Long-term underlying causes of war

On 28 June 1914, a Serbian shot an Austrian. Within six weeks, many of the countries of Europe had become involved in a war that was to cause the deaths of 10 million soldiers, but was the assassination the only cause of war?

Four underlying causes of war

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand signalled the rapid slide into world war, but this wasn't the only cause. There were underlying causes in the run-up to the First World War. In the 1930s, historians argued that there were four underlying long-term causes of the First World War: y y y y Nationalism - the belief that your country is better than others. This made nations assertive and aggressive. Imperialism - the desire to conquer colonies, especially in Africa. This brought the powers into conflict - Germany wanted an empire. France and Britain already had empires. Militarism (Arms Race) - the attempt to build up a strong army and navy gave nations the means and will to make war. Alliances - in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. This alarmed, France, Britain and Russia. By 1907, they had all joined the Triple Entente. Europe was divided into two armed camps, to help each other if there was a war.

The path to war

During 1900-1914, the great powers of Europe clashed a number of times. Each of these events increased international tension and rivalry, and made war more likely. War was going to come sooner or later.

Events
Key events 1899-1914 Event 1. Boer War 1899-1902 2. First Moroccan crisis 1905-1906 3. 'Daily Telegraph' article 1908 4. Bosnia 1908 Description Germany opposed Britain's attempt to defeat the Boers in South Africa. Kaiser Wilhelm promised to support the sultan of Morocco against France's attempts to take over the country. In a newspaper interview, Kaiser Wilhelm said the English were mad and the Germans hated them. This caused great offence in Britain. Austria annexed Bosnia in the Balkans. This annoyed Serbia, which wanted to take over the area. Russia wanted to help Serbia, but had to back down.

Event 5. Dreadnought crisis 1909 6. Agadir 1911

Description Scared by the growing German navy, the British people demanded that the government build eight of the new Dreadnought battleships. There was a revolution in Morocco, so France sent an army to take over. Kaiser Wilhelm sent the gunship 'Panther', but Britain and France forced him to back down. Serbia and other countries in the Balkans conquered most of Turkey's land in Europe. Serbia became a powerful country, and said Austria-Hungary was its next target. The heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was shot by Gavrilo Princip, a young Serb terrorist, in Sarajevo in Bosnia.

7. Balkan Wars 19121913 8. Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 1914

Assassination at Sarajevo
The assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife was criticalin setting off the chain of events that led to the First World War. Not only was it a bad day for the Archduke and his family, but also a bad day for Europe.

The assassination - the basics

y 1. Sarajevo was in Bosnia, the province that - to Serbia's anger - had been annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908. 2. Archduke Franz Ferdinand was heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. He was inspecting the army in Sarajevo with his wife Sophie. The royal couple arrived by train at 9.28am. y 3. Seven young Bosnian Serbs planned to assassinate Franz Ferdinand as he drove along the main road in Sarajevo, the Appel Quay. 4. The first conspirator who tried to kill Franz Ferdinand threw a bomb at his car. He missed and was arrested.

y 5. The Archduke escaped unhurt. He decided to abandon the visit and return home via a different route to the one planned. . 6. No one had told the driver the route had changed. On the way back, therefore, the driver turned into Franz Josef Street, following the published route and, when told of his error, stopped the car to turn around.

7. Unfortunately, the car stopped in front of Gavrilo Princip, one of the conspirators, who was on his way home thinking he had failed. 8. Princip pulled out a gun and shot at Franz Ferdinand, hitting him in the jugular vein. There was a tussle, during which Princip shot and killed Sophie. By 11.30am, Franz Ferdinand had bled to death.

Source analysis
Source A The powder-keg was already full. The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand put the match to it by giving Austria the opportunity she was determined to take, of crushing Serbia in war. The Austrian ultimatum sent to Serbia (July 23) was followed within five days by a declaration of war against Serbia in spite of the conciliatory answer given by the Serbs. The Austrians were determined on war and the Germans made no effort to stop them. Russian mobilisation (July 30) was followed by German mobilisation. Germany declared war on Russia (August 1) and on France (August 3). The German ultimatum to Belgium, demanding free passage for German troops through Belgium, brought in Britain on August 4, 1914. PJ Larkin, European History for Certificate Classes (1965). (An old school pupils' examination revision book.)

Source B

'A Chain of Friendship 'The

Schlieffen Plan

Germany had been preparing for war long before 1914. In fact, Germany had started drawing up a plan for war - the Schlieffen Plan - in 1897. It took nine years to finalise, but it was based on the theory that Germany would be at war with France and Russia at the same time. It did not prepare for many of the events that occured in July and August 1914. It was based on the belief that, if the country went to war, Germany would be faced with a war on two frontswith France and Russia.

This map shows the war faced by Germany on two fronts

The plan assumed that France was weak and could be beaten quickly, and thatRussia was much stronger, but would take longer to mobilise its army. The plan began to go wrong on 30 July 1914, when Russia mobilised its army, but France did not. Germany was forced to invent a pretext to declare war on France (3 August 1914). Things got worse when Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914 because, in a Treaty of 1839, Britain had promised to defend Belgium.

Extra facts
y y y The plan was the work of the German army chief-of-staff Alfred von Schlieffen. It took nine years to devise - it was started in 1897, presented in 1905, and revised in 1906. The plan imagined a huge hammer-blow at Paris, using 90 per cent of the German army, swinging down through Belgium and northern France, to take out France in a quick, decisive campaign. It was a plan of attack - for Germany, mobilisation and war were the same thing. It was Germany's only plan for war. It did not plan for a situation where Germany was at war with Russia, but not with France. When the German chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg asked: "Is the Fatherland in danger?", the German general Moltke declared: "Yes". In the event, Russia took only ten days to mobilise, and Moltke was forced to send some troops to the eastern front, which weakened the main attack on Paris. When the German army asked permission to go through Belgium on 2 August 1914, the Belgians refused, so the German army had to fight its way through Belgium. This slowed it down and tired the soldiers. Britain's decision to uphold the 1839 Treaty with Belgium amazed the Germans. "For a scrap of paper, Great Britain is going to make war?" said the amazed Bethmann-Hollweg. In the event, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) arrived to resist the Germans, and held them up at the Battle of Mons on 23 August 1914. With his army exhausted and many of his best forces killed, Moltke was defeated at the battle of the Marne on 6-10 September 1914. "Sir, we have lost the war," he told the Kaiser.

y y y

y y

y y

Was Germany to blame?

Immediately after the war, the Treaty of Versailles blamed Germany for 'all the loss and damage' of the war. During the 1920s, however, Germans vigorously denied this, and - during the period of appeasement in the 1930s - many people were prepared to blame other factors: y y Sydney Bradshaw Fay laid the emphasis on the underlying tensions of nationalism, imperialism, militarism and alliances. The British prime minister Lloyd George blamed the war on the failure of the politicians who, he said, lacked the ability to negotiate their way out of war. After the Second World War, historians were less prepared to excuse Germany. In the 1960s, the German historian Fritz Fischer argued that the German leaders had a 'will to war', that they wanted to expand German power, and they wanted the situation in Europe to deteriorate into war. This is the view still held by many historians today.

The conference and the Big Three

In January 1919 delegates from 32 countries met in Paris to make peace after the First World War - the peace they hoped would 'end all wars'. The conference was dominated by David Lloyd George, Georges Clemeneau and Woodrow Wilson, the leaders of Britain, France and America, often known as the 'Big Three'.

The conference and the Big Three

Delegates from 32 countries met in January 1919, but the conference was dominated by the Big Three - Lloyd George (Britain), Clemeneau (France) and Wilson (USA). The delegations made presentations to them, after which the Big Three made their decision. Negotiations were difficult. Each of the Big Three wanted such different things, that by March 1919 it looked as though the conference was going to break up.

Lloyd George Prime Minister 1916-1922

Lloyd George saved the conference. On 25 March 1919, he issued the Fontainebleau Memorandum, and persuaded Clemeneau to agree to the League of Nations and a more lenient peace treaty that would not destroy Germany. Then he went to Wilson and persuaded him to agree to the War Guilt Clause. The Germans were shown the proposed Treaty of Versailles. There was no negotiation. The Germans published a rebuttal, arguing that the treaty was unfair, but they were ignored. On 28 June 1919, the delegates met at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, near Paris, and forced two Germans to sign the treaty.

Expectations of the peace treaty

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was greeted with great joy. The people of Europe wanted lasting peace, and also to make Germany pay for the damage done, and revenge. The Germans had expected that the peace treaty would be based on President Wilson's Fourteen Points. The six key principles of the Fourteen Points were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Setting up a League of Nations Disarmament Self-determination for the people of Europe - the right to rule themselves Freedom for colonies Freedom of the seas Free trade

The Big Three expected to base the peace treaty on the terms of the armistice, which were much harsher: 1. German army disbanded, and Germany to give up its navy. 2. Allied troops to occupy the Rhineland. 3. Reparation for damage done and war losses.

What did the Big Three want?

The Big Three: Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Wilson (l - r)

The conference was initially planned as a pre-meeting of the big three to decide what terms they were going to ask from Germany at an official peace conference, but the pre-meeting quickly became the meeting where the decisions were made. The problem was the big three had different ideas about what the terms of the treaty should be. Wilson's aims: y y y y y y y y y To end war by creating a League of Nations based on his Fourteen Points. To ensure Germany was not destroyed. Not to blame Germany for the war - he hated the Guilt Clause. Clemenceau's aims: Revenge and to punish Germany. To return Alsace-Lorraine to France. No League of Nations. An independent Rhineland. Huge reparations. To disband the German army so that Germany would never be strong enough to attack France again. Lloyd George: A 'just' peace that would be tough enough to please the electors who wanted to 'make Germany pay', but would leave Germany strong enough to trade.

y y

Land for Britain's empire. To safeguard Britain's naval supremacy.

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 and consisted of 440 Articles setting out the terms for Germany's punishment. The treaty was greeted with shock and disbelief in Germany. Key articles Article number 1-26: 42: 45: 51: 80: 87: Description

The Covenant of the League of Nations - Germany was not allowed to join. The Rhineland was demilitarised - the German army was not allowed to go there. The Saar, with its rich coalfields, given to France for 15 years. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France. Germany forbidden to unite with Austria. Lands in eastern Germany - the rich farmlands of Posen and the Polish corridor between Germany and East Prussia - given to Poland. Danzig made a free city under League of Nations control. All Germany's colonies taken and given to France and Britain as 'mandates'. The German army restricted to 100,000 men. The German navy restricted to six battleships and no submarines. Germany not allowed to have an air force. Germany was responsible for causing all the loss and damage caused by the war. Germany would have to pay reparations, to be decided later - eventually set at 132 billion gold marks.

100: 119: 160: 181: 198: 231: 232:

The terms of the treaty can be classified into three groups: y territorial - provisions that took land away from Germany

y y

military - provisions that limited Germany's armed forces financial and economic

Other treaties 1919-1923

Four other treaties were made with the countries that had helped Germany during the war. The Treaty of Versailles, however, was the template for these treaties, which were drawn up by officials (not by the big three) and which simply followed the principles of the Treaty of Versailles: 1. 2. 3. 4. The defeated countries had to disarm. They had to pay reparations. They lost land. New countries were formed.

The terms of the treaties

Here are the main provisions of each treaty - showing 1) terms of disarmament, 2) amount of reparation, 3) land lost, 4) new countries formed - starting with the Treaty of Versailles. Germany: Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919) y y y y 100,000 soldiers, six battleships, no airforce 132 billion gold marks to be paid in reparations Posen, Polish corridor, Alsace-Lorraine, all colonies Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania Afterwards: The Dawes and Young Plans re-scheduled Germany's payments. Austria: Treaty of Saint Germain (10 Sept 1919) y y y y 30,000 volunteers, no navy reparations agreed, but never set the Austro-Hungarian empire was dismantled, Tyrol lost to Italy Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania Afterwards: Austria went bankrupt before the amount of reparations could be set. Hungary: Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) y y y y 35,000 volunteers, three patrol boats 200 million gold crowns The Austro-Hungarian empire was dismantled Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania Afterwards: Hungary could not pay the reparations, so its payments were suspended. Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly (27 Nov 1919) y y y y 20,000 volunteers, four torpedo boats, no air force 2.25 billion francs Land to Yugoslavia, Romania and Greece n/a Afterwards: Bulgaria paid its reparations. Turkey: Treaty of Svres (10 Aug 1920) y 50,000 soldiers, seven sailboats and six torpedo boats

y y y

None Smyrna and East Thrace to Greece, Rhodes to Italy Kurdistan, Armenia, Hejaz (Arabia). Iraq and Palestine became British mandates. Syria became a French mandate Afterwards: Turkish nationalists, led by Kemel Attaturk, rebelled and rejected the treaty.

Opinions of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was unpopular, not only with the Germans, but also with the people who had drawn it up. Even at the time, the peace-makers left the conference feeling that they had failed to make a treaty that would keep the peace, and historians have ever since blamed the Treaty of Versailles for helping to cause the Second World War.

Opinions summary
This table summarises how Versailles was 'the hated treaty' Germans British League of Nations Guilt Clause Hated it Hated it OK OK French Americans

Hated it Hated it OK Hated it Hated it Hated it

German army reduced Hated it Reparations German lost land Hated it Hated it

Hated it OK Hated it OK

Hated it Hated it Hated it

Germany The Germans hated everything about the treaty: 1. They were angry that they had not been allowed to negotiate. 2. 'Deutsche Zeitung', a German newspaper, vowed: "We will never stop until we win back what we deserve." 3. Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, leader of the German delegation at Versailles said Article 231- the war-guilt clause - was: "a lie". Germany officially denied the war-guilt clause in 1927. 4. There was a revolution (the Kapp Putsch) against the treaty in Berlin in 1920. 5. Germany hated reparations. It had to be made to pay in 1921, defaulted in 1923 and eventually Hitler refused to pay altogether. Britain Britain gained some German colonies and the German navy was destroyed but: 1. Lloyd George thought the treaty was too harsh, saying: "We shall have to fight another war again in 25 years time."

2. The British diplomat Harold Nicolson called it: "neither just nor wise" and the people who made it: "stupid". 3. The economist John Maynard Keynes prophesied that reparations would ruin the economy of Europe. France France got Alsace-Lorraine, German colonies, harsh reparations and a tiny German army but: 1. Many French people wanted an independent, not a demilitarised, Rhineland. 2. Most French people did not think the League of Nations would protect them against Germany. America Woodrow Wilson got the League of Nations, and new nation-states were set up in Eastern Europe but: 1. Wilson thought the treaty was far too harsh. 2. Self-determination proved impossible to implement - neither Czechoslovakia or Yugoslavia survived as united countries. 3. Many Americans did not want to get involved in Europe, and in 1920 the American Senate refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, or join the League of Nations.