UNIT – II :: PART – III :: SET THEORY :: FUNCTIONS

Function :- Let X and Y be any two sets. A relation ‘f’ from X to Y is called a function if for every x ∊ X, there is a unique y ∊
Y such that (x, y) ∊ f.

Note :- (i) Every x ∊ X must be related to some y ∊ Y. i.e., the domain of ‘f’ must be X and not merely a subset of X.
(ii) Uniqueness, i.e., if (x, y) ∊ f and (x, z) ∊ f. then y = z.
(iii) A function may also be known as mapping, transformation, correspondence or operation.
(iv) If f : A → B is a function then the set A is called the domain and set B is called the codomain of ‘f’.
(v) For a function f : A → B if (x, y) ∊ f then ‘y’ is called the image of ‘x’ under the function ‘f’.
‘x’ is also said to be a pre-image of ‘y’.
(vi) If (x, y) ∊ f then y = f(x) and we call ‘y’ as the value of the function ‘f’ at the value of ‘x’.

Domain and Range of a Function :- the range of a function f : A → B is defined as {y / ∃x ∊ A and y = f(x)} or {f(x) ∊ B/x ∊
A}. That is, the range of ‘f’ consists of exactly these elements in B that appears as the image of atleast one element in A.
The range of ‘f’ is denoted by Rf or R(f) and R(f) ⊆ B.

Q38. State whether the following figure, define a function from A = {a, b, c} into B = {x, y, z}.

Answer: (i) The figure (i) does not define a function since nothing is assigned to ‘b’, hence (i) is not a function.
(ii) The figure (ii) defines a function.
(iii) The figure (iii) does not define a function since the element ‘a’ in the domain is assigned to two elements ‘x’ and
‘y’, in the codomain. However, in a function, each element in domain can be assigned to only one element in the codomain,
hence (iii) is not a function.

Q39. If the function ‘f’ is defined by f(x) = x2 + 1 on the set {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}, find the range of ‘f’.
Answer: f(x) = x2 + 1 , domain {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}
f(-2) = (-2)2 + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5
f(-1) = (-1)2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
f(0) = (0)2 + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
f(1) = (1)2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
f(2) = (2)2 + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5
Therefore, the range of ‘f’ is {1, 2, 5}.

Types of Functions

1. One – to – one Function :- A mapping f : X → Y is called one – to – one (or injective function or 1 – 1) if distinct
elements of X are mapped into distinct element of Y. In other words, ‘f’ is said to be one – to – one if
x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) or if f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  x1  x2 x1 , x2  X .
Ex.1. f : R → R defined by f(x) = 3x, for x ∈ R is one – one function, since
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  3x1  3x2  x1  x2 x1 , x2  R.
Ex.2 Determine whether f : Z → Z given by f(x) = x2 ∀ x ∈ Z is a one – one function.
Ans: The function f : Z → Z given by f(x) = x2 ∀ x ∈ Z is not a one – one function, because both 3 and -3 have 9 as
their image, which is against the definition of one – one function.
2. Onto Function :- A mapping f : X → Yis called onto (or surjective function or surjection) if its range is given R(f) =
Y. Otherwise , it is called into function. In other words, if f(x) = Y ie., the range of ‘f’ is entire codomain Y or if every
element of Y appears as the image of atleast one element of X, then we say that “f is a function of X onto Y”.
Ex: Let f : R → R, given by f(x) = 2x, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is onto function.
Proof : Let ‘y’ be any element in the codomain R.
y
 f ( x)  y  2 x  y  x   R (domain).
2
Thus, every element in the codomain has pre-image in the domain. This implies that ‘f’ is onto function.
3. Bijective Function :- A mapping f : X → Y is called one – to – one onto or Bijective if it is
both one – to – one and onto. Such a mapping is also called one – to – one correspondence
between X and Y.
Q40. Show that a map f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is a Bijective map from R to R.

Ans: Let f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 .

We need to prove that ‘f’ is a Bijective map. i.e., it is enough to prove that ‘f’ is one – to – one and
onto.
(i) Proof of ‘f’ being one – to – one :-
Let ‘x’ and ‘y’ be any two elements in R (domain) such that
f ( x)  f ( y )  2 x  1  2 y  1  2 x  2 y  x  y
Thus, f ( x)  f ( y )  x  y
This implies that ‘f’ is one - to – one function.
(ii) Proof of ‘f’ being Onto Function :-
Let ‘y’ be any element in the codomain R.
y 1
f ( x)  y  2 x  1  y  2 x  y  1  x   R(domain)
2
Thus, every element in the codomain has a pre-image in the domain. This implies that ‘f’ is Onto.

Hence, ‘f’ is a Bijective function.

Q41. Show that f: Z → Z given by f(x) = x + 5, where Z is the set of all integers, is a Bijective map.

Ans: Let f: Z → Z defined by f(x) = x + 5, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 .

We need to prove that ‘f’ is a Bijective map. i.e., it is enough to prove that ‘f’ is one – to – one and onto.

(i) Proof of ‘f’ being one – to – one :-

Let ‘x’ and ‘y’ be any two elements in Z (Domain) such that
f ( x)  f ( y )  x  5  y  5  x  y
Thus, f ( x)  f ( y )  x  y
This implies that ‘f’ is one - to – one function.
(ii) Proof of ‘f’ being Onto Function :-
Let ‘y’ be any element in the codomain Z.
f ( x)  y  x  5  y  x  y  5  Z (domain)
Thus, every element in the codomain has a pre-image in the domain. This implies that ‘f’ is Onto.

Hence, ‘f’ is a Bijective function.

Q42. Verify whether the following is a Bijective map: f: Z+ → Z+ given by f(x) = 3x, where Z+ is the set of positive integer.

Ans: Let f: Z+ → Z+ defined by f(x) = 3x, ∀𝑥 ∈ Z + .

We need to prove that ‘f’ is a Bijective map. i.e., it is enough to prove that ‘f’ is one – to – one and onto.

(i) Proof of ‘f’ being one – to – one :-

Let ‘x’ and ‘y’ be any two elements in Z+ (Domain) such that
f ( x)  f ( y )  3x  3 y  x  y
Thus, f ( x)  f ( y )  x  y
This implies that ‘f’ is one - to – one function.
(ii) Proof of ‘f’ being Onto Function :-
Let ‘y’ be any element in the codomain Z+ .
y
f ( x)  y  3x  y  x   Z  (domain)
3
Thus, every element in the codomain has no pre-image in the domain. This implies that ‘f’ is not Onto.

Hence, ‘f’ is not a Bijective function.

4. Many – to – one Mapping :- If two or more elements in the domain of a
function ‘f’ have the same image element in the codomain, then ‘f’ is called a
many – to – one mapping i.e., a function f: A → B is many – to – one if it is not
one – to – one .
For Example, consider a mapping f: Z → Z given by f(x) = x2 .
This is a many – to – one mapping, since f(-1) = 1=f(1) ; f(-2)=4=f(2) etc.,

5. Identity Function :- Let X be any set and ‘f’ be a function such that f: X → X is defined as f(x) = x, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 . Then ‘f’
is called the Identity function or Identity Transformation on X. It can be denoted by I or I X .

Note: The Identity function is both one – to – one and onto. Let IX (x) = IX (y) then x = y this implies that IX is 1 – 1.
IX is onto since x = IX (x), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 .
Note: If A has m elements and B has ‘n’ elements then the number of functions exists from A to B is n m .

Q43. Write all possible functions from X = {1, 2} to Y = {a, b, c} and classify them into 1 – 1, Onto and neither 1 – 1 nor
Onto type of functions.

Answer: We can list all the functions from X to Y as shown in the following figure. The number of functions from X to Y is
32 = 9.

Classification :- All the functions except f1, f2 and f3 are 1 – 1 functions. The functions f1, f2 and f3 are neither 1 – 1 nor
Onto.
 Composition of Functions :- Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the composition of ‘f’ and ‘g’ is
denoted by ‘g o f’ is the function from A to B defined as (g o f)(x) = g[f(x)], ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 .

Q.44. Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {u, v} and Z = {α, β}. Also Let f : X → Y be defined by f =
{(1, u), (2, u), (3, v)} and g : Y → Z be given by g = {(u, β), (v, β)]. Find g o f.

Answer: g o f = {(1, β), (2, β), (3, β)}.

Q45. Let X = {1, 2, 3} and f, g, h and s be functions from X to X given by f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}; g = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)};
h = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1)} and s = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}. Find f o g, g o f, f o h o g, s o g, g o s, s o s and f o s.

Answer: f o g = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1)}.

g o f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.

f o h o g = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 2)}

s o g = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)}

g o s = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)}
s o s = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
f o s = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}

Q46. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and a mapping f : X → X be given by f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)}. Find the composite functions
f2, f3, and f4 .
Answer: Given f : X → X defined by f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)}.
f2 = f of = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 2)}
f3 = f o f2 = {(1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)}
f4 = f o f3 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

Q47. Let f(x) = x +2, g(x) = x – 2 and h(x) = 3x, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, where R is the set of real numbers. Find g o f, f o g, f o f, g o g,
f o h, h o g, h o f and f o h o g.
Answer: Given that f : R → R is defined by f(x) = x + 2.
g : R → R is defined by f(x) = x – 2.
h : R → R is defined by f(x) = 3x .
(i) (g o f)(x) = g[f(x)] = g(x + 2) = (x + 2) – 2 = x.
Therefore, g o f : R → R is defined by (g o f)(x) = x i.e., g o f = {(x. x) / x ∈ R}.
(ii) (f o g)(x) = f[g(x)] = f(x - 2) = (x - 2) + 2 = x.
Therefore, f o g : R → R is defined by (f o g)(x) = x i.e., f o g = {(x. x) / x ∈ R}.
(iii) (f o f)(x) = f[f(x)] = f(x + 2) = (x + 2) + 2 = x + 4.
Therefore, f o f : R → R is defined by (f o f)(x) = x + 4 i.e., f o f = {(x. x + 4) / x ∈ R}.
(iv) (g o g)(x) = g[g(x)] = g(x - 2) = (x - 2) - 2 = x - 4.
Therefore, g o g : R → R is defined by (g o g)(x) = x - 4 i.e., g o g = {(x. x - 4) / x ∈ R}.
(v) (f o h)(x) = f[h(x)] = f(3x) = 3x + 2.
Therefore, f o h : R → R is defined by (f o h)(x) = 3x + 2 i.e., f o h = {(x. 3x + 2) / x ∈ R}.
(vi) (h o g)(x) = h[g(x)] = h(x - 2) = 3(x - 2) = 3x - 6.
Therefore, h o g : R → R is defined by (h o g)(x) = 3x - 6 i.e., h o g = {(x. 3x - 6) / x ∈ R}.
(vii) (h o f)(x) = h[f(x)] = h(x + 2) = 3(x + 2) = 3x + 6.
Therefore, h o f : R → R is defined by (h o f)(x) = 3x + 6 i.e., h o g = {(x. 3x + 6) / x ∈ R}.
(viii) (f o h o g)(x) = (f o h)[g(x)] = (f o h)(x - 2) = f[h(x - 2)] = f[3(x-2)]=f(3x - 6)=(3x-6)+2=3x- 4.
Therefore, f o h o g : R → R is defined by (f o h o g)(x) = 3x – 4 i.e., f o h o g = {(x. 3x – 4) / x ∈ R}.

Theorem :- Show that the following :

(i) If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z and both ‘f’ and ‘g’ are one – to – one, then g o f is also one – to – one.
 (ii) If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z and both ‘f’ and ‘g’ are Onto, then g o f is also Onto.
(iii) If both ‘f’ and ‘g’ have one – to – one correspondence, then g o f has a one – to – one correspondence.
Proof: Let f : X → Y ; g : Y → Z and g o f : X → Z.
(i) Let x1, x2 ∈ X and assume that (g o f) (x1) = (g o f)(x2)
 g[f(x1)] = g[f(x2)]
 f(x1) = f(x2) [since, g is 1- 1, g(y1) = g(y2)  y1 = y2 ]
 x1 = x2 [since, f is 1- 1, f(x1) = f(x2)  x1 = x2 ]
Thus, g o f is one – to – one.
(ii) Let ‘z’ be any element in Z.
Since ‘g’ is onto, every element in Z must have a pre-image in Y i.e., g(y) = z.
Also, since ‘f’ is onto, every element in Y must have a pre-image in X ie., f(x) = y.
Now (g o f)(x) = g [ f (x) ] = g(y) = z.
That is, every element in Z must have a pre-image in X under the map g o f  g o f is an onto function.
(iii) From the results (i) and (ii) if ‘f’ and ‘g’ both are one – to – one and onto then g o f is also one – to – one and onto.
Hence g o f is one – to – one correspondence.

Inverse Functions :- A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible if its inverse function 𝑓 −1 is also a function from the range of
f into X.

Q48. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Let f : X → Y be given by f = [(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 3)}. Is 𝑓 −1 is a
function?
Answer: Given that f = [(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 3)}.
 𝑓 −1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, d)}
Here, 2 has two distinct images ‘b’ and ‘c’.
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 is not a function.

Properties of Inverse Function :-

1. Let f : X → Y be a function. Then 𝑓 −1 is a function from the range of ‘f’ is X if and only if ‘f’ is one – to – one .
2. Let f : X → Y be a Bijective function then 𝑓 −1 : Y → X is a function and 𝑓 −1 is also Bijective function.
3. Let f : X → Y be a one – to – one function, then(𝑓 −1 )−1 = f.
4. If f : X → Y is invertible then (i) 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼𝑋 (ii) 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 = 𝐼𝑌 .
5. If f : X → Y and g : Y → X are such that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼𝑋 and 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = 𝐼𝑌 then ‘f’ and ‘g’ are both invertible. Furthermore,
𝑓 −1 = 𝑔 and 𝑔 −1 = 𝑓.
6. If f : X → Y and g : Y → X are both one – to – one and onto, then (𝑔𝑜𝑓)−1 = 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑔 −1.

Q49. Let f : R → R be given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2 then find 𝑓 −1 .

Answer: To prove that ‘f’ is one – one function:
Let 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥13 − 2 = 𝑥23 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥13 = 𝑥23 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
Therefore, f ix one – to – one function.

To prove that ‘f’ is onto :

1
Let y ∈ R, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2  y + 2 = 𝑥  𝑥 = (𝑦 + 2)3
3
1 1
Therefore, f[(𝑦 + 2)3 ] =[(𝑦 + 2)3 ]3 − 2 = 𝑦 + 2 − 2 = 𝑦  f is onto function.

To find 𝒇−𝟏 :
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2
𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 + 2 = 𝑥3 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥
1
𝑥 = (𝑦 + 2)3
 1
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 2)3
1
Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)3 .

Q50. Show that f : R → R defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 is a bijection and find its inverse. Compute 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓 and 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 .
Answer: Given that f : R → R defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 .
To prove that ‘f’ is one – one function:
Let 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 2𝑥1 − 3 = 2𝑥2 − 3 ⇒ 2𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
Therefore, f ix one – to – one function.

To prove that ‘f’ is onto :

𝑦+3
Let y ∈ R (Codomain), 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3  y + 3 = 2x  𝑥 = 2 ∈ R (domain)
𝑦+3
Therefore, y has a pre-image in R (domain)
2
Hence , f is onto function.
𝑥+3
Therefore, f is a Bijective function and 𝑓 −1 : R → R is given by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
2

To find 𝒇−𝟏 :
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 + 3 = 2𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥
𝑦+3
𝑥=
2
𝑦+3
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 =
2
𝑥+3
Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
2
2𝑥−3+3 2𝑥
(𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓 −1 [2𝑥 − 3] = = =𝑥
2 2
𝑥+3 𝑥+3
(𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑓 −1 (𝑥)] = 𝑓 [ ] = 2( ) − 3 = 𝑥 + 3 − 3 = 𝑥.
2 2

Permutation Functions :- A bijection mapping of a finite set A onto itself is called a permutation.
If 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … … . , 𝑎𝑛 } is a finite set and P is a bijection on A. We list the elements of A and the corresponding
functional values 𝑃(𝑎1 ), 𝑃(𝑎2 ), 𝑃(𝑎3 ), … … . , 𝑃(𝑎𝑛 ) in the following form:
 a1 a2 ............ an 
 
 P ( a1 ) P ( a2 ) ............. P ( an 
)

Degree of Permutation :- If P : A → A is a Bijective map, then the number of elements in the given set is called the degree of
its permutation.

Q51. Find all permutations of A = {1, 2, 3}.

Answer: Given A = {1, 2, 3} then P : A → A, which is one – one and onto is called a permutation of A. The permutations of A
are as follows:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑃1 = ( ) ; 𝑃2 = ( ) ; 𝑃3 = ( ) ; 𝑃4 = ( ) ; 𝑃5 = ( ) ; 𝑃6 = ( )
1 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1
Note: For a set with three elements, we have 3! = 6 permutations exists.

Q52. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f : A → A, be given by f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 4, f(4) = 3. Write this in permutation notation.
Answer: The function can be written in permutation notation as given below:
 1 2 3 4
f   .
 2 1 4 3
 1 2 ......... n 
Identity Permutation :- Let A = {1, 2, 3, ……, n} then the permutation   is called Identity permutation
1 2 .......... n 
of degree ‘n’.

Equal Permutations :- Let f : A → A and g : A → A and these Two permutations ‘f’ and ‘g’ are said to be equal if f(a) = g(a),
∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
1 2 3
(i) For example, Let g =( ).
3 1 2
Consider the permutations
(1 3 2) ; (2 3 1) ; (3 1 2) ; (3 2 1)
3 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 3
All the permutations are 1 → 3, 2 → 1, 3 → 2.
Hence, they are all equal to ‘g’.
1 2 3) 2 1 3).
(ii) Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Consider the two permutations of A defined by f = ( and g = ( Here f = g,
2 3 1 3 2 1
since f(a) = g(a), ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. .

Note: The interchange of columns will not change the permutation.

Product or Composition of Two permutations :- Let ‘f’ and ‘g’ be two permutations defined on A. Then ‘f’ and ‘g’ are
bijections from A to A. Their composition f o g is also a bijection from A to A. Similarly, g o f is also a bijection from A to A.

 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
Q53. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Let f    and g   . Find f o g and g o f in permutation
2 4 1 3  4 1 2 3
form.
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Answer: fog   o   
2 4 1 3   4 1 2 3   3 2 4 1 
 1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
gof    o     
 4 1 2 3   2 4 1 3  1 3 4 2 

Def.: f o g and g o f are called the products of the permutations ‘f’ and ‘g’, which is also known as permutation
multiplication.

Note:- The product of two permutations of degree ‘n’ need not be commutative.

 1 2 3  1 2 3
Q54. If f    and g    then find f o g and g o f. Verify f o g = g o f.
2 3 1  3 2 1 
 1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 
Answer: fog    o     
 2 3 1   3 2 1  1 3 2 
 1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
gof    o     
 3 2 1   2 3 1   2 1 3 
Here, f o g ≠ g o f. i.e., product of two permutations does not satisfies commutative property.

Inverse Permutation :- Given a permutation ‘f’ on the set A, there exists a permutation 𝑓 −1 on A called inverse
permutations such that 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 = I i.e., Identity Permutation.
  1 2 3 4
Q. 55. If f    , then find 𝑓 −1 and show that 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 = I.
2 4 3 1
1  2 4 3 1  1 2 3 4
Answer: f      
 1 2 3 4  4 1 3 2
 1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
fof 1    o       I
 2 4 3 1   4 1 3 2  1 2 3 4 
 1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
f 1of    o       I
 4 1 3 2   2 4 3 1  1 2 3 4 
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 = I.

Cyclic Permutation :- A permutation that replaces ‘n’ objects cyclically is called a cyclic permutation or circular permutation.
The length of a cycle is the number of elements permuted by the cycle.

1 2 3 4 5
Q.56. Let f    be a permutation of degree 5. Find its cycle permutation.
3 2 4 5 1 
Answer: ‘f’ is represented by a cycle (1 3 4 5), which is of length 4. Here, 2 is fixed.

Note: Two cycles (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … . ., 𝑎𝑛 ) and (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … … . ., 𝑏𝑛 ) are said to be disjoint if the sets (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … . ., 𝑎𝑛 ) and
(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … … . ., 𝑏𝑛 ) are disjoint.

Note: Any permutation can be expressed as the product of a finite number of disjoint cycles.
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
For example, if ‘f’ is the permutation f    then f = (1 2 3 4 5)(8 9).
2 3 4 5 1 6 7 9 8 

Note:- A cycle does not change on changing the places of its elements if their cyclic order is not changed, i.e., (1 3 2) = (3 2 1).

Transposition :- A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.

Note :- Every cycle is the product of transpositions.

 1 2 3 4 5
For example, f     (1 2 4)(3 5)  (1 2)(1 4)(3 5).
2 4 5 1 3 
Inverse of a cyclic permutation :- To find the inverse of any cyclic permutation, we write its elements in the
reverse order.
For example, (1 2 3 4)-1 = (4 3 2 1).

Even and Odd Permutations :- A permutation is called an even permutation if it can be expressed as the product of
an even number of transpositions. A permutation is called an odd permutation if it can be expressed as the
product of an odd number of transpositions.

A cycle containing an odd number of elements is an even permutation. A cycle containing an even number
of elements is an odd permutation.

Q57. Determine whether the following functions are even or odd permutations.
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  1 2 3 4
(i) f    (ii) g    (iii) h   
2 4 3 1 5  2 5 7 8 6 1 4 3  4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
Answer: (i) f     (1 2 4)  (1 2)(1 4)  f is an even permutation.
2 4 3 1 5 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(ii) g     (1 2 5 6)(3 7 4 8)  (1 2)(1 5)(1 6)(3 7)(3 4)(3 8)  g is an even
 2 5 7 8 6 1 4 3
permutation.
 1 2 3 4
(iii) h     (1 4 2 3)  (1 4)(1 2)(1 3)  h is an odd permutation.
 4 3 1 2

Note: 1. The product of two permutations is an even permutation if either both are even or both are odd.
2. The product of two permutations is an odd permutation if one is odd and the other is even.

Q.58. Let the permutations of the elements {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be given by

 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
   ;    ;     ;    .
 2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4  5 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 5 4
Find  ,  ,  2 ,  ,  1 and . Solve the equation   x   .
Answer:
 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
(i)      
 2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4   2 3 1 5 4 
1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
(ii)      
1 2 3 5 4  2 3 1 4 5   2 3 1 5 4 
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5   1 2 3 4 5 
(iii)  2       
 2 3 1 4 5  2 3 1 4 5   3 1 2 4 5 
 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5   1 2 3 4 5 
(iv)        
 5 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 5 4   5 4 3 2 1 
1
1 2 3 4 5 3 2 1 5 4 1 2 3 4 5
(v)   
1
    
3 2 1 5 4 1 2 3 4 5   3 2 1 5 4 
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5   1 2 3 4 5
(vi)       
2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4  5 4 3 1 2   4 5 1 2 3 
(vii)   x     1   x    1   1   x   1  x   1
1
1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5 
x   1     
2 3 1 4 5  1 2 3 5 4 
2 3 1 4 5  1 2 3 4 5   1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5 
         
1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 5 4   3 1 2 4 5  1 2 3 5 4 
1 2 3 4 5
  
3 1 2 5 4
 UNIT – II :: PART – III :: SET THEORY :: LATTICES

Introduction :- First, we recall the definition of a partially ordered set or poset. If R is a relation on a set S satisfying the
following properties:
(i) Reflexive, i.e., for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.
(ii) Antisymmetric, i.e., for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑏.
(iii) Transitive, i.e., for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅.
then R is called a partial order relation or simply an order relation.

The set S, together with the partial order, is called a partially ordered set or an ordered set or poset and is denoted by
(S, R).

Lattice :- A lattice is a partially ordered set (𝐿, ≤) in which every pair of elements has a least upper bound and a greatest lower
bound.
The least upper bound (or supremum, l.u.b.) of 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐿 is denoted by 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏, 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏, 𝑎 ∪ 𝑏 or 𝑎 + 𝑏 and is called
the join or sum of a and b.
The greatest lower bound (or infimum, g.l.b.) of of 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐿 is denoted by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏, 𝑎 ˄ 𝑏, 𝑎 Ո 𝑏 or 𝑎 · 𝑏 and is called
the meet or product of a and b.

Note: 1. V, ˄ are binary operations on a lattice, since the least upper bound and the greatest lower bound of any subset of a
poset are unique.
2. All partially ordered sets are not lattices.

Q.59. Determine whether the following posets are lattices.

(i) ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, /) and (ii) ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, /)
Answer: (i) Consider the poset ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, /).
The corresponding Hasse diagram is shown in the adjacent figure.
There is no upper bound for the pairs (2, 3) and (3, 5).
Hence, the l.u.b. does not exist. This implies that ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, /) is not a lattice.

Answer: (ii) Consider the poset ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, /),

The corresponding Hasse diagram is shown in the adjacent figure.
l.u.b. of (1, 2) = 2 g.l.b. of (1, 2) = 1
l.u.b. of (1, 4) = 4 g.l.b. of (1, 4) = 1
l.u.b. of (1, 8) = 8 g.l.b. of (1, 8) = 1
l.u.b. of (1, 16) = 16 g.l.b. of (1, 16) = 1
l.u.b. of (2, 4) = 4 g.l.b. of (2, 4) = 2
l.u.b. of (2, 8) = 8 g.l.b. of (2, 8) = 2
l.u.b. of (2, 16) = 16 g.l.b. of (2, 16) = 2
l.u.b. of (4, 8) = 8 g.l.b. of (4, 8) = 4
l.u.b. of (4, 16) = 16 g.l.b. of (4, 16) = 4
l.u.b. of (8, 16) = 16 g.l.b. of (8, 16) = 8
Therefore, every pair of elements of the poset has a least upper bound
and a greatest lower bound.
Hence, the poset ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, /) is a lattice.

Q60. Determine whether the posets represented by each of the Hasse diagrams in the following figures (a), (b), (c) are lattices.
Answer: