarely remain constant on their
own. Rather, they tend to vary with time as illustrated in Figure 12.1. In Figure 12.1a, the
process variable of interest (e.g., a ow rate) changes signicantly with time but continues
to oscillate around the desired value. Substantial changes such as these make it difcult
to obtain a product with the desired characteristics (e.g., concentration) at any given time.
Even worse, if the product shown in Figure 12.1a is used as an input to a downstream
process, the quality of that downstream process is severely compromised. Figure 12.1b
illustrates the undesirable situation where the process steadily drifts away from the desired
output. In contrast, Figure 12.1c illustrates the desired situation where any variations in the
product characteristics are kept within a narrow band around the desired value. In order to
achieve this, we need a method of controlling the process.

a b c
Process
Variable Desired Value
of
Interest

Time Time Time

Figure 12.1 Examples of variation in the value of a process variable where that value (a) oscillates around the desired value, (b)
drifts away from the desired value, and (c) stays close to its desired value

The HCl entering the acid-neutralization process comes from the existing part of the
plant and is received into a holding tank (Figure 12.2). It is then drawn from that tank via
a pump, which delivers it to the acid-neutralization process. Furthermore, our experience
shows that the production rate of that HCl uctuates and also drifts as depicted in Figure
12.1a and 12.1b. If the production rate exceeds the ow rate of the pump for a sufciently-
long time, the HCl will overll the tank, and if the production rate falls below the ow
rate of the pump, the tank will run dry. Thus, the ow rate of HCl leaving the holding tank
would need to be adjusted frequently to avoid these problems, and the most common way

201
202 Chapter 12 Controlling the Process

of doing this is to place a valve downstream of the centrifugal pump (Figure 12.3). Fur-
ther, with this variation in HCl ow to the acid-neutralization process, the NaOH ow rate
would need to be constantly adjusted in order to prevent the pH of the stream discharged to
the lake from falling outside the required limits. In addition, the amount of heat removed
from the neutralized stream would need to be adjusted in order to obtain the desired outlet
temperature. Clearly, several controls are needed to successfully run the process.

HCl from
Manufacturing
Process

Figure 12.2 The holding tank for HCl at the beginning of the acid-neutralization process

HCl from Valve

Manufacturing
Process

Figure 12.3 The use of a valve to vary the ow rate from the HCl holding tank

Many years ago, processes were controlled manually by people, called operators, who
watched the dials and gauges that displayed what was going on in the process. From the
readings on the dials and gauges, and based on their experience and training, the operators
turned knobs and valves to make corrections in the process. An example of manual control
applied to the liquid level in the HCl holding tank would be to have an operator frequently
walk out to the tank and look at its liquid level and then manually open or close the valve
on the outlet stream if the liquid level in the tank were too high or too low. This form of
control was improved by adding a measurement device or sensor to detect the liquid level
and to transmit that level via an electronic signal to the control room so that it could be
determined remotely without having to walk out and look into the tank. Also, a pneumatic
valve (operated with pressurized air) was added to allow remote adjustment of the ow rate
out of the tank. With these additions, the operator could determine the level in the tank and
manually adjust the outlet ow to compensate for level changes without ever leaving the
control room.
An even better alternative to the manual control discussed above is a fully automated
control system. In such a system, a controller (usually a computer) performs the role of the
operator (Figure 12.4). Thus, the signal from the level sensor is sent to the controller instead
of to the operator. The controller then sends an output signal directly to the valve in order
to make the proper adjustment in the ow rate. Such automatic control systems consisting
of hardware and software operate continuously without direct human involvement. They
also operate precisely and consistently. Because of this, they provide more precise control,
improved safety, and improved product quality by avoiding human error and variability.
 12.2 Feedback Control 203

Level Controller
Level Sensor LC
HCl from
Manufacturing
Process

Figure 12.4 Automated control of the level in the HCl holding tank

Strategies have been pursued for many years to perfect these automated systems
through the development of improved control algorithms (software) and better hardware.
Process control is now an essential element of modern chemical processes. In fact, process
control is considered as a standard subdiscipline of chemical engineering and represents
an area of specialty for many chemical engineers. The purpose of this section is to intro-
duce you to this aspect of chemical engineering by describing a couple of basic automatic
control strategies that are widely used.
Let’s begin our discussion with a denition:

Process Control
(Denition) Process control is maintaining a process output (e.g., a concentration, temperature,
or ow rate) within desired specications by continually adjusting other variables in
that process.

To illustrate, consider again the liquid level in the HCl holding tank in Figure 12.4. As
mentioned previously, a control system is needed to keep this storage tank from overlling
or draining completely. Thus, the goal is to “control” a particular variable (in this case, the
liquid level in the tank), so that variable is called the controlled variable. Furthermore, the
controlled variable (the level) is to be held at a desired value (e.g., 2 ft. from the top of the
tank), called the setpoint. Variables that affect the value of the controlled variable are called
input variables or inputs, and, in this case, include the ow rate of HCl into the tank and
the ow rate of HCl out of the tank. Some of those inputs undergo uncontrolled changes,
called disturbances, such as changes in the ow rate of HCl into the tank determined by
some unknown conditions upstream. Those disturbances cause a difference between the
value of the controlled variable and the setpoint (e.g., between the current liquid level and
the desired level); that difference is called an error. Typically, a controller is used to adjust
one of the inputs (the input being adjusted is the manipulated variable), to reduce the error.
In the case represented by Figure 12.4, the manipulated variable is the ow rate of HCl out
of the tank, which is adjusted with a valve in order to maintain the proper liquid level in
the tank. With this background, two common control strategies will now be dened and
discussed.

12.2 FEEDBACK CONTROL

The control system represented in Figure 12.4 and described above is an example of
feedback control. Let’s now generalize this strategy (see Figure 12.5). In feedback con-
trol, the controlled variable is monitored over time via some sort of sensor (level sensor,
ow meter, etc.). Using the measured values of the controlled variable, the feedback con-
troller (typically a computer) adjusts an input variable (manipulated variable) via one or
204 Chapter 12 Controlling the Process

more affectors (e.g., a valve). The structure consisting of the sensor, controller, and affec-
tor, together with the communication lines that connect them (electronic or pneumatic), is
commonly referred to as the feedback control loop.

Feedback
Controller
FB
Affector Sensor
Input Process Output
(Manipulated) (Controlled)
Variable Variable
Figure 12.5 Elements and strategy of a feedback control loop

Feedback control can be applied to at least two other areas of the acid-neutralization
process. For example, it can be used to control the pH of the neutralized acid stream, where
the controlled variable, the pH of the liquid leaving the mixer, would be measured by a pH
sensor and fed back to a concentration controller (CC) that adjusts the NaOH ow rate
(Figure 12.6a). Feedback control could also be used to control the nal outlet temperature
of the neutralized acid by sensing that temperature and adjusting the cooling water ow
rate (Figure 12.6b).

a b Control Valve
TC
Cooling
HCl Tank CC Water
Control Valve
Disposal
Product
NaOH Tank Mixer pH Sensor Temperature Sensor
Product
Cooler
Figure 12.6 Feedback control of (a) the pH and (b) the temperature of the disposal product

Note that in feedback control, the value of the controlled variable must be different
from the setpoint in order for the controller to act. Furthermore, as the value of the con-
trolled variable approaches the setpoint, the controller will continue to make adjustments
in response to the updated value of the error. When the corrections are of the proper mag-
nitude, the value of the controlled variable will approach its desired value as quickly as
possible given the system dynamics (Figure 12.7a).

a b c

Value of
Controlled Set Point
Variable

Time Time Time

Figure 12.7 Feedback control response curves when the corrections are (a) of the proper magnitude, (b) too small, and (c) too
large
 12.3 Feedforward Control 205

As evident from the above discussion, one characteristic of feedback control is that it
responds to the difference between the setpoint and the measured value of the controlled
variable (the “error”). The engineer can change the response of a control loop by telling the
controller how much of a change to make in the output signal for a given error (i.e., change
the parameters in the controller). Obviously, the goal is for the controller parameters to
drive the value of the controlled variable to the setpoint as rapidly as possible (Figure
12.7a). If the changes specied for a given error are too small, the response of the con-
troller will be slow or sluggish as shown in Figure 12.7b. However, if the magnitude of the
specied change is too large, the controller will overcorrect, causing oscillating behavior
(Figure 12.7c) or perhaps even an unstable response (where some process variables even
reach a dangerous level). Later in your chemical engineering curriculum you will learn to
describe the time-dependent behavior of chemical processes (your calculus becomes par-
ticularly important here). You will also learn about the algorithms used by controllers to
determine the appropriate output signal, and how to determine the parameters that are best
for a given control situation.

12.3 FEEDFORWARD CONTROL

In feedforward control, the input variables (disturbances) are monitored via sensors,
and the feedforward controller predicts the effect of the disturbances on the output and
adjusts the manipulated variable to offset the predicted effect (Figure 12.8). In contrast to
feedback control, the output (controlled) variable is not measured in feedforward control,
but the adjustment of the manipulated variable(s) is based solely on how the process is
expected to behave (from a mathematical model). Once again, the structure consisting of
the sensor, controller, and affector, together with the communication lines that connect
them (electronic or pneumatic), is commonly referred to as the feedforward control loop.

Feedforward
Controller
FF
Sensor Affector
Input Process Output
(Manipulated) (Controlled)
Variable Variable
Figure 12.8 Elements and strategy of a feedforward control loop

Let’s apply feedforward control to the maintenance of the pH of the mixer outlet to
compensate for variations in the HCl ow rate entering the acid-neutralization process.
Feedforward control relies on measuring the disturbance(s); therefore, we would need to
add a ow sensor in the stream from the HCl holding tank. The measurements from this
sensor would be sent to a feedforward controller, which would predict the effect of changes
in this measured variable on the nal pH and would determine the output signal needed to
adjust the NaOH ow rate in order to achieve the desired pH (Figure 12.9). For example,
if the HCl ow rate from the holding tank increased, the feedforward controller would
immediately increase the NaOH ow rate, without waiting for a change in the nal pH to
occur before responding. In other words, an error or deviation from setpoint is not needed
for the feedforward system to respond.
206 Chapter 12 Controlling the Process

Flow
Sensor

HCl Tank Control

FF Valve

NaOH Tank Mixer

Figure 12.9 Feedforward control of the pH in response to variations in HCl ow

This illustration of feedforward control to manage the pH was based on only one
disturbance, namely variations in HCl ow rate, but other disturbances might also be an-
ticipated. For example, the inlet concentration of the HCl might vary. The concentration
of the NaOH solution might also vary, even though it is purchased commercially (even
small variations could be important because of the sensitivity of the nal pH to very small
changes). How would you construct feedforward control loops to compensate for these
variations?

12.4 COMPARISON OF STRATEGIES

Each of the two control strategies, feedback and feedforward control, has advantages
and disadvantages. Feedback control actually measures the controlled variable and is there-
fore capable of responding to all disturbances that affect this variable. It has the disad-
vantage, however, that the controlled variable must deviate from the desired value before
corrective action is taken (i.e., there must be an error). Thus, it is possible that systems
that respond slowly to corrections (i.e., systems that require a long time to come back to
the set point after a deviation occurs) may deviate signicantly from the desired setpoint
when under feedback control. Feedforward control has the advantage that it can correct
for measured disturbances before the controlled variable is affected. Therefore, it has the
potential of preventing the controlled variable from deviating from the desired value and
can be very advantageous in some systems. However, feedforward control does not di-
rectly measure the controlled variable, but relies on some kind of model to predict its
value from the values and trends of the input variables. Any errors or imperfections in the
model, such as inaccurate predictive equations or failure to account for all disturbances,
will lead to deviations of the controlled variable from the desired value, a situation that
cannot be corrected with feedforward control. Consequently, feedback control is the con-
trol strategy most commonly used. In situations where feedforward control is particularly
advantageous, it is usually used in combination with feedback control to achieve the best
of both strategies.
In keeping with the philosophy described above, Figure 12.10 illustrates the three
feedback control loops we have mentioned for the acid-neutralization process (the level in
the HCl holding tank, the pH of the neutralized acid, and the cooler outlet temperature).
It also shows the one feedforward loop we have discussed for controlling the pH of the
neutralized acid used in combination with the feedback loop for that same system.
Controllers being produced and installed today are digital computers that communi-
cate with the sensors and affectors. Computer-based controllers offer exibility in control
equations and parameters and the ability to interface multiple control systems together.
 12.4 Comparison of Strategies 207

LC
Level Sensor Flow Control Valve
HCl from 1 TC
Sensor
Manu- A Cooling
facturing CC 5 Water
Process HCl Tank
FF
2 3 4 Disposal
Product
Mixer 6
NaOH Tank Product Temperature Sensor
pH Sensor
Cooler

Figure 12.10 The acid-neutralization process with feedback control loops, including a level controller (LC), temperature
controller (TC), and concentration controller (CC), and with a feedforward controller (FF)

♦ Batteries and Hybrid Vehicles as Applications of Process Control

Besides controlling the product quality in an industrial is a power-split or series-parallel hybrid that can be oper-
facility (e.g., a large chemical or food plant), control systems ated on the combustion engine alone or the batteries alone,
are also prevalent in our everyday lives. Examples include or using a combination of both.1 Maximum exibility is ob-
the control of the temperature in your oven, the thermostat tained by interconverting between mechanical and electri-
that controls your furnace, and the cruise control on your car cal power. The operation of the vehicle is directed by a so-
(not to mention the numerous control systems that keep your phisticated control system that determines the best source of
car running properly). Here are two everyday applications of power based on driving conditions and the state-of-charge
process control that you might not be aware of. of the batteries. Toyota has clearly led the way in hybrid ve-
One common use of control is the charging system for hicle development with the innovative Prius, an engineering
batteries. Batteries are used pervasively in today’s world of work of art that is protected by hundreds of patents.2 .
mobile electronics. Of particular interest are rechargeable
lithium-based batteries for applications such as cell phones
and portable computers. While rapid charging is desirable
from a consumer perspective, battery capacity and lifetime
can be severely reduced by overcharging, charging too fast,
or other forms of charging that are not suitable. Fortunately,
these issues are easily addressed with electronic systems (tai-
lored to the specic battery chemistry) that control the charg-
ing of the battery. Thus, chemical and electrical engineers
work closely to design, characterize, and control battery op-
eration in order to optimize performance.
Hybrid electric vehicles represent an application of con-
trol that is becoming increasingly important. These vehicles
use multiple power sources to reduce emissions and greatly
enhance overall fuel efciency. For example, Toyota’s Prius Toyota Prius III, courtesy of S 400 Hybrid3
208 Chapter 12 Controlling the Process

REFERENCES
1. “Power-split or series-parallel hybrid,” Retrieved June 30, 2010 from http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid vehicle drivetrain#Power-split or series-parallel hybrid.
2. Windsor Star, “Toyota Prius: 60 mpg,” January 13, 2009, Retrieved from http://www.
canada.com/windsorstar/news/automotive/story.html?id=e67773cf-b47e-4fe3-9c7e-38
ca4446b01c.
3. S 400 Hybrid, “Toyota Prius III,” July 10, 2009, Retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Toyota Prius III 20090710 front.JPG.

READING QUESTIONS
1. Why is a combination of feedback and feedforward control 2. Identify the controlled variable and the manipulated vari-
better than using either feedback or feedforward control alone? able in the control loops represented in Figures 12.6a and 12.6b.

HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
1. For each of the following systems, identify the control mode 4. A reactor in which an endothermic reaction takes place
as either feedback or feedforward, and identify the controlled is held at constant temperature via a heating uid circulated
variable and the manipulated variable: through a heating jacket around the reactor, as shown.
a. Thermostat in your home or apartment Feed
b. Speed (cruise) control in an automobile
Reactor
2. Each of the following activities has some aspects that ex-
Heating
hibit feedback control and some that exhibit feedforward con- Jacket
trol. For each activity, describe at least one aspect that is feed- Heating
back and one that is feedforward: Fluid

a. Riding a bicycle
Product
b. Being a student
a. Sketch a feedback control loop for this process to con-
3. Consider a feedforward control loop to control the cooling- trol the temperature inside the reactor by adjusting the
water ow rate in the acid-neutralization process. ow rate of the heating uid. In your sketch, label all
a. What disturbances might be important to anticipate in the components of the loop.
the controller? b. Sketch a feedforward control loop for this process to
b. Design (sketch) such a control loop and identify the im- control the temperature inside the reactor by adjusting
portant components. the ow rate of the heating uid. Your control loop should
be capable of responding to variations in the tempera-
c. If you could only use a feedback loop or a feedforward
ture of the incoming heating uid and variations in the
loop for this particular application, which is preferred?
ow rate of the incoming reactor feed (and hence the
Why?
rate of reaction).