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Prelims.qxd 11/14/07 2:28 PM Page i
Forensics under Fire

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≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

Are Bad Science and Dueling Experts
Corrupting Criminal Justice?
JIM FISHER
≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY, AND LONDON

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Fisher, Jim, –

Forensics under fire : are bad science and dueling experts corrupting criminal
justice? / Jim Fisher.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN ‒‒‒‒ (hardcover : alk. paper)
. Criminal investigation—United States. . Crime scene searches—United
States. . Forensic sciences—United States. . Evidence, Criminal—United States
I. Title.
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.—dc 
CIP
A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available

from the British Library.
Copyright ©  by Jim Fisher
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No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
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Prelims.qxd 11/14/07 2:28 PM Page v
It is through clues that we form our opinion about the facts

of a case. There is only one alternative: to catch the culprit
red-handed.
—Theodore Reik, The Compulsion to Confess, 1959
Clues are tangible signs which prove—or seem to prove—that

no crime can be committed by thought only and that we live in
a world regulated by mechanical laws. The dead man was not
killed by a ghostly hand but by a murderer of flesh and blood.
—Theodore Reik, The Unknown Murderer, 1945
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CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction 1
PART ONE
Diagnosing Death: Problems in the
Science and Practice of Forensic Pathology 9
1 Forensic Pathologists from Hell: Bungled Autopsies,

Bad Calls, and Blown Cases 13
2 A Question of Credibility: Bad Reputations and the

Politics of Death 29
3 The Sudden Infant Death Debate: Dr. Roy Meadow,

Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy, and Meadow’s Law 47
4 Infants Who Can’t Breathe: Illness or Suffocation? 67
5 Swollen Brains and Broken Bones: Disease or Infanticide? 79
PART TWO
Crime-Scene Impression Identification:
Forensic Science or Subjective Analysis? 101
6 Fingerprint Identification: Trouble in Paradise 103
7 Fingerprints Never Lie: Except in Scotland 123
8 Shoe-Print Identification and Foot Morphology:

The Lay Witness and the Cinderella Analysis 139
9 Bite-Mark Identification: Do Teeth Leave Prints? 153
vii
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viii CONTENTS
10 Ear-Mark Identification: Emerging Science or

Bad Evidence? 169
PART THREE
Hired Guns, Smoke Blowers, and Phonies:
The Expert Witness Problem 179
11 Expert versus Expert: The Handwriting Wars in the

Ramsey Case 182
12 John Mark Karr: DNA Trumps the Graphologists
in the Ramsey Case 206
13 Hair and Fiber Identification: An Inexact Science 218
14 DNA Analysis: Backlogs, Sloppy Work, and
Unqualified People 231
15 Bullet Identification, FBI Style: Overselling the Science 244
16 The Celebrity Expert: Dr. Henry Lee 253
Conclusion 275
Notes 287
Sources 291
Index 317
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PREFACE
I’ve spent most of my adult life investigating crime, teaching criminal inves-
tigation, writing about the subject, and trying to figure out why so many seri-
ous crimes in the United States either go unsolved or lead to wrongful
convictions. I’ve concluded that the law enforcement wars on drugs and ter-
rorism have militarized the police and marginalized criminal investigation
as a law enforcement function. Since forensic science is mainly in service to
criminal investigation, scientific crime detection is not being fully utilized
and so hasn’t lived up to its full criminal justice potential.
In the 1920s forensic science pioneers and their supporters believed that
one day scientific criminal investigation would significantly increase crime
solution rates and at the same time reduce the dependence on the unreliable
evidence produced by the third degree, eyewitness testimony, and jailhouse
informants. This has not happened, at least not to a great enough extent, and
to that degree, forensic science is a failed promise.
While the failure of forensic science to fully achieve its potential
involves many realities beyond its control, there are problems within the
profession that can be fixed by the practitioners themselves. Thinking about
the nature and severity of these problems, how they affect the criminal
justice system, and how they might be solved led me to write this book.
Jim Fisher
February 13, 2007
ix
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful for the help of Karl Kageff, who read an early draft of the manu-
script and made helpful and important suggestions.
At Rutgers University Press, Doreen Valentine’s strong editorial hand
helped transform a flawed manuscript into a better book. Even experienced
writers can learn from a truly outstanding editor.
I am indebted to criminal investigator and author Robert L. Snow, whose
review of the manuscript led to significant improvements. I would also like
to thank Dr. James D. Fisher for his editorial suggestions. And finally, thanks
to Veronica Fisher for her computer expertise.
xi
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Intro.qxd 11/9/07 11:34 AM Page 1
Introduction
A crime-scene photographer is snapping shots of a dead woman lying face-

down in her kitchen. The blood pooled on the floor has been tracked around
the house by someone wearing a pair of men’s shoes. A detective is sketching
the scene while a fingerprint technician examines the . caliber pistol lying
next to the woman’s body. A second criminalist gathers up the shell casing and,
from the kitchen table, the handwritten suicide note. Another investigator is
placing paper lunch bags over the hands of the victim’s husband, who had
made the  call. At the request of this detective, this man—let’s call him Bill
Smith—has changed out of his shoes, socks, and trousers. These items have
been placed into separate evidence containers. Uniformed officers are sealing
off the house and standing guard to keep unauthorized visitors from the site.
At the police station someone from the crime laboratory using a wad of
cotton and a special solution swabs Smith’s hands for traces of gunshot
residue. Then the detectives who were at the crime scene question him.
Smith says that his wife, Mary, had been depressed and threatening suicide.
Also, she had been drinking heavily and taking sleeping pills. When he left for
work that morning at eight she was still in bed. He had called her from the
office at two in the afternoon, and other than sounding a little intoxicated,
she seemed okay. The firearm, purchased two weeks earlier for home protec-
tion, was his. He tells the detectives that he arrived home at five o’clock,
entered the house through the front door, took a couple of steps and then
spotted his wife’s body on the floor. He says he knew at once she was dead and
did not approach her body or walk into the kitchen. Instead, he ran out of the
house and called . A detective asks if he’d be willing to take a polygraph
1
2 FORENSICS UNDER FIRE
test. Smith says no, he doesn’t believe in lie detectors. He does agree to pro-
vide samples of his handwriting and to be fingerprinted. He assures the detec-
tives that he has nothing to hide and that he wants to help the police in their
investigation.
The autopsy reveals that Mary Smith had been shot once in the chest. The
powder-burn pattern on her skin suggests that the shot came from between six
and twelve inches away from her. Based on early signs of postmortem lividity—
light purple discoloration on the anterior plane (front) of her body caused by
the settling of her blood—the forensic pathologist believes that she has been
dead much longer than three hours. This means that Bill Smith could not have
talked to his wife that afternoon at two o’clock. Early stages of rigor mortis—
body stiffening—also suggest a time of death inconsistent with Smith’s alibi
that he was at work when she killed herself. The pathologist has also found, on
the edge of Mary Smith’s right hand, a nick made by a bullet, trauma referred
to as a defense wound, evidence that belies suicide. As far as the pathologist
can determine without a full toxicological analysis, the victim had not been
under the influence of alcohol or drugs when she died.
The next day the crime lab issues the gunshot residue report, which
reveals that Mary Smith’s hands tested negative for traces of gunpowder. But
it’s a different story for her husband: his right hand tested positive, which
means that he, not the victim, had recently fired a handgun. The serological
analysis of his shoes, socks, and trousers reveals traces of AB negative blood,
which happens to be his wife’s blood type. His is A positive. DNA tests are
pending. A footwear identification expert from the crime lab has compared
the bottoms of Bill Smith’s shoes with the bloody impressions in the kitchen.
The forensic impression analyst has concluded that the shoes made these
murder-scene marks. This means that Bill Smith lied about not approaching
his wife’s body in the kitchen.
The fingerprint examiner has found, on the . caliber pistol, several
partial latents left by Bill Smith. There are no fingerprints of his wife’s on the
firearm. The fingerprint expert has also found several of Bill Smith’s latents
on the suicide note, but none from his wife. Based upon ejector and firing-
pin marks on the shell casing, the crime lab’s firearms identification expert
has identified the death-scene pistol as the gun that fired the fatal shot.
A forensic document examiner has determined that the handwriting in
the suicide note looks more like Bill Smith’s than like his wife’s. This hand-
writing expert has also discovered that the signature on a recently purchased
INTRODUCTION 3
life insurance policy for Mary Smith—naming Bill Smith the $, bene-
ficiary—is not his wife’s. The document expert is analyzing the signature and
Bill Smith’s handwriting samples to determine if he is the forger.
Based on the fingerprint, shoe impression, blood, handwriting, gunshot
residue, defense wound, range-of-shot, and time-of-death evidence, the
forensic pathologist declares Mary Smith’s death a criminal homicide. When
detectives confront Bill Smith with the forensic science findings, he con-
fesses. His wife had been about to divorce him, which would have left him
broke. He had shot her and tried to make the death look like a suicide. He
also admits forging his wife’s signature on the life insurance document.
The foregoing murder story reflects how police officers, detectives,
crime-scene technicians, crime-lab personnel, and forensic pathologists can
work together to uncover the truth. Unfortunately, this example of forensic
science in action does not represent the way most homicide cases in the
United States are handled. Crime scenes are not always protected from con-
tamination; physical evidence is often packaged improperly, lost, or left unac-
counted for; forensic experts go unconsulted; and mistakes and omissions on
the autopsy table either cut investigations short or send detectives down the
wrong investigative path. These and other problems in the practice of foren-
sic science allow offenders to escape justice and can also lead to the impris-
onment of innocent people. The proper application of forensic science has
the potential to make our criminal justice system work as designed, but until
this potential is realized, our process of identifying and prosecuting offenders
will remain seriously flawed.
THE PRINCIPAL ROLE of the forensic scientist is to identify physical crime-

scene evidence by comparing it to known samples obtained either from a
suspect’s person or from an object such as a gun, shoe, or burglar tool that
this person has possessed, worn, or otherwise been associated with. Forensic
science relies on the principle that the criminal leaves part of himself or
something that he’s associated with at the scene of the crime. Evidence left
at the site of a crime might include blood, semen, fingerprints, shoe impres-
sions, bite marks, hair follicles, textile fibers, bullets, and tire tracks. Moreover,
the suspect will often inadvertently take something away from the scene.
A criminal might, for example, leave the crime site carrying traces of the
victim’s blood and tissue under his fingernails, or follicles of the victim’s hair
or fibers from her carpet on his clothing.
The theory that a criminal perpetrator leaves a part of himself at the

scene of a crime and takes a piece of the crime site with him was postulated
by Edmund Locard, who in  in Lyon, France, established the world’s first
crime lab. Referred to as the Locard exchange principle, this idea, along with
the need to reconstruct what took place at the site of a criminal act, is the
basic rationale behind crime-scene investigation. The term “associative evi-
dence” describes traces of things that, pursuant to the Locard principle, con-
nect a suspect to or associate him with the scene of an offense.
Simply put, forensic science involves the application of hard science and
technology to the investigation of crime, the proof of guilt or innocence at a
criminal trial, and the resolution of factual issues in civil litigation. The most
widely used components of forensic science are forensic chemistry, toxicol-
ogy, biology, mineralogy, serology (bodily fluids), anthropology (bones),
pathology (autopsies), and odontology (teeth and bite-mark identification).
The process of firearms identification, once called forensic ballistics, incor-
porates knowledge and science in a variety of fields including gunsmithing,
ordnance, ballistics, chemistry, metallurgy, microscopy, photography, and
the forensic pathology of gunshot wounds. Latent (crime-scene) fingerprint
identification and forensic document examination—the identification of
unknown handwriting and the analysis of paper, ink, and printing instru-
ments—are also part of the forensic science field.
Because inferences of guilt or innocence are drawn from the analysis of
tangible things or circumstances, physical evidence is, by definition, circum-
stantial. For example, a suspect’s latent fingerprint in safe-insulation powder
at the scene of a burglary is direct proof that the suspect was at the site after
the safe had been broken into. That the suspect is the safe burglar requires
an inference; this requirement makes the crime-scene fingerprint evidence
circumstantial. That doesn’t necessarily make this evidence weak; on the
contrary, unless the suspect can convincingly explain his presence at the
burglary scene, he will be convicted. Circumstantial evidence in the form of
physical clues and scientific analysis is, at least in theory, more reliable than
such direct evidence as eyewitness identifications, confessions, and the tes-
timony of jailhouse informants.
Police detectives today have access to science and technology that criminal
investigators prior to the s couldn’t have imagined. For example, before
, detectives could not identify a crime-scene finger mark by submitting it
to a data bank of computerized fingerprint impressions. The Integrated
INTRODUCTION 5
Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) now allows detectives

anywhere in the country to identify a crime-scene print and develop a short list
of suspects. In the past, detectives solved crimes, and forensic scientists—if
physical evidence had been properly gathered—helped prove the case in court.
Today, a computer, not a detective, can solve and prove a crime. A rapist who
has left his semen at the scene of a crime has, in effect, left a genetic finger-
print. The crime-solving and crime-proving potential of IAFIS and DNA, two of
the greatest breakthroughs in the history of forensic science, boggles the mind.
Practitioners of forensic science fall generally into three groups: police
officers who arrive at the scene of a crime and whose job it is to secure the
physical evidence; crime-scene technicians responsible for finding, photo-
graphing, and packaging that physical evidence for crime-lab submission;
and forensic scientists working in public and private crime laboratories who
analyze the evidence and, if the occasion arises, testify in court as expert wit-
nesses. While uniformed police officers and detectives may be trained in the
recognition and handling of physical evidence, they are not scientists and do
not work under laboratory conditions. As a result, a lot can—and does—go
wrong between the crime-scene investigation and the courtroom.
Television shows like CSI, Forensic Files, and The New Detectives have fos-
tered public knowledge and interest in forensic science, even ramping up
scientific expectations for those involved in real-life criminal investigation
and prosecution. Prosecutors call this “the CSI effect,” the expectation
among jurors that the prosecution will feature physical evidence and expert
witnesses. The CSI effect has also caused jurors to expect crime-lab results far
beyond the capacity of forensic science. In cases where there is no physical
evidence, some prosecutors either eliminate potential jurors who are fans of
CSI or downplay the necessity and importance of physical evidence as a
method of proving a defendant’s guilt.
While public expectations of forensic science may be high, even unrea-
sonably so, it is also true that persistent problems within the various foren-
sic fields have kept scientific crime detection from living up to its full
potential. Because a serious shortage of qualified personnel has caused DNA-
testing logjams, rapists, pedophiles, and serial killers have won time to com-
mit more crimes. The shortage of DNA analysts has also placed a heavy
burden on crime-lab personnel, creating problems of quality control. In the
past few years, dozens of crime-lab DNA units have been temporarily closed
when audits revealed sloppy work, scientific errors, unqualified analysts,
weak supervision, poor training, and evidence contamination. Even the

highly regarded FBI laboratory has experienced serious problems in DNA and
other forensic areas.
Ironically, advances in DNA technology have exposed problems in other
fields of forensic science. For example, DNA analysis has revealed that over
the years experts have been overstating the identification value of human
hair follicles and bite-mark impressions. Hundreds of criminal defendants, if
not thousands, have been sent to prison on what many experts now consider
unreliable forensic evidence.
A critical shortage of board-certified forensic pathologists has also
adversely affected the overall quality of homicide investigation. Overworked
forensic pathologists are prone to take shortcuts and make mistakes. The
shortage has meant that in many cases of suspicious death, autopsies are not
performed.
The field of latent fingerprint identification, while still considered the
gold standard of forensic science, has recently come under attack as a result
of a handful of high-profile misidentifications. These cases have revealed
that not all fingerprint examiners have been properly trained, and that many
have either failed or never taken proficiency tests. Questions have also been
raised regarding the scientific objectivity of many fingerprint experts. This is
particularly true of examiners who, as police officers, see themselves as part
of a law enforcement team. Forensic scientists have to be loyal to their sci-
ence even when it displeases the people who employ them, a stance that
takes courage and independence.
There are fakes, incompetents, and charlatans in every profession, but
over the years a series of high-profile cases have featured the so-called experts
from hell, forensic scientists whose false testimony has helped convict inno-
cent people. Many of these experts from hell are hired guns willing to testify
for whoever pays them. The alarming aspect of these expert-from-hell stories
is how long such forensic scientists practice before being exposed and
defrocked. Just below the expert from hell on the damage scale are well-
meaning but incompetent forensic scientists, experts blinded by media atten-
tion, and practitioners who bow to prosecutorial pressure. Maintaining the
firewall between science and criminal prosecution is a constant challenge—
one that is not always met.
Jurors are often called upon to make judgments in trials in which each
side presents an expert, each of whose expert testimony contradicts the
INTRODUCTION 7
other’s. If forensic science is about hard science, how does one explain this
dueling-expert phenomenon? If there is a battery of forensic scientists for
every prosecutor and for every defense, how can there be credible forensic
science for anyone? When jurors are faced with opposing experts, they tend to
disregard entirely the physical evidence upon which the experts are testifying.
Most of the problems in forensic science are caused by personnel short-
ages, poor quality control, the inherent difficulties of crime-scene investiga-
tion, the pressures imposed by the adversarial nature of our trial process, the
lure of pseudoscience, and the evolving character and complexity of science
itself. The criminal cases and forensic science careers featured in this book,
while illustrating the various problems in scientific crime detection, do not
represent the general state of forensic science in the United States. However,
these examples illustrate problems that are not uncommon. But even those
who view forensic science in the best possible light agree there is a lot of
room for improvement.
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 9
PART ONE
Diagnosing Death
Problems in the Science and Practice of
Forensic Pathology
The expert’s greatest weakness lies in the fact that he is called as an

expert and is most reluctant to admit that he doesn’t know all that is
knowable about the subject to which he is called to testify.
—Edward Huntington Williams, The Doctor in Court, 1929
Forensic pathologists are physicians educated and trained to determine the cause
and manner of death in cases involving violent, sudden, or unexplained fatalities.
The cause of death is the medical reason the person died. One cause of death is
asphyxia—lack of oxygen to the brain. It occurs as a result of drowning, suffocation,
manual strangulation, strangulation by ligature (such as a rope, belt, or length of
cloth), crushing, or carbon monoxide poisoning. Other causes of death include
blunt force trauma, gunshot wound, stabbing, slashing, poisoning, heart attack,
stroke, or a sickness such as cancer, pneumonia, or heart disease.
For the forensic pathologist, the most difficult task often involves detecting
the manner of death—natural, accidental, suicidal, or homicidal. This is because
the manner of death isn’t always revealed by the physical condition of the body.
For example, a death resulting from a drug overdose could be the result of homi-
cide, suicide, or accident. Knowing exactly how the fatal drug got into the victim’s
body requires additional information, data that usually come from a police inves-
tigation. A death investigator, for example, will try to find out if the victim had a
history of drug abuse, or if there were signs of a struggle at the scene of the death.
Had this victim attempted suicide in the past? Did the victim leave a suicide note?
9
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10 DIAGNOSING DEATH
Did someone have a compelling motive to kill this person? Is there evidence of a
love triangle, life insurance fraud, hatred, or revenge? And finally, who had access
to this person at the time of his or her death? These are basic investigative leads
that could help a forensic pathologist determine the manner of death.
When the circumstances of a suspicious death are not ascertained or are
sketchy, and the death was not an obvious homicide, the medical examiner (or
coroner) might classify the manner of death as “undetermined.” Drug overdose
cases that are only slightly suspicious and therefore not thoroughly investigated
often go into the books as either accident or suicide. This is true of other forms of
slightly suspicious death. Because a body is found dead in the water doesn’t nec-
essarily mean this person has drowned. This victim could have been murdered
and then dumped into the water. Even in a death by drowning, the person could
have died after being criminally thrown from a boat or off a pier.
Indeed, there are more sudden, violent, and unexplained deaths in the United
States than the nation’s four hundred board-certified forensic pathologists can
handle. This gruesome workload would require at least a thousand. As a result,
not every death that calls for an autopsy gets one. Because there is also a shortage
of qualified criminal investigators, not every death that requires an investigation
gets the attention it deserves. This means we don’t know exactly how many people
in this country are murdered every year. And of the cases we know are homicides,
about  percent go unsolved.
In an obvious homicide—say, when the victim has been shot twice in the back
of the head or stabbed many times between the shoulder blades—there will be at
least a cursory police investigation. The success of that inquiry will often depend
upon what the forensic pathologist is able to determine. An analysis of the fatal
wound may, for example, help identify the murder weapon. A time-of-death esti-
mation may break a suspect’s alibi or place a suspect at the scene at the estimated
time of the murder. An autopsy may reveal that the victim was pregnant, intoxi-
cated, or sexually assaulted. There may be defense wounds on the victim’s hands
and arms that indicate a struggle. The forensic pathologist may find traces of
evidence—hairs, fibers, bodily fluids—that might eventually link the killer to the
crime scene. The proper retrieval of a fatal bullet could lead to the identification of
the murder gun. The forensic pathologist may also be able to tell if a body has
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 11
DIAGNOSING DEATH 11
been posed or dragged to where it was found. Perhaps the death occurred miles
from where the killing took place. In cases of bodies found at fire scenes, the
autopsy will reveal if the victim was killed by some aspect of the fire or died earlier
of another cause.
The autopsy, along with the crime-scene investigation, is the starting point,
the foundation, of a homicide investigation. If something is missed or mishandled
on the autopsy table, if the forensic pathologist draws the wrong conclusion from
the evidence, the investigation is doomed.
In cases of homicide where no autopsy is conducted or the medical examiner
or coroner has incorrectly designated the death natural, an accident, or a suicide,
bringing the killer to justice will be nearly impossible. And medical examiners and
coroners are frequently under pressure from politicians, prosecutors, and homi-
cide detectives to make manner-of-death rulings contrary to what the physical evi-
dence tells them. Prominent people who have died under embarrassing
circumstances have had their deaths sanitized by cooperating police officers, coro-
ners, and medical examiners—for example, a death by drug overdose could go on
the record as a heart attack. Or a detective or prosecutor might ask a forensic
pathologist to estimate a time of death that places the main suspect at the crime
scene at the moment of death. Medical examiners and coroners who think of
themselves as part of a prosecution team are more likely to shade their findings in
the name of law enforcement. Forensic pathologists who believe their first duty is
to science are less prone to tailor their medicolegal findings to suit a prosecutor’s
theory of a case.
Chapter 1 features forensic pathologists whose careers crashed and burned as
a result of incompetence, bias, and dishonesty. They lost their scientific inde-
pendence and objectivity by making cause- and manner-of-death findings based
on factors outside forensic medicine. These practitioners represent the worst of
the worst.
Chapter 2 involves a pair of forensic pathologists who took shortcuts and
made mistakes that damaged their professional credibility. After these patholo-
gists rendered controversial opinions in a pair of politically charged deaths, their
findings were challenged and their credibility questioned. These cases illustrate
the importance of professionalism in the field of forensic pathology and the
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12 DIAGNOSING DEATH
consequences for practitioners who fail to meet the highest standards of

performance.
Chapter 3 deals with the medical science debates over the cause and manner
of sudden infant death. The forensic disputes involve how to distinguish between
crib deaths caused by fatal illnesses, homicide by suffocation, and truly unknown
causes. The chapter chronicles the career of an English child-protection pediatri-
cian, Dr. Roy Meadow, whose theories regarding the relationship between sudden
infant death and murder have come under attack.
Chapter 4 further explores the medicolegal problems associated with the
diagnosis of sudden infant death. The featured cases involve children whose sus-
picious deaths were ruled natural on the strength of breathing disorder theory, a
hypothesis later discredited.
Chapter 5, which wraps up the sudden infant death discussion, is about the
forensic controversy surrounding the medical symptoms—the physical evidence—
of the shaken baby syndrome. Researchers have found that many of the signs of
this syndrome, such as swollen brains and retinal bleeding, can also be caused by
various diseases and birth defects. Until scientists and expert witnesses can agree
on what is the result of disease and what of inflicted trauma, innocent defendants
will go to prison and guilty people will go free. The second half of the chapter deals
with the medicolegal problems associated with distinguishing between children
who have been physically battered and those with broken bones that are the result
of diseases, vaccines, and other noncriminal causes.
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Forensic Pathologists from Hell

Bungled Autopsies, Bad Calls, and Blown Cases
Most forensic pathologists are hardworking, well intentioned, and compe-

tent. Even the best of them can make honest mistakes. But over the years,
there have been several high-profile embarrassments to the profession.
These forensic pathologists, because they were careless, incompetent, cor-
rupt, or weak, did great harm to criminal defendants, victims of crime, and
forensic science. What follows is a rogue’s gallery of run-amok pathologists
who represent what can go wrong in the practice of forensic medicine.
Dr. Ralph Erdmann: The Prosecutor’s Dream,

the Defendant’s Nightmare
In , twenty-five years after obtaining a medical degree in Mexico, Dr. Ralph
Erdmann moved to Childress in Lubbock County, Texas, and began, on a
private contract basis, doing autopsies for five small hospitals in the county.
He moved to Amarillo in  and performed autopsies for hire throughout
the panhandle region—more than , autopsies in forty-one west Texas
jurisdictions over the next decade. In , at the height of his activity, he
performed  autopsies. The following year he did , most in Lubbock
County, from which he received an annual fee of $,. In the other,
smaller counties, he charged $ per autopsy. He had a large territory to
cover and was constantly on the move, performing autopsies on the run.
Because he covered a rural area, Dr. Erdmann did not always work under
ideal conditions. In cases of decomposing bodies, many of the smaller hospi-
tals denied him access to autopsy space because of the stink. As a result, he
13
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14 DIAGNOSING DEATH
performed autopsies in funeral home garages, hospital loading docks, park-

ing lots, abandoned houses, and once on a door laid across two fifty-five-
gallon drums.
It wasn’t just his take-charge work ethic that made Dr. Erdmann so pop-
ular with detectives and county prosecutors. What they especially liked
about him was his unabashed eagerness to tailor his autopsy findings to their
law enforcement needs. If the prosecution needed a victim or suspect to
have alcohol in his blood, no problem, whether a blood-alcohol test had
been conducted or not. If a certain time of death was necessary to incrimi-
nate a defendant, Dr. Erdmann would provide it, even when a precise esti-
mation was not scientifically feasible.
Because Dr. Erdmann made their job so easy, many detectives and
prosecutors—according to defense lawyers and other critics of the doctor’s
work—turned a blind eye to his personal weirdness, sloppy work habits,
questionable science, embarrassing omissions, and patent dishonesty. The
fact that he was drummed out of the profession indicates that he was, even
by the most lenient standards, incompetent and corrupt.
By , as a number of defense attorneys began challenging and expos-
ing his methods and findings, the outlandish nature of Dr. Erdmann’s mal-
practice caught up with him. That year he was forced to surrender his Texas
medical license to the State Board of Medical Examiners. He also pleaded
guilty to charging several counties for autopsies that he had not conducted.
The judge sentenced him to ten years of probation and two hundred hours of
community service and ordered him to pay $, in restitution. The fol-
lowing year Dr. Erdmann left Texas for the state of Washington.
A review of Dr. Erdmann’s work explains how he had been able to per-
form so many autopsies. He cut corners. For example, he didn’t bother to
weigh the internal organs he removed, if, in fact, he removed them at all. He
simply estimated their weight. He got caught when the family of a man he
had autopsied noticed, in Dr. Erdmann’s report, the weight of his spleen
noted. This caught the family’s attention because years before his death, this
man’s spleen had been surgically removed.
Even in situations where the cause of death was obviously murder,
Erdmann didn’t always get it right. In the case of a body found in a dumpster,
Dr. Erdmann reported the cause of death as pneumonia. The police later
arrested the man who had stolen the dead man’s car, shot him in the head,
and disposed of his body in that dumpster. Perhaps this man had pneumonia
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FORENSIC PATHOLOGISTS FROM HELL 15
when he was shot, but it was the bullet that killed him. In another body-
in-the-dumpster case, Dr. Erdmann lost the dead man’s head, the body part
containing the bullet that would have connected the suspect to the crime.
Without the head, or the bullet, the suspect could not be prosecuted.
In a fatal hit-and-run case, Dr. Erdmann testified that the victim had
died instantly of a broken neck. He based this finding on his examination of
the fourteen-year-old victim’s brain. But when the body was exhumed,
another forensic pathologist found that Erdmann had not even bothered
to open the boy’s skull. In the case of a baby who had died in a bathtub,
Dr. Erdmann determined that the victim had been killed by a blow to the
stomach. This led to the arrest of the man who was in the house when the
baby died. After a second forensic pathologist examined the body, the murder
charge was dropped. The baby had drowned accidentally. The cause of death
was asphyxia.
As reported in the ABA Journal, as a result of Ralph Erdmann’s bungled
and incomplete autopsies, the defendants in twenty murder cases had
grounds to appeal their convictions. The panel of experts who had looked at
three hundred of his autopsy reports—a relatively small sampling—found
that one-third of the bodies had not even been cut open. When confronted
with this evidence, Dr. Erdmann explained it away as clerical error. He never
admitted wrongdoing and would continue to insist that he was not dishonest
or incompetent—yes, he had made a few mistakes, but he had been forced to
work under unfavorable conditions. He accused his detractors of being
revenge-minded defense attorneys and characterized the investigation of his
work a witch hunt.
Dr. Joan Wood: A Forensic Meltdown
For a criminal justice system to work, its major law enforcement players—the
police, prosecutors, and forensic scientists—have to be hardworking, compe-
tent, and honest. In Florida’s Pinellas and Pasco Counties between  and
, the medical examiner’s office was not up to par, and the effect on local
criminal justice was disastrous. Dr. Joan E. Wood, the head of the Pinellas-
Pasco Medical Examiner’s Office, the principal source of the problem,
resigned under fire in September .
A graduate of the University of South Florida Medical School, Dr. Wood
began her career as a forensic pathologist in  as an associate in the
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16 DIAGNOSING DEATH
Pinellas-Pasco Medical Examiner’s Office. She became the chief medical

examiner in , and for six years was the chairperson of Florida’s Medical
Examiners Commission, the body that regulates the state’s forensic patholo-
gists. Her career seemed to be on track until the mid-s, when she
became involved in a high-profile and controversial homicide case. This
case, the  death of a thirty-six-year-old Scientologist named Lisa
McPherson, marked the beginning of the end of Dr. Wood’s career.
As revealed in court documents and reported in the St. Petersburg Times,
the sequence of events began at : in the evening of November , ,
when paramedics responded to a minor traffic accident in downtown
Clearwater involving McPherson’s sports utility van. She was not injured, but
she took off her clothes and walked down the middle of the street, telling para-
medics, “I need help. I need to talk to someone.” She said she had been doing
things that were wrong but didn’t know what they were. The paramedics took
her to the Morton Plant Hospital for psychiatric evaluation. Following her
examination, a group of Scientologists from her church came to the emer-
gency room and escorted her away, promising that she would be cared for by
the church, a decision grounded in their distrust of psychiatric medicine. She
was taken to the church-owned Fort Harrison Hotel in downtown Clearwater,
where troubled Scientologists were taken for rest and relaxation.
On December , Lisa’s caretakers at the hotel rushed her to a hospital in
New Port Richey, a forty-five-minute drive, to see an emergency room physi-
cian who was a Scientologist. She had been at the hotel seventeen days, and
when she arrived in New Port Richey, the five-foot nine-inch woman weighed
 pounds. She was covered in bruises, unkempt in appearance, and pale.
She was either dead on arrival or pronounced dead shortly thereafter.
At eleven the next morning, Dr. Robert Davis, a forensic pathologist in
the Pinellas-Pasco County Medical Examiner’s Office, performed the autopsy.
Dr. Wood looked on. According to Dr. Davis, Lisa McPherson’s death had been
caused by an embolism of the left pulmonary artery, which partially
obstructed the blood flow that carried oxygen from her heart to her left lung.
She had therefore died of asphyxia. A thrombus (blood clot) located behind
her left knee had traveled from her leg to her heart and into the lung. At the
time of her death, Lisa was severely dehydrated, a factor that contributed to
her demise. Her dehydration was so pronounced she would have been un-
responsive for more than twenty-four hours before she died, in Dr. Davis’s
opinion. He believed that the blood clot behind her leg was caused by a
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 17
combination of dehydration and bed-ridden immobility. Dr. Wood, instead of

ruling the manner of death natural or accidental, labeled it undetermined, a
manner of death that did not preclude a later finding of homicide.
Because of the condition of Lisa McPherson’s body following her stay at
the Fort Harrison Hotel, the Clearwater police quietly began looking into the
case. Detectives determined that Lisa had been a Scientologist for eighteen
years and, during the past two years, had spent about $, on church-
related counseling. Before the traffic accident, she had spent relaxation time
at the Fort Harrison Hotel. She had worked for a Dallas publishing company
that mostly employed Scientologists and had moved to Clearwater when the
company relocated there about a year earlier. She had weighed between 
and  pounds when taken to the Fort Harrison Hotel following the traffic
accident.
Curious about just what kind of medical care one would get at the Fort
Harrison Hotel, the police found that some of Lisa’s caretakers had medical
training, including one person who had been an anesthesiologist. This care-
giver, however, had lost her license because of a drug problem. As far as the
police could determine, no one at the hotel had been a licensed physician.
The police also learned that during her stay, Lisa had been physically
restrained, tied to her bed, and given injections of muscle relaxants and
other chemicals.
When word got out that the authorities were looking into Lisa
McPherson’s death, church officials accused the Clearwater police of reli-
gious harassment. In January , the Florida Department of Law Enforce-
ment and the Pinellas-Pasco State Attorney’s Office joined the investigation.
The following month, Lisa McPherson’s family filed a wrongful death suit
against the church.
Looking for a second opinion regarding the cause and manner of
McPherson’s death, in November  Wayne Andrews of the Clearwater
Police Department and Agent A. L. Strope of the Florida Department of Law
Enforcement traveled to Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to question
Dr. George Podgorny, the Forsythe County medical examiner. Dr. Podgorny
had reviewed medical records from the Morton Plant and New Port Richey
hospitals; pharmacy records of drugs that had been administered to
McPherson; and the Pinellas-Pasco autopsy report that chief medical exam-
iner Wood had approved. According to police and court documents, after
reviewing this material, Dr. Podgorny opined that the blood clot that had
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18 DIAGNOSING DEATH
killed Lisa McPherson had been caused by her extreme dehydration and
immobility. He told the investigators that if she had been given proper med-
ical treatment and taken to a hospital when she first became ill, she might not
have died. What she had needed and did not get was water, salt, vitamins, and
extra oxygen. Moreover, her blood-cell count and kidney function should have
been closely monitored. When asked if the blood clot in her leg could have
been caused by the traffic accident, Dr. Podgorny responded emphatically that
such an occurrence would be extremely rare, especially in a thirty-six-year-old
woman. He pointed out that people bruise their legs all the time without get-
ting blood clots. In the doctor’s opinion, the manner of Lisa McPherson’s death
boiled down to improper medical care following the traffic accident.
A Pinellas County grand jury on November , , returned a two-
count indictment charging the Church of Scientology with practicing medi-
cine without a license and abusing or neglecting an adult. The church
believed that the McPherson case was being exploited by forces out to
destroy the institution and, accustomed to fighting for its survival, hit back
hard. One of those on the receiving end was Dr. Joan Wood, the pathologist
who had opened the door to the charges with her ruling of an undetermined
manner of death. In the months that followed the indictment, defense attor-
neys representing the church deluged Dr. Wood with subpoenas, demanding
all sorts of information. These lawyers wanted her to change the manner of
death to accidental on the theory that the blood clot that had killed Lisa
McPherson was the result of her traffic mishap. The church also denied prac-
ticing medicine at the Fort Harrison Hotel and insisted that Lisa had been
properly cared for at the retreat.
In February , more than four years after the autopsy in the
McPherson case, Dr. Wood, while insisting that she had not broken under
pressure, nevertheless changed the manner-of-death ruling to accidental.
Her decision outraged the prosecutor and the police. As far as the prosecutor
was concerned, she had folded under pressure. Some of the journalists fol-
lowing the case speculated that pressure and stress had caused the forensic
pathologist to come emotionally unglued. Whether she had been bullied into
it or not, her manner-of-death reversal destroyed her credibility as an inde-
pendent forensic scientist and ruined her relationship with the law enforce-
ment community. As reported by the St. Petersburg Times, the prosecutor, left
with an accidental manner of death, had no choice but to drop the case
against the church. Dr. Wood resigned shortly thereafter.
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 19
Lisa McPherson’s estate in May  settled the wrongful death suit for
an undisclosed amount. The case was finally over, but for Dr. Wood, its ram-
ifications would linger long after her resignation.
David Long’s Ordeal

For the former medical examiner Dr. Joan Wood, things just kept getting
worse. Following her retirement, her rulings in a pair of infant death cases
came under scrutiny. The review of these deaths led to further criticism of
her work and of the operation of the Pinellas-Pasco Medical Examiner’s
Office.
In one of these cases, David Long was charged with shaking to death his
seven-month-old daughter, Rebecca, in March . Although the child had
a history of health problems related to her premature birth at one pound,
eleven ounces, Dr. Wood, finding severe hemorrhaging along the baby’s
spinal cord, established the cause of death as the shaken baby syndrome.
This led to David Long’s arrest on the charge of murder.
According to the accused father, he had gone into his daughter’s room
on the morning of March  to see why she was crying. His wife had left for
work, leaving him at home with the baby, his son, and a twelve-year-old boy
who had spent the night as a guest. The twelve-year-old guest in the New Port
Richey home told the police that David Long stayed in Rebecca’s room about
two minutes, and after he had left, the baby had cried for another ten min-
utes. Long returned to the baby’s room after she had stopped crying and
found her lying facedown on her bed. She was not breathing. When the child
did not respond to CPR, she was rushed to All Children’s Hospital in St.
Petersburg, where she was pronounced dead.
From the beginning, detectives on the case considered David Long inno-
cent. He had no history of violence and, from all accounts, was a loving
father. Moreover, the child had been unhealthy, and after Long had left her
room that morning, she was heard crying. Had the father abused the baby by
shaking her violently, she would not have been crying when he left her room.
The detectives were so sure David Long was innocent, they made an unusual
request: they asked for a second expert opinion regarding the cause of the
baby’s death. This did not please the prosecutor or Dr. Wood.
According to the St. Petersburg Times, in September , shortly after she
had retired, Dr. Wood received at her home in Clearwater a subpoena requiring
her to give deposition testimony in connection with the Long murder case.
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20 DIAGNOSING DEATH
She responded by informing the prosecutor’s office that she was ill and there-
fore could not appear for the session. A few months later, the sheriff showed up
at her house with another Long case subpoena. He was greeted at the door by a
maid who told him that the doctor was ill and not available. After that, Dr.
Wood dropped out of sight and remained in hiding almost two years.
Meanwhile, David Long sat in jail.
In , Dr. Wood’s replacement, Dr. Jon Thogmartin, and four other
forensic pathologists performed a second autopsy on Rebecca Long and were
astounded by what they found: the baby had died from bronchial pneumo-
nia. They were also shocked by what they didn’t find: evidence of brain or
retinal bleeding, trauma associated with the shaken baby syndrome. A
review of the original autopsy report revealed puzzling contradictions. In one
paragraph Dr. Wood had written, “No distinct areas of hemorrhage,” and in
the next, “The brain . . . has hemorrhage.” In her report, Dr. Wood had also
referred to the victim as a boy.
As a result of the second autopsy, the prosecutor had no choice but to
drop the charges against David Long. He walked out of jail a free man. The
ordeal had cost him his job and had driven him into bankruptcy. He had
been saved by a detective who had asserted his investigative independence,
and by Dr. Thogmartin and the other pathologists who had been willing to
contradict the findings of a colleague. Without their intervention, Long
might have been convicted and sent to prison for a crime he didn’t commit.
Freeing John Peel

The Pinellas County prosecutor in April  asked Dr. Thogmartin and Dr.
Stephen Nelson, the medical examiner in Polk County, to evaluate an autopsy
performed by Dr. Wood in another shaken baby death. In that  case, after
Dr. Wood found brain hemorrhaging consistent with the shaken baby syn-
drome, eighteen-year-old John Peel had been charged with murdering his
eight-week-old son. Although Peel denied shaking his child, he could not
overcome this cause- and manner-of-death ruling and was convicted. In
, after Thogmartin and Nelson found no evidence supporting this
cause and manner of death, John Peel was set free after serving four years
behind bars.
A few months after John Peel walked out of prison, Dr. Wood, having been
AWOL for more than two years, showed up at a conference of state medical
examiners in Gainesville, Florida. A reporter with the St. Petersburg Times asked
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 21
her if her disappearance had anything to do with the McPherson case, and if
she planned to get back into forensic science. Dr. Wood denied that her rever-
sal in the McPherson case had anything do with pressure from the Church of
Scientology, but she did admit that after twenty-five years as a forensic pathol-
ogist, the stress of the job had finally caught up with her. She said she still had
panic attacks when she walked into a courtroom. As for her cause-of-death rul-
ing in the Peel case, she was still certain that the baby had been shaken to
death. She said she was back in the field as a private consultant, but a few
months later, she closed her business and went back into retirement.
In July , Dr. Wood voluntarily relinquished her medical license fol-
lowing a state health department declaration that in the McPherson case,
she had become “an advocate for the Church of Scientology,” as Susan Martin
reported in the St. Petersburg Times. Dr. Wood, now sixty, said she had given
up medicine due to the accumulated stress of being a forensic pathologist for
twenty-five years. She insisted, however, that she had not lost her objectivity
in the McPherson case.
Dr. Richard O. Eicher: Too Many Bad Calls
Distracted by her own professional problems, Dr. Joan Wood did not run a
tight medical examiner’s office. Forensic pathologist Richard O. Eicher, hired
by Dr. Wood in August , was forced to resign about a month after the rul-
ing change in the McPherson case. A review of his work over the preceding
eight months had revealed serious mistakes in eight of his autopsies.
Dr. Wood had hired the sixty-year-old osteopathic-trained physician
without speaking to his former boss at the medical examiner’s office in
Marathon, Florida. Had she done so, she would have learned that his boss
considered Dr. Eicher disorganized and slow with his paperwork. Dr. Wood
admitted she had neither conducted a preemployment background check on
Dr. Eicher nor closely supervised his work after he was hired. According to
her critics, who were not shy about talking to the media, she had been pre-
occupied with the McPherson case.
One of Dr. Eicher’s cases that came under review involved the death of a
ninety-two-year-old Tarpon Springs woman. She had been found lying face
down on top of boards that had fallen from the broken railing of a deck seven
feet above. It was obvious from the scene that the woman had fallen through
the deck railing and was killed by the fall. That she had died from blunt force
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22 DIAGNOSING DEATH
trauma to the chest confirmed that the manner of death was accidental. Dr.
Eicher had ruled the cause of death coronary artery disease and the manner
of death natural.
Arriving at the correct manner-of-death conclusion, even in a case
where no one suspected foul play, is always important. In this case, the con-
dition of the deck railing, and the fact the woman had fallen through it,
might have been relevant in a wrongful-death action.
In another of Dr. Eicher’s cases, one chronicled in the St. Petersburg
Times, a thirty-seven-year-old man was found dead in the water next to his
burning boat. He had been shot in the head. Dr. Eicher ruled this death a sui-
cide because he believed the man had been shot, point-blank, in the face. In
fact, the man had been shot in the back of the head. In addition, he had been
recently charged with raping an eleven-year-old girl, another fact that
pointed to murder. The person who had killed him may also have set fire to
his boat. This death certainly wasn’t suicide. Perhaps Dr. Eicher had made a
rookie mistake and confused an angry-looking point-blank entrance wound
to the head with an exit wound. In any event, his mistake may have allowed
someone to get away with murder.
The mistake that may have sent Eicher packing involved the case of a badly
burned teenager. As reported by the St. Petersburg Times, the Pinellas Park Fire
Department, in response to a vehicle fire, found the body of seventeen-year-old
Brannon Lee Jones inside the flaming car. Without knowing what had caused
the vehicle fire, Dr. Eicher ruled the death a suicide. This confused the police,
who considered this a strange way to take one’s life, but because the death
had been ruled a suicide, they did not conduct a homicide investigation. This
failure to investigate infuriated the victim’s family. When a second autopsy
revealed that Brannon Lee Jones had been beaten to death and then set on
fire, the police opened the case as a homicide, but the trail had gone cold.
The homicide went into the books as unsolved.
Dr. Eicher had made too many substantive mistakes over too short a
period. He had to go, and he did.
Dr. Angelo Ozoa and the Red Sash: Murder or Suicide?
After eighteen years in the Santa Clara County, California, coroner’s office,
seventy-three-year-old Dr. Angelo Ozoa, a Filipino American, had performed
six thousand autopsies since being hired in  as an assistant medical
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 23
examiner. In  he became chief medical examiner, replacing Dr. John

Hauser, who resigned amid criticism that in several cases of highly suspi-
cious death, he had not ruled homicide as the manner of death. But in the
summer of , after an extensive review of Dr. Ozoa’s work, a civil grand
jury in Santa Clara County recommended that Dr. Ozoa resign.
The request for his resignation had more to do with his weaknesses as
an administrator than his competence as a forensic pathologist. During
Dr. Ozoa’s tenure as chief medical examiner, as widely reported by the media,
autopsy reports had been falsified and evidence lost, mishandled, and stolen.
He had hired forensic pathologists who weren’t properly certified and had
been criticized for allowing personnel problems such as racial tensions and
employee bickering to get out of control, causing low morale in the office.
His most serious problem, however, involved a manner-of-death ruling he
had made in the  death of a seventy-six-year-old Palo Alto woman, a case
that was pending at the time the grand jury recommended that he retire. But
unlike Dr. Joan Wood, Dr. Ozoa would not run and hide, nor would he refuse
to testify when the case came to trial.
Josephine Galbraith’s body was discovered in the guest room of her
home by her daughter-in-law on September , . The dead woman’s
husband, eighty-year-old Nelson Galbraith, a retired music school owner
and insurance salesman, said he was watching TV in another room when
she passed away. A detective from the Palo Alto Police Department and an
investigator from the Santa Clara Coroner’s Office arrived at the scene to
find Josephine Galbraith lying face-up on the bed with three superficial
cuts on her left wrist and a red bathrobe sash tied around her neck. Next to
her body they found a bloody eight-inch kitchen knife, a razor blade with
some blood on it, and a white, five-gallon bucket containing a small quan-
tity of blood.
The bathrobe sash, sixty-two inches in length, had been tightly wrapped
around Josephine Galbraith’s neck three times. After each wrap, the sash had
been tied with a double-knot. The three cuts on her wrists, referred to as
“hesitation marks,” were typical of the half-hearted attempt of a suicidal per-
son who couldn’t bring herself to make the deeper, more painful slashes nec-
essary to cause death by bleeding. There was no suicide note. The coroner’s
investigator, a man who had been on the job twenty-eight years, recognized
the scene as a suicide. The Palo Alto detective, based on the evidence at the
scene, agreed with this assessment.
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24 DIAGNOSING DEATH
The investigators figured that if Josephine Galbraith had been murdered,

the killer would not have made the hesitation cuts. Moreover, the pattern of
blood spatter did not suggest a struggle. And the presence of the bucket
intended to make the scene less messy was not consistent with a murder
scene. Both investigators also knew that while people cannot manually stran-
gle themselves (they pass out before they die), people can strangle themselves
to death by ligature—the use of a rope, electrical wire, necktie, or other length
of cloth such as a bathrobe sash. They also knew that Josephine Galbraith’s
death would have been slow enough to allow her to wrap and tie the sash three
times. Given the nature of the people involved and the physical evidence at
the scene, the investigators had no doubt that she had taken her own life.
Two days after the death, Dr. Ozoa performed the autopsy, a procedure
that took him forty-five minutes. He found the cause of death to be “asphyx-
iation from ligature.” This did not surprise anyone. What did shock a lot of
people, including the investigators, was his manner-of-death ruling: “stran-
gled by assailant.” Dr. Ozoa had based this finding on two assumptions:
Josephine Galbraith was too old and frail to have tied the three knots so
tightly; and even if she did have the strength, she wouldn’t have remained
conscious long enough to complete the task. Since Nelson Galbraith was the
only other person in the house at the time of his wife’s death, if she had been
murdered, he must have been the assailant.
Just days before her death, Josephine Galbraith had been diagnosed with
Parkinson’s disease, an illness that five years earlier had caused the slow and
painful death of her sister. Even before the diagnosis, she had told friends and
relatives that she wanted to kill herself. She had informed one of her sons that
she would like to jump off the Golden Gate Bridge and asked another son, a
physician, to provide her with drugs to end her life. He had refused.
Nelson Galbraith, the man implicitly incriminated by Dr. Ozoa’s
manner-of-death ruling, had severe arthritis of the hands, which would have
made it difficult, if not impossible, for him to have tied the knots around his
wife’s neck. Moreover, there was nothing in Galbraith’s background, or in his
relationship with his wife, that made him a likely murderer. Investigators,
urged on by the district attorney’s office, nevertheless pushed forward with
the case against him, albeit at a snail’s pace. In the meantime, Galbraith’s life
became a living hell. He told journalist Loren Stein he was being referred to
in the media as the “Red Sash Murderer” and was spending thousands of dol-
lars on his defense. Ultimately his defense costs would reach $,.
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 25
Palo Alto police, guns drawn, stormed Galbraith’s house in January 
and hauled him away on the charge of first-degree murder. In August ,
almost three years after his wife’s death, Nelson Galbraith, who had been
allowed to make bail, went on trial for her murder. The prosecution’s key
witness, Dr. Ozoa, told the jury that in all his years as a forensic pathologist,
he had never heard of a woman killing herself by ligature. Suicide by ligature,
however, is a well-recognized method of death that is documented in text-
books and scientific journals.
The defense called forensic pathologists who disagreed with Dr. Ozoa
and argued that the defendant could not have physically committed the
crime. Following two and a half weeks of testimony, the jury deliberated for
one day and returned a verdict of not guilty. Following the acquittal, the dis-
trict attorney’s office sought the opinion of a forensic pathologist in the
Santa Clara Coroner’s Office regarding the manner of Josephine Galbraith’s
death. The pathologist agreed with the defense experts: the poor woman had
killed herself.
Nelson Galbraith, convinced he had been maliciously prosecuted, sued
Doctor Ozoa for $ million. To bolster his case, Galbraith spent $, to
have his wife’s body exhumed and sent to Salt Lake City to be examined
by Dr. Todd Grey, the medical examiner for the state of Utah. According to
Dr. Grey, Dr. Ozoa’s incorrect finding of homicide was predicated upon an
incomplete autopsy, as Loren Stein notes in a long and detailed article on the
Galbraith case. Dr. Ozoa had, among other things, neglected to dissect the
dead woman’s neck, a procedure that could have helped determine how long
it had taken her to die. He had also failed to interpret the swelling in the vic-
tim’s brain and the broken blood vessels in her face and eyes as evidence of
a slow death. Dr. Ozoa, when confronted with Dr. Grey’s opinion of his work
in the Galbraith case, insisted that he had performed a complete autopsy and
that the woman had been murdered.
In July , almost seven years after Dr. Ozoa’s autopsy in the Galbraith
case, the Medical Board of California, citing Dr. Ozoa’s work in that case,
voted to suspend his license to practice medicine in the state. The doctor
was seventy-seven. Two months later, Nelson Galbraith died. He was eighty-
three, and his lawsuit was still pending in the courts.
In January , Dr. Gregory Schmunk, who had replaced Dr. Ozoa as the
head of the Santa Clara Coroner’s Office, resigned after another civil grand
jury issued a blistering report critical of his managerial skills. According to
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26 DIAGNOSING DEATH
reporter William Dean Hinton, had the officials responsible for his hiring
looked into Dr. Schmunk’s background, they would have learned there was
an outstanding warrant for his arrest in Wisconsin in connection with an
alleged theft of textbooks and clothing from his previous employer. The
grand jury’s investigation also disclosed that in , Dr. Schmunk, in an
application to get a concealed gun permit, had failed to mention that in 
a Sacramento man had sued him for making threats. The suit was settled for
$,. During Dr. Schmunk’s six-year tenure with the Santa Clara coroner’s
office, as reported by the San Jose Mercury News, he had billed the county
$, in travel expenses for conferences and seminars across the country
and overseas, an amount many considered excessive.
While problems continued to haunt the Santa Clara County Coroner’s
Office, Dr. Ozoa was busy organizing medical missions in the Philippines,
operations staffed by volunteer Filipino American physicians from northern
California. Nelson Galbraith’s lawsuit, taken over by one of his sons, was
thrown out of federal court in . At present it is pending before the Ninth
U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
Had Dr. Ozoa not classified Josephine Galbraith’s death a homicide,
Nelson Galbraith would not have been put through hell trying to stay out of
prison and to clear his good name. But Galbraith’s ongoing tragedy wasn’t all
Dr. Ozoa’s fault. His homicide ruling did not force the district attorney to
prosecute a shaky case, weakened by the debate over the cause and manner
of death and the absence of a confession, an eyewitness, and any physical
evidence incriminating Galbraith. If that weren’t enough, the prosecution’s
key witness was a forensic pathologist who was under a grand jury recom-
mendation to resign. The prosecutor had nothing to prosecute with, yet the
case went forward.
What saved Nelson Galbraith, denied the protection of solid forensic sci-
ence and sound prosecutorial discretion, was the safety valve of the criminal
justice system, a jury of commonsense people. Although Galbraith was lucky
in having a good lawyer, he did not come out of the case a winner. Anyone
wrongfully accused of a crime loses, regardless of the outcome of the trial.
Dr. Charles Harlan: The Pathologist from Hell
Every so often a forensic pathologist comes along who performs badly in all
aspects of the profession. Dr. Charles Harlan, a forensic pathologist who had
Chap-01.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 27
performed autopsies in dozens of counties throughout the state of Tennessee

since , was in April  permanently stripped of his medical license.
For three years he had been under investigation by the state board of med-
ical examiners. A three-member panel of his medicolegal colleagues had
held hearings in which forensic pathologists who had reviewed his work tes-
tified that he had performed incomplete autopsies, mishandled evidence,
misidentified bodies, filed false reports, and rendered erroneous cause- and
manner-of-death rulings in dozens of cases. In the end, the medical board
characterized Dr. Harlan’s conduct in office as dishonorable, unprofessional,
fraudulent, negligent, and incompetent. For Dr. Harlan, there was not a word
of good news in their report.
In , after the mayor of Nashville had publicly accused Dr. Harlan of
running a sloppy office, he resigned as head of the Davidson County Medical
Examiner’s Office. Shortly thereafter, Dr. Harlan was appointed chief medical
examiner for the state of Tennessee. When the state refused to extend his
contract a year later, he left that job and formed his own company, Forensic
Pathology Associates.
The hearings on Dr. Harlan’s competency and professional conduct
centered on the cause- and manner-of-death rulings in twenty-seven of his
cases. In every one, his findings had been challenged by forensic patholo-
gists who had reviewed his work. Almost half of these cases involved
infants who had died suddenly in their beds, deaths Dr. Harlan had labeled
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) cases. Because SIDS is nothing more
than a general description of the unexplained deaths of infants who, for
whatever reason, have stopped breathing in bed, it is not a medical cause
of death.
The review of Dr. Harlan’s infant death cases revealed that he had made
two kinds of mistakes. He had labeled deaths as SIDS in cases where the
causes of death were known, for example, high fever or positional asphyxia
(suffocation in the bedcovers). In the other SIDS cases, the causes of death
strongly suggested homicide, for example, acute cocaine intoxication and
pulmonary edema from blunt force trauma.
Throughout the hearings on his job performance, Dr. Harlan insisted
that his work in these and other cases had been professionally correct. He
questioned the motives of the doctors who testified against him, many of
whom where also in private practice; he accused them of trying to put him
out of business to eliminate competition.
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28 DIAGNOSING DEATH
Having been so thoroughly rebuked and discredited by his peers, Dr.

Harlan could either accept the verdict or question his accusers’ motives. He
chose the latter.
What’s the Solution?
Every year in the United States there are thousands of sudden, violent, and
unexplained deaths in the form of homicides, suicides, traffic fatalities, drug
overdoses, infant deaths, industrial accidents, and poisonings. Each of these
deaths requires an autopsy, and there aren’t enough qualified people to do
them. This is a serious problem. Too many unqualified people are perform-
ing autopsies; among those who are competent, many are stressed,
exhausted, or burned out. Too many bodies that should be autopsied are
buried without the procedure.
Given the sometimes gruesome nature of the work, and the pressures
and responsibility that go with it, it is not surprising that people with med-
ical degrees may not be drawn to forensic pathology. The practitioners pro-
filed in this chapter were able to work as long as they did because there
weren’t qualified people to replace them. As was the case with Dr. Erdmann,
their tenure may be extended because prosecutors find them useful, turning
a blind eye to incompetence and dishonesty. Forensic pathologists like Drs.
Wood and Eicher showed their fallibility as humans susceptible to stress,
exhaustion, and the errors that make forensic pathology, as practiced, some-
thing less than an exact science.
When forensic pathologists have problems and make mistakes, people suf-
fer. This eventuality makes checks and balances in the form of independent-
minded detectives and prosecutors essential. The criminal justice system
requires detectives who are not afraid, and prosecutors who can rise above
their political ambitions.
The problem of the forensic pathologist from hell would be solved with
at least double the current number of board-certified practitioners in the
field. Until that happens, autopsies will be bungled, bad manner-of-death
determinations will be made, and the people affected by these bad calls will
suffer.
Chap-02.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 29
A Question of Credibility
Bad Reputations and the Politics of Death
A forensic pathologist is most critical in cases of sudden, unexplained, or

violent death where a layperson, or even a physician without specialized
training in forensic pathology, would not be able to determine, with a high
degree of certainty, if the manner of death was natural, accidental, suicidal,
or homicidal. The police might suspect homicide and even have a suspect,
but if the forensic pathologist finds that the death is, say, accidental, there
will be no criminal investigation. If the forensic pathologist has credibility,
it’s less likely that people will question his or her call. If the forensic pathol-
ogist, for any reason, lacks credibility, the case will remain up in the air. The
police and members of the deceased person’s family may think that someone
has gotten away with murder; the suspected murderer, innocent or not, may
live under a cloud of suspicion. No one will think that justice has been done.
Credibility and competence are the two critical qualities for an effective
forensic pathologist.
To be credible, a forensic pathologist has to be professionally qualified,
experienced, and scientifically independent. Once a forensic pathologist
has been caught taking shortcuts, making mistakes, or giving in to political
pressure, that forensic scientist has lost his or her credibility. This can be
especially harmful in close-call, high-profile, or politically charged cases.
One would think that forensic pathologists whose reputations have been
seriously damaged would be forced out of the field because no one would
want to employ their services. But in the United States, a few discredited
forensic pathologists are still on the job, tainting the cases in which they are
involved. Dr. Michael E. Berkland is one case in point.
29
Chap-02.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 30
30 DIAGNOSING DEATH
The Michael Berkland Debacle
Michael Berkland, without specific training or experience in forensic pathol-

ogy, entered the field in  when he began working in the Jackson County
Medical Examiner’s Office in Kansas City, Missouri. Twelve years earlier he
had graduated from the University of Health Sciences in Kansas City with a
degree in osteopathic medicine. He did his residency in clinical pathology at
the Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, Texas, then served six years
as chief of pathology at the Munson Community Hospital in Fort Leavenworth,
Kansas. Perhaps aware that his résumé was less than impressive in the foren-
sics area, Dr. Berkland claimed he had completed the prestigious forensic
pathology fellowship at the Bexar County, Texas, medical examiner’s office
under the legendary pathologist and gunshot-wound expert Dr. Vincent
DiMaio. Dr. Michael Young, the Jackson County medical examiner who hired
Doctor Berkland, would later learn from Dr. DiMaio that Dr. Berkland had
never been enrolled in that program.
Dr. Berkland’s Short Tenure in Missouri

Dr. Berkland had been on the job less than a year when Dr. Young began get-
ting complaints from the Jackson County Prosecutor’s Office. According to
the prosecutors, Dr. Berkland was not writing reports on all his autopsies,
and when he did complete a report, it was often months after he had per-
formed the autopsy. Prosecutors with homicide trials approaching were
clamoring for those reports. There were also complaints that Dr. Berkland
didn’t always make notes within a timely period after doing an autopsy, and
when asked how he could remember such detail months later when writing
up the report, he assured prosecutors that he had a good memory.
Dr. Berkland’s close association with the police caused Dr. Young to be
concerned about the pathologist’s scientific objectivity. In trials where he had
testified for the prosecution, he seemed to treat homicide convictions as per-
sonal victories. Doctor Young expected his pathologists to function as indepen-
dent experts, not as advocates for law enforcement. He cautioned Dr. Berkland
against thinking of himself as a member of a law enforcement team.
In , an escapee from a county detention center was found dead in a
ditch not far from the fence he had scaled. According to journalists Chris
George and Denis Wright, the forensic pathologist who conducted the
autopsy, Dr. Brij Mitruka, found that the prisoner had been beaten to death
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A QUESTION OF CREDIBILITY 31
and had ruled the death a homicide. This finding would automatically lead to
a criminal investigation to determine who had killed the inmate. The inves-
tigation, however, came to a stop after Dr. Berkland took over the case and
changed the cause of death to massive blood loss from cuts made by
the razor-ribbon fencing. The public defender who had represented the pris-
oner before his death, suspecting that Dr. Berkland might be part of a correc-
tions facility cover-up, asked Dr. Young to review Mitruka’s autopsy and
Dr. Berkland’s subsequent role in the case.
Dr. Young found that the victim had lost some blood, but not nearly
enough to cause his death. He also discovered that Dr. Berkland had not vis-
ited the death site, examined the victim’s clothing, or looked at the death-
scene photographs. Berkland had also failed to question the paramedics who
had responded to the scene. Dr. Young ruled that the inmate, as a result of a
beating and his attempt to escape, had overtaxed his heart. Notwithstanding
this ruling, no charges were filed in connection with this death.
Dr. Berkland had been on the job less than two years when, in
February , Dr. Young fired him. Shortly after losing his job in Missouri,
Dr. Berkland was hired as an associate medical examiner in Florida’s First
Judicial District by the acting medical examiner, Dr. Gary Cumberland.
Dr. Berkland, who had assured his new boss that the Missouri firing had been
politically motivated, would be headquartered in the panhandle city of
Pensacola and responsible for performing autopsies in Okaloosa and Walton
Counties.
Back in Jackson County, Berkland’s replacement, Dr. Sam Gulino, and
Dr. Michael Young were making startling discoveries as they reviewed
Dr. Berkland’s work. They found that  percent of Dr. Berkland’s autopsies
were, in one way or another, incomplete. In , he had failed to follow up
twenty-eight autopsies with a report, and in eight autopsies, he had falsely
reported that he had sectioned the corpses’ brains. The reviewers also sus-
pected that no autopsies had been conducted in several cases in which
autopsy reports in fact consisted of details copied from autopsy reports in
other cases. As a result of Dr. Berkland’s nonreporting and false reporting,
nine criminal cases were at risk of being overturned on appeal. It seemed
that Michael Berkland had made a forensic mess in Jackson County,
Missouri.
Dr. Young filed a formal complaint with the Missouri Administrative
Hearing Commission, the state administrative body in charge of oversight in
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32 DIAGNOSING DEATH
matters involving the state’s medical examiners’ offices. He and Dr. Gulino
testified before the administrative panel in January , and a month later,
in reaction to this testimony, a circuit court of Jackson County issued an
injunction barring Dr. Berkland from performing autopsies in Missouri. As
journalists Chris George and Denis Wright report in “Unwrapped,” the court
held that Dr. Berkland “poses a substantial probability of serious danger to
the health, safety and welfare of his patients, clients and/or the residents of
Missouri.” The judge characterized the pathologist’s job performance as “fraud,
misrepresentation, and unprofessional conduct in the practice of medicine.”
The court injunction didn’t affect Dr. Berkland directly because he was
in Florida performing autopsies in and around Fort Walton Beach. Not until
the spring of , when the Missouri Administrative Hearing Commission
revoked the doctor’s license to practice medicine in any capacity in the state
did Dr. Stephen Nelson, the chair of the Medical Examiner’s Commission for
the state of Florida, become aware of Dr. Berkland’s status in Missouri. On
July , , based on Dr. Nelson’s recommendation, the Florida Board of
Osteopathic Medicine placed Dr. Berkland on temporary suspension for not
informing his boss, Dr. Gary Cumberland, of the loss of his license to practice
in Missouri.
As George and Wright reported, Dr. Berkland, testifying before the osteo-
pathic panel, referred to the plagiarized autopsy passages as “proofreading
errors,” called his superiors in Missouri politically motivated, and decried
the fact he had not been allowed to defend himself against the charges. To an
AP reporter inquiring about Dr. Berkland’s future in Okaloosa and Walton
Counties, Dr. Gary Cumberland, his boss, said that he still had full confi-
dence in the pathologist and had no plans to replace him. The osteopathic
board issued Charles Berkland a “letter of guidance” and lifted his suspen-
sion. Dr. Berkland, considered dangerous and dishonest in Missouri, was
back in action in Florida.
Dr. Berkland and Political Aide Lori Klausutis

At : in the morning of July , , two years to the day after
Dr. Berkland’s temporary suspension in Florida, a constituent entered the
Fort Walton Beach office of U.S. representative Joseph Scarborough and dis-
covered Lori Klausutis, a twenty-eight-year-old congressional aide, lying
dead on the office floor. The victim’s car was parked outside, the lights in the
office were on, and the front door was unlocked. When Dr. Berkland arrived
Chap-02.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 33
at the scene two hours later, the area was swarming with police officers,
emergency personnel, and TV reporters. A law enforcement spokesperson at
the scene informed the media that it appeared as though Lori Klausutis had
died sometime the previous evening. According to detectives, there were no
signs of a struggle and no evidence of a break-in or robbery. Exactly how she
had died would not be known until after the autopsy. But based on appear-
ances, there was no reason to suspect foul play.
Lori and her husband, Timothy Klausutis, a Ph.D. employed at Elgin Air
Force Base, had just purchased a house in nearby Niceville. She had been
active in Young Republican groups and had worked in the representative’s
office a little over two years. At the time of her death she was working as a
constituent services coordinator in the Fort Walton Beach office.
Dr. Berkland performed the autopsy that afternoon in the presence of a
Fort Walton Beach detective, who took notes. The next day, a Saturday, the
police told the media that the autopsy revealed no signs of physical trauma.
In speaking to reporters himself, Dr. Berkland said that until he received the
toxicologist’s report, the results of his autopsy would remain “inconclusive.”
He also said, “Based on physical evidence, I feel comfortable moving the time
of death back to the previous day.” Although this was not his official call,
Dr. Berkland said that Klausutis’s death was in all likelihood “accidental due
to natural causes.” He said, “She has a past medical history that is signi-
ficant, but it remains to be seen whether that played a role in her death.”
Dr. Berkland also mentioned that the deceased had been involved in a
serious car accident as a teenager and may have been bothered by lingering
medical ramifications from this trauma. He said he expected to have the
toxicologist’s findings by the first of August.
The day after Lori Klausutis was found dead, the story, as shaped by the
police, Michael Berkland, and perhaps staffers in Scarborough’s office, featured
the victim’s history of bad health. Tales of her ill health tended to throw
water on the idea that she might have been the victim of foul play. And other
than suicide or some bizarre office accident, what else could explain the sud-
den death of a twenty-eight-year-old woman? According to an employee of the
local ABC television affiliate, Representative Scarborough called the station
three hours after the discovery of the body to inform them that Klausutis
had a “complicated” medical history that included “stroke and epilepsy,” as
journalists Chris George and Denis Wright reported. Scarborough’s press
secretary told the media, without providing details, that Klausutis had not
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34 DIAGNOSING DEATH
been in perfect health. The Fort Walton Beach chief of police confirmed that
his detectives were investigating the victim’s medical history. Members of
the Klausutis family, however, were denying that Lori had been unhealthy.
She had belonged to a track club and had just posted a good time in an eight-
kilometer race.
On August , two and a half weeks after Lori Klausutis’s death, Dr.
Berkland held a press conference to announce his findings. His revelation
that the victim had sustained a “scratch and a bruise” on her head evoked
questions as to why he had originally denied any signs of physical trauma. Dr.
Berkland explained that his original denial had been “designed to prevent
undue speculation about the cause of death,” reported the Pensacola News-
Journal’s Derek Pivnick. Apparently Dr. Berkland thought it was his responsi-
bility to prohibit speculative thinking, a role not usually associated with
forensic pathology. “The last thing he wanted,” Dr. Berkland said, “was forty
questions about a head injury.” The pathologist went on: “We know for a fact
she wasn’t whacked in the head because of the nature of the injury.”
According to Doctor Berkland’s analysis, Lori Klausutis, due to a valvular
condition in her heart, fainted and fell, bumping her head on the corner of a
desk. Even if she hadn’t struck her head, she could have died from her heart
condition. So her death had been either natural or accidental, or perhaps a
combination of both. When asked if she had ever been treated for the heart
problem, Dr. Berkland said that to his knowledge, she had not.
Dr. Berkland had intentionally misled the media regarding the condition
of the victim’s body, once again calling his credibility into question. For that
reason, the media wanted to see a copy of the autopsy report. Given Dr.
Berkland’s history, there was a possibility that he had yet to write it. Three
days after Dr. Berkland’s press conference, Ralph Routon, the editor of the
Northwest Florida Daily News, filed a written request for the report. In Florida,
autopsy reports are matters of public record, available to anyone, for any rea-
son. In this case, however, the state denied Routon’s request. On August ,
one day after Routon wrote an editorial criticizing the authorities for with-
holding a public document from the press, Dr. Berkland’s autopsy report was
released. Five days later, the Northwest Florida Daily News published the
details of his autopsy.
Had Ralph Routon not made an issue of the autopsy report, Dr. Berkland
might never have completed it and certainly would not have handed it
over to a newspaper, because the report was embarrassing. It revealed that
Chap-02.qxd 11/9/07 11:26 AM Page 35
Dr. Berkland and the police had misled the public from the beginning. It also
showed that when the pathologist finally admitted in his August  press con-
ference that there had been physical trauma—a scratch and a bruise on the
victim’s face—he was still manipulating the public. Instead of a scratch and a
bruise, Lori Klausutis had suffered a massive head injury that included a
seven-and-one-quarter-inch fracture across the top of her skull, an “eggshell”
fracture inside her skull above her right eye socket, a scalp contusion on the
back of her head, and a subdural hematoma on the left side of her brain that
caused it to swell and herniate—break out of—the left side of her skull.
Doctor Berkland interpreted the subdural hematoma—called a contracoup
injury because it was on the opposite side of the head from the point of
impact (causing the brain to slam against the other side of the skull)—as evi-
dence that the victim’s moving head had struck a stationary object. He chose
this scenario over one more suggestive of foul play: the possibility that a
moving object, such as a baseball bat or metal pipe, had struck her head.
According to Dr. Berkland’s postmortem analysis, Lori Klausutis had suf-
fered a “cardiac arrhythmia” that had “halted her heart and stopped her
breathing.” On the way to the ground, her head hit the desk and that “blow
to the head had contributed to the death because blood pooled at the point
where the fracture occurred.” The victim, however, had continued to breathe
after falling to the floor, a fact supported by the presence around her mouth
and nose of a “foam cone,” a bubble of froth made up of mucus and blood. (In
drowning victims, this bubble consists of a mixture of breathing passage
mucus and water, an indication that the victim had been alive when he or
she entered the water.)
Although officially the death had been ruled accidental, it is hard to
know from Dr. Berkland’s report if the manner of death was accidental or
natural. The key factor in determining that she had not been murdered had
to do with the source of the head injuries. Because he had sectioned the
brain as part of his autopsy, Dr. Berkland knew that the head trauma had
been caused by a fall instead of the wielding of a blunt object. Since photo-
graphs of the death scene that showed blood and hair on the corner of the
desk were never released for public inspection, and there were no death site
sketches attached to the autopsy report, one had to take Dr. Berkland at his
word. But just how good was his word? He had lied about sectioning eight
brains in Jackson County, Missouri, and in the Klausutis case, he had repeat-
edly misled the public.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
selfish, impudent, and without pride of character. To a girl this
number foretells an unhappy marriage, and misfortune by that
means; but if she remains single, and keeps clear of lovers, she will
avoid the ill omen.
Fifteen. If you are a speculating character—a buyer of lottery
tickets or lottery policies, or are engaged in any games of chance,
such as gambling, horse-racing, shooting at a mark, betting, or in
fact any scheme that you expect to win money by, this number
foretells bad luck and discomfiture. If you try to test your luck in any
such matters, and this number turns up, you may be sure you will
lose, and had better give up at once. If you want to buy land, you
will be apt to get a good bargain and be fortunate. This number
foretells good luck to a farmer putting in his crops, and the same to
a girl choosing a husband; for though she may not get a rich man,
yet he will be industrious, thrifty, comfortable, and good-hearted. To
consumptive people this throw is not a favorable one, as in many
cases it predicts a short life to them.
Sixteen. This is an unlucky number to a merchant, a banker, or a
mechanic. It foretells bad luck of some kind, though it is generally a
forerunner of a brisk and profitable business. An excellent run of
business may come first, and the bad luck afterwards, or vice versa,
but the misfortune is sure to come in somewhere. To a farmer this
throw foretells abundant crops, and to a gold-digger good luck and
plenty of the precious metal. A young girl who throws it will get a
thrifty husband, and have a numerous family.
Seventeen. If you are a girl, and think of getting married, you will
be apt to lose your lover unless he is a farmer, a gardener, a well-
digger, a gold-miner, a brewer, a coal-heaver, a grave-digger, or
some occupation that makes him use a shovel a good deal. If you
think of marrying any such man, this throw is a good one. For a man
of any other occupation, it foretells disappointment. To a young
man, this number shows that by perseverance and industry he will
do well in the world—that his luck will be good if he only tries his
best to get along. If you have had anything stolen from you, or have
lost valuable property while walking or riding, this throw is
unfavorable; you will probably never recover what you have lost.
Eighteen. People who throw this number may congratulate
themselves, as it foretells riches, honors, and a happy and contented
life. It predicts unexceptionable prosperity in all kinds of business,
good luck in love matters, and advancement to those who are
honorably ambitious. To rogues and dishonest people it is an omen
of discomfiture, detection and punishment.
PALMISTRY,
OR TELLING FORTUNES BY THE LINES OF THE
HAND.
Many people think the predictions from lines in the hand are all
guess-work, but it is a mistake, for they are determined by simple
rules and long observation. Let us explain the matter:
In the first place each finger has its name.
(1) Forefinger: Jupiter ♃

(2) Middle finger: Saturn ♄
(3) Ring finger: The Sun ⨀
(4) Little finger: Mercury ☿
(5) Thumb: Venus ♀
Each hand has five main lines.
(1) The Life line: L. Vitalis.

(2) The Natural line: L. Naturalis.
(3) The Table line: L. Mensalis.
(4) The Liver line: L. Hepatica.
(5) The Wrist line: L. Rascetta.
(See Engraving.)
1. Linea Vitalis.
If this line is wanting or nearly so, it is by no means a good sign.

It signifies a feeble understanding, a faint heart, and a short, sickly
life. This, however, is not the signification in every case; it often
indicates, especially with the ladies, changeableness of feeling, a
disposition easily influenced by others, and a proneness to
enthusiasm.
The length of life is in proportion to the
length of the line of Life. It begins between
♃ and ♀ and it is here that you commence
with the prophecy.
Each knot in this line denotes an
obstacle, or, at least, something
momentous in life. Each crossing by smaller
lines, some unpleasant occurrence. The
larger the cross, the greater the misfortune.
In most cases one or more lines run from
the Natural line to the line of Life. This
indicates the partner of one’s life. The point
where the junction takes place denotes the
point of time of the marriage. If this occurs
near the commencement of the line, of
course the marriage will take place early in
life. If two lines unite with the line of Life it
indicates two husbands (or wives). If no
line joins it, the person will remain unmarried.
The clearer and more distinct the line of Life, the happier the
person’s life. When it is fine, deep and sharply defined, it denotes an
energetic, and at the same time a noble character.
2. Linea Naturalis.
A regular length and good appearance of this line denotes

excellent digestive organs. Large crosses occurring in its course
signify imprudence, precipitation.
3. Linea Mensalis.
If it is well defined it indicates an amorous temperament; if
accompanied by a side line, it signifies good fortune in love and
wedlock. If it is very broad, happiness in domestic life. If it is
interrupted it denotes that sad calamity, infidelity.
4. Linea Hepatica.
If it is complete and tolerably long, it promises robust health, a

clear understanding, and good humor. If it throws out branches near
its commencement it signifies wit, acuteness, presence of mind, a
spirit of mischief, perhaps falsehood.
5. Linea Rascetta.
When it is complete and unbroken, it denotes good fortune in all

matters of importance.
From the ring finger (Solis ⨀) there commonly runs one or more
lines into the Linea Mensalis. These denote the various inclinations
of the heart. If but a single line is actually visible, and if this is deep
and long, the person loves or will love faithfully and warmly. If a
number of smaller lines are found in its place, the person is
inconstancy itself, a butterfly roving from flower to flower. Add up all
these little lines, and the sum will give you the number of times the
person will fall in love.
PHRENOLOGY AND PHYSIOGNOMY.
The science of Phrenology teaches how to discover from the
formation of the skull the qualities of the soul, and to draw
conclusions as to the character of an individual. The whole head,
accordingly, is divided into organs. The following are the principal
ones, and are all that are necessary for the reader’s instruction. To
enter more deeply into the subject would exceed our limits.
1. Memory.
2. Causality.
3. Benevolence.
4. Approbativeness.
5. Painting.
6. Energy.
7. Imagination.
8. Inclination to Melancholy.
9. Mischievousness.
(See Engraving.)
According as these organs are more or less elevated and well

formed that peculiarity of character which they indicate is more or
less present.
Physiognomy, or the Features of the Head and Face, teaches us to
judge of the character of a person and of events connected with his
destiny from the shape, color and expression of his features. If my
fair readers would like to know how many husbands they are to
have, they have only to knit their eyebrows closely together, and
count the folds of the skin formed by this movement.
If they wish to see how many years they have to live, let them
elevate their brows as much as possible, and then count the cross
folds in the forehead. Subtract the number found from one hundred,
and the remainder is the number of the years which it is allotted you
to pass upon this earth.
Of the Nose. A bold, projecting nose, usually called a Roman nose,
denotes an enterprising temper. In general a large nose is a good
sign. A long nose is a sign of good sense, a stumpy one generally
indicates the contrary. A perfectly straight nose denotes a high and
noble spirit, unless the expression of the eyes contradicts this
judgment, and then it denotes great stupidity. A turned up nose
signifies a spirit of mischief, wit, forwardness, that is, if it is not too
stumpy. A very small nose indicates good nature, yet at the same
time a complete want of energy. A red nose denotes a cheerful
temper, or an inclination to drink, as all the world knows.
Of the Lips. Very thick lips indicate either great stupidity or very
great genius. Very fine thin lips denote falsehood, especially if they
are usually compressed. Swelling lips, if generally compressed,
denote great decision of character, a philosophical turn of mind, and
oftentimes somewhat of obstinacy. A mouth always open says as
plain as words can speak, “I am a calf.”
Of Dimples. Dimples in the cheeks signify roguery. But the dimple
in the chin the God of Love has himself imprinted with his own
divine finger.
Of the Eye. The soul, however, dwells particularly in the eyes, and
the faculty is inborn with every man to understand their language
without ever having studied it. At least it should be so; the eyes
should be like an open book, which all may read and understand.
But as all eyes are not to be trusted, and will sometimes lead you
astray, I will give you, my dear readers, a few rules to guide you in
your path through life.
A clear eye, with the pupil in continual, slightly tremulous
movement, denotes a good memory, yet something of selfishness
with slowness of comprehension.
An eye which, while the person speaks, roves hither and thither,
denotes a deceiver. Very quiet eyes which have an imposing effect
upon you, and embarrass you by their great repose, signify great
self-command, yet, at the same time, great self-complacency.
Eyes which ordinarily appear impressive, yet often suddenly flash
forth a clear pleasant light, denote true-heartedness and honesty,
coupled with a sound understanding.
Eyes which have always an inquisitive expression in them, and
then suddenly, when they turn to address a person, have an
exceedingly kind expression, are not to be trusted. This indicates a
suspicious temper, and he who does not trust his fellow-man, can
seldom himself be trusted.
An eye in which the white has a yellowish tinge, and is streaked
with reddish veins, denotes vehement passions.
Very blue eyes, betray a temper inclined to coquetry.
Gray eyes, intelligence.
Greenish, falsehood, and a disposition to tittle-tattle.
Yellowish, great phlegm.
Black, a passionate lively temperament.
Brown, a kind, good, happy disposition.
A pair of eyes which looks every one cheerfully and frankly in the
face, with an air of simple joy and unaffected innocence, yet, when
surprised, droops to the ground, with a certain sly bashfulness, or,
when offended by another’s glance, turns aside blushing and
confused, such a pair of eyes, indicates an amiable character, a
faithful heart, a sound understanding, and a pure soul.
A being with such a pair of eyes we cannot help loving, let the
eyes be black, brown, blue, gray, green, or yellow, let the nose be
stumpy, and the features ill-shaped, no one can help regarding their
possessor with a feeling of hearty kindness and good will, if not with
actual love.
Of the Eye-Brows. Upright eyebrows are amiable; the eyebrows
hanging over, indicate an effeminate person; the brows very hairy,
denote an industrious, affectionate man; the brows extending to the
temples, usually signify a slovenly man.
Of the Ears. Open ears usually indicate but little reason; great ears
not too much wisdom; very small ears foolishness; square ears of
medium size, prudence.
Of the Nostrils. The nostrils thick and strong, betoken strength; if
round, fair, and drawn in length, they are a sign that the person is
merry and courageous; if narrow and round, they are mostly
indicative of an envious and foolish person.
Of the Mouth. A very large mouth, with the upper lip hanging over,
usually signifies a foolish, unsteady person, a rash man and a
babbler. A mouth not too large, indicates a bold and courageous
man; and a small mouth, a clever man.
Of the Face. A lean face is an indication of a wise man; the face
plain and fat, denotes a person addicted to strife. The face without
any rising and swelling, indicates a penurious person; a sad face
sometimes denotes foolishness, and at other times wisdom; a fat
face indicates a man to be inclined to untruth; a round face signifies
folly; a great face denotes a man slow about business; a well-
proportioned face indicates a person to have virtuous qualities.
Of the Nails on the Fingers. Broad nails show the person to be
bashful, fearful, but of gentle nature. When there is a certain white
mark at the extremity of them, it shows that the person has more
honesty than subtlety. White long nails denote much sickness, but
are sometimes indicative of strength and deceit. If upon the white
anything appears at the extremity that is pale, it denotes short life;
but if the white is clear and smooth, it signifies long life.
Of the Head. A large head shows a person stupid, and dull of
apprehension; also a very small head signifies the same; but the
head of a man being neither great nor small, is the prognostic of a
wise man; for all extremes are irregular and a deviation from nature,
and experience has made it manifest, that a great head and small
members do always produce great indiscretion and folly in either
man or woman; but we must also consider the several parts of the
head: and first,
Of the Forehead. A large forehead shows a liberal man; but the
forehead narrow, denotes a foolish person; a long forehead shows
one apt to learn; a high forehead, swelling and round, is a sign of a
crafty man, and a coward; a forehead full of wrinkles, shows a man
to be envious and crafty.
But in forming your opinions of men from these or other
indications, you should always bear in mind that there is no rule
without an exception.
FORTUNE-TELLING BY MOLES.
These little marks on the skin, although they appear to be the
effect of chance, or accident, and might easily pass with the
unthinking for things of no moment, are nevertheless of the utmost
consequence, since from their color, situation, size, and figure, may
be accurately gathered the temper of, and the events that will
happen to the person bearing them; though moles are, in their
substances, nothing else than excrescences, or ebullitions which
proceed from the state of the blood whilst the fœtus is confined in
the womb, yet they are not given in vain, as they are generally
characteristic of the disposition and temper of those that bear them;
and it is also proved by daily experience, that from the shape,
situation, and other circumstances, they bear a strong analogy to
the events which are to happen to a person in future life. But before
I presume to give any directions to those who are to form the
prognostic, who are desirous to be duly enabled to pronounce an
infallible judgment, I shall, in the first place, teach you herein the
common prognostications by moles found in the various parts of the
body, according to the doctrine of the ancients. And, first, it is
essentially necessary to know the size of the mole, its color, whether
it be perfectly round, oblong, or angular; because each of these will
add to or diminish the force of the indication. The larger the mole,
the greater will be the prosperity or adversity of the person; the
smaller the mole, the less will be his good or evil fate. If the mole is
round, it indicates good; if oblong, a moderate share of fortunate
events; if angular, it gives a mixture of good and evil; the deeper the
color, the more it announces favor or disgrace; the lighter, the less of
either. If it is very hairy, much misfortune may be expected; if but
few long hairs grow upon it, it denotes that your undertakings will
be prosperous.
We shall further remark only, that moles of a middling size and
color are those which we are now going to speak of. The rest may
be gathered from what we have just above mentioned, but as it may
frequently happen that modesty will sometimes hinder persons from
showing their moles, you must depend upon their own
representation of them for your opinion.
SIGNIFICATION OF MOLES.
Arm. (Right or Left.) Show a courteous disposition, great fortitude,

resolution, industry, and conjugal fidelity; it foretells that the person
will fight many battles, and be successful in all; that you will be
prosperous in your undertakings, obtain a decent competency, and
live very happy—it denotes that a man will be a widower at forty, but
in a woman it shows that she will be survived by her husband.
Ankle. Shows an effeminate disposition, given to foppery in dress,
and cowardice in a man; but in a woman it denotes courage, wit,
and activity—they foretell success in life with an agreeable partner,
accumulation of honors and riches, and much pleasure in the affairs
of love.
Anus. Around outside this place, a mole predicts that you will be
indolent, shiftless and poor, though of good capacity.
Arm-Pits. You will be very good looking, will become rich, and be
benevolent.
Back. If just below either of the shoulder blades, it signifies that
you will have misfortune and defeat in the enterprises you may
undertake.
Belly. Shows an indolent, slothful disposition, given to gluttony,
very selfish, addicted to the pleasures of love and drink, negligent of
dress, and cowardly; it denotes small success in life, many crosses,
some imprisonment, and travelling, with losses by sea; but it
foretells that you will marry an agreeable partner of a sweet temper,
have children, who will be industrious and become very respectable
in life.
Bosom. Shows a quarrelsome and unhappy temper, given to low
debauchery, and exceedingly amorous, indolent and unsteady; it
denotes a life neither very prosperous nor very miserable, but
passed without many friends or much esteem.
Breast. A mole on the right breast shows an intemperate and
indolent disposition, rather given to drink, strongly attached to the
joys of love; it denotes much misfortune in life, with a sudden
reverse from riches to poverty—many unpleasant and disagreeable
accidents, with a sober and industrious partner—many children,
mostly girls, who will all marry well, and be a great comfort to your
old age; it warns you to beware of pretended friends, who will harm
you much. A mole on the left breast shows an industrious and sober
disposition, amorous, and much given to walking; it denotes great
success in life and in love, that you will accumulate riches, and have
many children, mostly boys, who will make their fortunes by sea.
A mole under the left breast under the heart, shows a rambling,
unsettled disposition, given to drinking and little careful of your
actions; very amorous, and much given to indulge indiscriminately in
the pleasures of love, in a man. In a woman it indicates sincerity in
love, industry, and a strict regard for character; in life it denotes a
varied mixture of good and bad fortune, the former rather
prevailing; it denotes imprisonment for debt, but not of long
duration. To a woman it denotes easy labors, and children who will
become rich, live happy and respected, and marry well.
Buttocks. Signifies shiftlessness and poverty, though a good
capacity; it is a sign that you will be too lazy to do anything for
yourself.
Cheek. A mole on either cheek, shows an industrious, benevolent
and sober disposition, given to be grave and solemn, little inclined to
amorous sports, but of a steady courage and unshaken fortitude; it
denotes a moderate success in life, neither becoming rich nor falling
into poverty—it also foretells an agreeable and industrious partner,
with two children, who will do better than the parents.
Chin. A mole on the chin shows an amiable and tranquil
disposition, industrious and much inclined to travelling, and the joys
of Venus; it denotes that the person will be highly successful in life,
accumulating a large and splendid fortune, with many respectable
and worthy friends, an agreeable conjugal partner, and fine children,
but also indicates losses by sea and in foreign countries.
Ear. On either ear it denotes riches in man or woman. If on the
lower tip of the ear, keep off the water, or you will be drowned.
Elbow. A mole on either elbow shows a restless and unsteady
disposition, with a great desire for travelling—much discontented in
the married state and of an idle turn; it indicates no very great
prosperity, rather a sinking than rising condition, with many
unpleasant adventures, much to your discredit—marriage to a
person who will make you unhappy, and children who will be
disobedient, and cause you much trouble.
Eye. A mole on the outside corner of either eye shows a sober,
honest, and steady disposition, much inclined to the pleasures of
love; it foretells a violent death, after a life considerably varied by
pleasures and misfortunes; in general it foreshadows that poverty
will keep at a distance.
Eyebrow. A mole on the right eyebrow signifies a sprightly, active
disposition, a great turn for gallantry, much courage, and great
perseverance; it denotes wealth and success in love, war and
business; that you will marry an agreeable mate, live happy, have
children, and die in an advanced old age, at a distance from home.
On the left eyebrow, temple, or side of the forehead, shows an
indolent peevish temper, a turn for debauchery and liquor, little
inclined to amorous sports and very cowardly; foretells poverty,
imprisonment and disappointments in all your undertakings, with
undutiful children, and a bad-tempered partner.
Finger. On either finger of either hand, it shows that you will be a
thief, or a dishonest person in some way, and never wealthy.
Foot. A mole on either foot shows a melancholy and inactive
disposition, little inclined to the pleasures of love, given to reading
and a sedentary life; they foretell sickness and unexpected
misfortunes, with many sorrows and much trouble, an unhappy
choice of a partner for life, with disobedient and unfortunate
children.
Forehead. If the mole is in the centre of the forehead it predicts an
active, industrious disposition, success in business, riches, honors, a
happy marriage, and a son who will be distinguished. But if the mole
is on the side of the forehead, the signification is not so favorable,
particularly if on the left side. (See Eyebrow.) On the right side of
the forehead, or right temple, shows an active and industrious
disposition, much given to the sports of love; it denotes that she will
be very successful in life, marry an agreeable partner, and arrive at
unexpected riches and honors, and have a son, who will become a
great man.
Groin. On the right groin denotes riches and honors, but to be
accompanied with disease. On the left groin, you will have the
sickness without the wealth.
Gullet. On that part of the throat called the gullet, it predicts that
you will be distinguished in some way and become rich.
Hand. Moles on either hand, if not on the fingers, denote wealth,
industry and energy in either sex. You will also be fortunate and
happy in your children.
Heart. Over the heart, denotes wickedness, poverty and a hasty,
headstrong disposition. (See Breast.)
Heel. Shows a spiteful and malevolent disposition, but a person of
much energy, who may be successful in what he undertakes; that he
will be greatly talked about behind his back.
Hip. A mole on either hip shows a contented disposition, given to
industry, amorous and faithful in engagements, of an abstemious
turn; it foretells moderate success in life, with many children, who
will undergo many hardships with great fortitude, and arrive at ease
and affluence, by dint of their industry and ingenuity.
Knee. A mole on the left knee shows a hasty and passionate
disposition, extravagant and inconsiderate turn, with no great
inclination to industry and honesty, much given to the pleasures of
Venus, but possessed of much benevolence; it indicates good
success in undertakings, particularly in contracts, a rich marriage,
and an only child. On the right knee, shows an amiable temper,
honest disposition and a turn for amorous pleasures and industry; it
foretells great success in love, and the choice of a conjugal partner,
with few sorrows, many friends, and dutiful children.
Leg. Moles on either leg show a person of a thoughtless, indolent
disposition, of an amorous turn, much given to extravagance and
dissipation; it denotes many difficulties through life, but that you will
surmount them all; it shows that imprisonment will happen to you at
an early age, but that in general you will be more fortunate than
otherwise; you will marry an agreeable person, who will survive you,
by whom you will have four children, two of which will die young.
Lips. A mole on either lip shows a delicate appetite, a sober
disposition, and much given to the pleasures of love, of an
industrious and benevolent turn; it denotes that the person will be
successful in undertakings, particularly in love affairs—that you will
rise above your present condition, and be greatly respected and
esteemed—that you will endeavor to obtain some situation, in which
you will at first prove unsuccessful, but afterward prevail.
Mons. If a woman have a mole here, she will become the mother
of a great genius, or else the wife of a distinguished personage. It is
also a sign of riches.
Mouth. (See Lips.)
Navel. On a woman it denotes many children, a good husband,
and an abundance of this world’s goods. On a man it is a sign he will
be lucky in all he undertakes, become very rich, and that he will
have a son who will be distinguished.
Neck. In front of the neck is a good sign; you will rise to
unexpected honors and dignities, or become rich. On the back of the
neck it denotes misfortune. On either side of the neck it foretells
that you will become wicked or quarrelsome; and if on the right side,
behind the ear, it is a sign that you will be hung.
Nipple. In woman it is a sign that she will have a child that will
become famous and distinguished in the world. In man it denotes
that he will be fond of women, and spend much of his life in amours,
to the neglect of his proper business.
Nose. Moles on any part of the nose, show a hasty and passionate
disposition, much given to amorous pleasures, faithful to
engagements, candid, open, and sincere in friendship, courageous
and honest, but very petulant, and rather given to drink; it denotes
great success through life and in love affairs—that you will become
rich, marry well, have fine children and be much esteemed by your
neighbors and acquaintance—that you will travel much, particularly
by water.
Nostril. Inside the nostril shows that you will be energetic and
persevering, and well off in the world; that you will get a good wife
or husband when you marry.
Private Members. Moles on these parts show a generous, open and
honest disposition, extremely disposed to gallantry, and the joys of
Venus, given to sobriety, and of undaunted courage; it denotes great
success in the latter part of life, but many and severe misfortunes in
the former, which will be borne with fortitude; it also foretells a
happy marriage and fine children, who will be happy, thrive well, and
grow rich and respectable: in man it shows that he will have natural
children, who will cut a great figure in life, but he will experience
much plague and vexation from their mother.
Shin. (See Leg.)
Shoulder. On the left shoulder shows a person of a quarrelsome,
unruly disposition, always inclined to dispute for trifles, rather
indolent, but much inclined to the pleasures of love, and faithful to
the conjugal vows. It denotes a life not much varied either with
pleasures or misfortunes; they indicate many children, and moderate
success in business, but dangers by sea. On the right shoulder
shows a person of a prudent and discreet temper, one possessed of
much wisdom, given to great secrecy, very industrious, but not very
amorous, yet faithful to conjugal ties; it indicates great prosperity
and advancement in life, a good partner, and many friends, with
great profit from a journey to a distant country, about the age of
thirty-five.
Side. On either side, near any part of the ribs, shows an indolent,
cowardly disposition, given to excessive drinking, of an inferior
capacity, and little inclined to the pleasures of love; it denotes an
easy life, rather of poverty than riches, little respected, a partner of
an uneven and disagreeable temper, with undutiful children, who will
fall into many difficulties.
Stomach. If in the pit of the stomach, it shows a person of foppish
disposition, with little common sense, though much industry; it also
denotes riches. If lower down on the stomach, it is a sign that you
will promise more than you will perform, but will nevertheless be
highly esteemed.
Thigh. On the right thigh, it shows the person to be of an
agreeable temper, inclined to be amorous, and very courageous: it
also denotes success in life, accumulation of riches by marriage, and
many fine children, chiefly girls. On the left thigh, shows a good and
benevolent disposition, a great turn for industry, and little inclined to
the pleasures of love: it likewise indicates many sorrows in life, great
poverty, unfaithful friends, and imprisonment by the false swearing
of some one.
Throat. It predicts a fortunate and wealthy marriage to either sex.
(See Neck.)
Tongue. If a man shall have a mole on his tongue, it foretells that
he shall marry with a rich and beautiful woman of great celebrity. On
a woman’s tongue it denotes reserve of manner and wisdom; also a
fortunate marriage.
Wrist. Moles on the wrist, or between that and the finger ends,
show the person to be of an ingenious and industrious turn, faithful
in his engagements, amorous and constant in his affections, rather
of a saving disposition, with a great degree of sobriety and regularity
in his dealings. It foreshows a comfortable acquisition of fortune,
with a good partner, and beautiful children, but some disagreeable
circumstances will happen about the age of thirty, which continue
four or five years. In a man, it denotes being twice married—in a
woman only once, but that she will survive her husband.
TO CHOOSE A HUSBAND BY THE HAIR.

Black. Generally healthy, but apt to be cross; fond where he fixes
his attachment, and likely to make a good husband, and be careful
of his family: but if short and curly, is usually of an unsettled temper,
apt to show a want of prudence and carefulness in early life.
White or Fair Hair. Usually of a weak and sickly constitution, fond
of music, and will cut no great figure in the world.
Yellow. Fond, but inclinable to jealousy; and not always
industrious.
Light Brown. Sensible and good-humored, careful and attentive,
and, if saving of his income, generally makes a good husband; but is
apt to be otherwise.
Dark Brown. Neither very good nor very bad, middling in all
respects, but may be regarded as a pretty good character.
Very Dark Brown. Of a robust constitution, and of a grave
disposition, but sometimes not very good-tempered and sensible,
and kind to a good wife.
Red. Will be cunning, artful, and fond of female companions; and
be generally of a lively temper, and sometimes careless of money.
SIGNIFICATION OF THE NAILS.

Broad Nails. The person that hath the nails thus, is of gentle
nature, good, and pusillanimous, and a great fear to speak before
great persons, or those by whom they are in subjection; as also
being guilty of extreme bashfulness.
If about these nails there happens to be an excoriation of the
flesh, which is commonly called points—in these large nails it
signifies the party given to luxury, yet fearful, but usually given to
excess.
When there is at the extremity a white mark, it signifies ruin
through negligence. The party has more honesty than subtlety.
White Nails. He that hath the nails white and long, is sickly, and
subject to much infirmity by fevers; he is neat but not very strong,
because of his indispositions, much addicted to the company of
women by whom he will be greatly deceived.
Narrow Nails. The person with such nails, is desirous of attaining
knowledge in the sciences; but is never long at peace with his
neighbors. But if to narrowness they add some degree of length, the
person will be led away by ambitious propensities, always aiming at
things which he will be unable to obtain.
Round Nails. These declare a hasty person, yet good-natured and
very forgiving; a lover of knowledge, liberal sentiment, doing no one
any harm, and acting by his own principles, but too proud of his own
abilities.
Long Nails. When the nails are long, the person is of a good-
natured turn, but placing confidence in no man, being from his
youth familiar with duplicity, but not practising it, from his strict
adherence to virtue.
Fleshy Nails. This description of nail indicates an idler, loving to
sleep, eat, and drink; not delighting in bustle and busy life; one who
prefers a narrow income without industry, to one of opulence to be
acquired by activity and diligence.
Little Nails. Little round nails discover a person to be obstinately
angry, seldom pleased, inclining to hate every one, as conceiving
himself superior to others, though without any reason.
Pale or Lead-colored Nails. A melancholy person, one who through
choice leads a sedentary life, and would willingly give up all things
for the sake of study, and to improve in the learned and
metaphysical branches of philosophy.
Red and spotted Nails. Choleric and martial, delighting in cruelty and
war; his chief pleasure being in plundering towns, where every
ferocious particle in human nature is glutted to satiety.
When you find any black spots upon the nails, they always signify
evil, as white ones are a token of good.
FORTUNE-TELLING BY TEA OR COFFEE

GROUNDS.
To pour out the grounds of a tea or coffee cup.—Pour the grounds of
coffee or tea into a white cup, shake them well about in it, so that
their particles may cover the surface of the whole cup; then reverse
it into the saucer, that all the superfluous parts may be drained, and
the figures required for fortune-telling be formed.
The person who acts as the fortune-teller, must always bend his or
her thoughts upon him or her who is to have their fortune told, and
on their rank in life, and profession, in order to give plausibility to
the predictions. It is not to be expected that upon taking up the cup,
the figures will be accurately represented as they are in reality, but it
will be quite sufficient if they bear some resemblance to any of the
emblems; and the more fertile the fancy is of the person that
inspects the cup, the more he or she will discover in it.
In other respects, every one who takes a pleasure in this
amusement, must be a judge under what circumstances he or she is
to make changes in point of time—speaking, just as it suits, in the
present, the past, or the future; in the same manner, their ingenuity
ought to direct them when to speak more or less pointedly with
regard to sex.
The Roads, or separate lines, indicate ways; if they are covered
with clouds, and, consequently, in the thick, they are said to be
infallible marks, either of many great or future reverses. But if they
appear in the clear and serene, are the surest token of some
fortunate change near at hand; encompassed with many points or
dots, they signify either a gain of money, or long life.
The Ring signifies marriage; if a letter is near it, it denotes to the
person that has their fortune told, the initial of the name of the party
to be married. If the ring is in the clear, it portends happy and
lucrative friendship; if surrounded with clouds, the contrary. But if
the ring appear at the bottom of the cup, it forebodes the probability
of a separation.
The Leaf of Clover is, as well here as in common life, a lucky sign.
Its different position in the cup alone makes the difference; because,
if it be on the top, it shows that the good fortune is not far distant;
but it is subject to delay, if it be in the middle or at the bottom.
Should clouds surround it, it shows that many disagreeables will
attend the good fortune; in the clear, it prognosticates serene and
undisturbed happiness.
The Anchor. The emblem of hope and commerce, implies
successful business carried on by water and by land, if on the
bottom of the cup; at the top and in the clear part, it shows constant
love and fidelity; but in thick and cloudy parts, it denotes
inconstancy.
The Serpent, always the emblem of falsehood and enmity, is
likewise here a general sign of an enemy. On the top or in the
middle of the cup, it promises to the consulting party that by his
always acting properly, his enemies will not be able to triumph over
him; if in the thick or cloudy part, he must watch his temper and
actions very carefully, to prevent great troubles.
The Coffin. The emblem of death, prognosticates the same thing
here, or at least a long and tedious illness, if it be in the thick or
turbid. In the clear, it denotes long life; if in the thick, at the top of
the cup, it signifies a considerable estate likely to be made by
cautious industry.
The Dog, being at all times the emblem of fidelity or envy, has also
a two-fold meaning here. At the top, in the clear, it signifies true and
faithful friends: if the image be surrounded with clouds and dashes,
it shows that some whom you take for your friends are not to be
depended on; but if the dog be at the bottom of the cup, take much
care not to excite any person to envy or jealousy, or you will have to
dread the effects of both.
The Lily. If this emblem be at the top, or in the middle of the cup,
it signifies that the consulting party either has, or will have, a good
spouse; if it be at the bottom, it denotes anger. In the clear, the lily
further betokens a long and happy life; if clouded, or in the thick, it
portends trouble and vexations.
The Cross, in general, predicts adversities; if it be at the top, and
in the clear, it indicates that the misfortunes of the party will soon be
at an end, or that he will, by careful conduct, easily get over them;
but if it appear in the middle, or at the bottom of the thick, the party
must expect many severe trials; if it appear with dots, either in clear
or thick, it promises recompense for sorrow.
The Clouds. If they be more bright than dark, you may expect a
good result from your hopes; but if they are black, you may give it
up. Surrounded with dots, they imply success in trade, if you are
saving, and not too venturesome; the brighter they are, the greater
will be your happiness.
The Sun, is an emblem of the greatest luck and happiness, if in the
clear; but in the thick, it denotes a great deal of illness; surrounded
by dots or dashes, it foretells that, without much circumspection, an
alteration will soon take place.
The Moon. If it appear in the clear, it denotes high honors; in the
dark or thick parts, it implies disappointment and sadness, which
will, however, pass without great prejudice. But if it be at the bottom
of the cup, the consulting party may expect, by industry and prudent
conduct, to be very fortunate.
The Star denotes happiness, if in the clear, and at the top of the
cup; if clouded, or in the thick, it signifies long life, though exposed
to various troubles. If dots are about it, it foretells fortune and
respectability. Several dots denote good children; surrounded by
dots, it predicts that, without good bringing up, they may cause you
grief and vexation.
Mountains. If it present only one mountain, it indicates the favor of
people of rank; but several of them, especially in the thick, are signs
of powerful enemies; in the clear, they signify the contrary, or friends
in high life.
The Letter. Signifies both pleasant and unpleasant news. If this
emblem is in the clear part, it denotes the speedy arrival of welcome
news; surrounded with dots, it announces the arrival of a remittance
of money; but hemmed in by clouds, it forebodes some melancholy
or bad tidings, a loss, or some other accident; if it be in the clear,
and accompanied by a heart, lovers may expect a favorable letter;
but in the thick it denotes the contrary.
The Tree. One tree only is indicative of good health; a group of
trees in the clear part, betokens misfortunes, but which may be
avoided by carefulness and industrious habits; several trees, wide
apart, promise that your wishes will be accomplished; if they be
encompassed by dashes, it is a token that your fortune is in its
blossom, and requires only your own care and prudence to bring it
to maturity; if the trees be accompanied by dots, it is a sign of
riches.
The Child. In the clear part it bespeaks innocent intercourse
between the consulter and another person; in the thick part it
signifies crosses in love matters, and requires your utmost care to
prevent great expenses; and a family without means of support.
The Woman. Signifies much joy in general. If in the clear, this
emblem shows very great happiness; but in the thick part it cautions
against jealousy. If dots surround the image, it shows children and
wealth.
The Pedestrian. Denotes in general a merchant, good business,
pleasant news, or the recovery of lost things. It denotes to the
female a kind and industrious husband; it also signifies some
engagement, and a short journey.
The Rider or Horseman. Denotes a letter, good news from abroad, a
good situation, or the like; it also foretells that a fortune is to be
obtained by care and industry.
The Mouse. As this animal lives by stealth, it also is an emblem of
theft or robbery; if it be in the clear, it shows that your loss will be
easily prevented; but if in the thick, you must use your utmost
watchfulness.
The Rose, or any other Flower. Usually indicates success in science
or art by study; if married, good children may be expected, and all
the happy fruits, if they have but a good education and good
examples.
The Heart. If it be in the clear, it signifies future pleasure. It
promises joy at receiving some money, if surrounded with dots. If a
ring or two hearts be together, it signifies that the party may expect
to be married; if a letter is perceptible near it, it shews the initial of
the person’s name.
The Garden, Wood, or Bush. Signifies a large company. In the clear
and with leaves, it indicates good friends; in the thick, encompassed
with streaks, or if without leaves, it is a token of the caprices of
fortune, and warns the consulting party to be cautious whom they
take for their friends.
The Rod. Predicts differences with people about matters relating to
legacies; in the thick, it denotes some affliction, which will require
your utmost care to avert.
The Bird in general. In the clear, it signifies that the disagreeables
and troubles with which you will have to combat, will only be
surmounted by persevering in doing good; in the thick, it is a sign of
good living; also a speedy journey, or voyage, which, if there be
dashes, is likely to be to a distance.
Fish in general. Imply some lucky event by water, if in the clear,
which will either happen to the consulter, or be the means of
improving his affairs. If they are in the thick, the consulter may
expect to fish in troubled water. Surrounded with dots, his destiny
warns him to use diligence, temperance and frugality.
The Lion, or any Ferocious Beast. At the top, in the clear, it signifies
prosperity in your intercourse with people of quality. At the bottom it
warns the consulter to shun such intercourse and do nothing to
excite any person to envy his fortune.
Worms. At the top, or in the middle of the cup, they denote good
luck in trade and in matrimony; below they warn you against rivals
in courtship, and against enviers in your trade and profession.
The Style. If combined with an hour-glass and in the thick, it
denotes imminent dangers of all kinds; in love, disappointment; but
in the clear, it signifies that your sweetheart is faithful and
affectionate toward you, and that you are likely to live a long and
happy life.
CHARMS AND MAGIC PROGNOSTICATIONS.

Herewith I give a few mysterious magic formulas and
prognostications, for the most part hitherto known only to wise old
men and women, some of which I have had confided to me by
learned astrologers, and a few were revealed to me by Madame Le
Normand, a celebrated fortune-teller, in whose predictions the
Emperor Napoleon put great confidence.
TO PREPARE A LOVE POTION.
The following substances must be gathered in silence when the

full moon is in the heavens: Three white rose leaves, three red rose
leaves, three forget-me-nots, and five blossoms of Veronica.
All these things you must place in a vessel, then pour upon them
five hundred and ninety-five drops of clear Easter water, and place
the vessel over the fire, or what is better still, over a spirit-lamp.
This mixture must be allowed to boil for exactly the sixteenth part of
an hour.
When it has boiled for the requisite length of time, remove it from
the fire, and pour it into a flask. Cork it tightly, and seal it, and it will
keep for years without losing its virtue.
That this potion is certain in its effect I myself will guarantee, for I
have gained more than thirty hearts by its help. Three drops
swallowed by the person whose love you desire, will suffice.
ANOTHER MEANS TO COMPEL LOVE.
Take a healthy, well-grown frog. Place it in a box which has been

pierced all over with holes with a stout darning needle or gimlet.
Then carry it in the evening twilight to a large ant-heap, place it in
the midst of the heap, taking care to observe perfect silence.
After the lapse of a week, repair to the ant-heap, take out the
box, and open it, when in place of the frog you will find nothing but
a skeleton. Take this apart very carefully, and you will soon find
among the delicate bones a scale shaped like that of a fish and a
hook. You will need them both. The hook you must contrive to
fasten in some way or other into the clothes of the person whose
affections you wish to obtain, and if he or she has worn it, if it is
only for a quarter of a minute, he will be constrained to love you,
and will continue to do so until you give him or her a fillip with the
scale.
This method is over three thousand years old, and it has been
practised by thirty-thousand of our ancestors with the most
complete success.
FOR A GIRL TO ASCERTAIN IF SHE WILL EVER MARRY.
Borrow a wedding-ring from a young married woman—the more

recently she has been married the better—and do not tell her, or let
her suspect your purpose; wear this ring on the third finger of your
left hand at least three hours after sunset before you retire to rest.
When you are ready to go to bed, take half a sheet of pure white
paper, with no rule marks or anything upon it, lay down the ring on
the paper, and mark round it so as to make a circle exactly its size:
you then write within the circle, “With this ring I hope to wed:” write
your name over the top, and your age underneath; fold the paper
with a three-cornered love-letter fold, and put it under your pillow.
Before getting into bed, suspend the ring by a hair of your head over
the pillow so that it will hang about six inches above your face. You
will then dream of your future husband if you are ever to marry. If
you dream of several men, the one whose appearance pleases you
best will be the man. If you dream of women or girls exclusively, you
will never marry. Sometimes it may happen that your dream is
confused, and you have no clear recollection of it, or perhaps you
may not dream at all, in which case you must continue the charm,
by keeping the paper under your pillow for three nights; but the ring
is not necessary after the first night.
THE STRAW SIGN.
If you find a blade of straw lying in your chamber, you may expect
a visitor that same day. If there is one grain upon the straw, the
visitor will be a gentleman, if not, a lady.
THE SCISSOR OR KNIFE PROGNOSTIC.
If a pair of scissors, a knife, or any other pointed instrument falls

accidentally from your hand, and sticks in the floor, so that it
remains upright, you may make every preparation for company, for
be assured they will not fail to come.
THE CAT PORTENT.
When the cat licks and trims herself, it is a sign of visitors, but this
is probably known to most of my readers already.
SIGN OF VISITORS.
Finally, a fourth sign of approaching visitors is the crying of the

magpie. Magpies, as is well known, are the most inquisitive
creatures upon the face of the earth. They fly from place to place,
and listen to everything. When they find out that any persons have
concluded to pay you a visit, they fly to you at full speed, and bring
you the news, for they are as chattering as they are inquisitive. They
perch themselves upon your house, or upon a tree which may stand
near it, or on the grass, and there sit and chatter until they think you
must have understood them. Therefore, always give heed to these
wise birds, for it is well to know when you are to expect visitors.
THE NEW MOON.
On first seeing the new moon, if you happen to look at it over

your right shoulder, you may make a silent wish, and you will realize
it. If a girl thus observes the new moon, and desires to see her
future husband, she must repeat to herself (so as not to be heard by
any one) the following lines:

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Understanding Risk in Criminal Justice Crime and Justice

Science notebook Physical science with earth science

Women and Criminal Justice Marilyn D. Mcshane

Criminal Law for the Criminal Justice Professional 3rd

Careers in Criminal Justice Coy H. Johnston

Criminal justice 9th Edition James A. Inciardi

Reform and Punishment Cambridge Criminal Justice Series

Criminal Procedure for the Criminal Justice Professional

Forensics under Fire

Forensics under Fire

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Manufactured in the United States of America

It is through clues that we form our opinion about the facts

Clues are tangible signs which prove—or seem to prove—that

1 Forensic Pathologists from Hell: Bungled Autopsies,

2 A Question of Credibility: Bad Reputations and the

3 The Sudden Infant Death Debate: Dr. Roy Meadow,

4 Infants Who Can’t Breathe: Illness or Suffocation? 67

5 Swollen Brains and Broken Bones: Disease or Infanticide? 79

6 Fingerprint Identiﬁcation: Trouble in Paradise 103

7 Fingerprints Never Lie: Except in Scotland 123

8 Shoe-Print Identiﬁcation and Foot Morphology:

10 Ear-Mark Identiﬁcation: Emerging Science or

11 Expert versus Expert: The Handwriting Wars in the

Forensics under Fire

A crime-scene photographer is snapping shots of a dead woman lying face-

2 FORENSICS UNDER FIRE

THE PRINCIPAL ROLE of the forensic scientist is to identify physical crime-

4 FORENSICS UNDER FIRE

The theory that a criminal perpetrator leaves a part of himself at the

Automatic Fingerprint Identiﬁcation System (IAFIS) now allows detectives

6 FORENSICS UNDER FIRE

weak supervision, poor training, and evidence contamination. Even the

The expert’s greatest weakness lies in the fact that he is called as an

consequences for practitioners who fail to meet the highest standards of

Forensic Pathologists from Hell

Most forensic pathologists are hardworking, well intentioned, and compe-

Dr. Ralph Erdmann: The Prosecutor’s Dream,

performed autopsies in funeral home garages, hospital loading docks, park-

FORENSIC PATHOLOGISTS FROM HELL 15

Dr. Joan Wood: A Forensic Meltdown

Pinellas-Pasco Medical Examiner’s Ofﬁce. She became the chief medical

FORENSIC PATHOLOGISTS FROM HELL 17

combination of dehydration and bed-ridden immobility. Dr. Wood, instead of

FORENSIC PATHOLOGISTS FROM HELL 19

David Long’s Ordeal

Freeing John Peel

FORENSIC PATHOLOGISTS FROM HELL 21

Dr. Richard O. Eicher: Too Many Bad Calls

Dr. Angelo Ozoa and the Red Sash: Murder or Suicide?