Lesson Plane and Solid
Lesson Plane and Solid
Lesson Plane and Solid
INTRODUCT
Students will have had extensive informal experience
ION TO
with geometry in earlier years, and this will provide a good intuitive basis for the more
systematic approach to geometry. The particular topics relevant to this module are:
• The use of compasses and rulers and the careful drawing of geometrical figures.
• Types of angles, including at least right angles, acute angles, obtuse angles and reflex
angles.
• Triangles, including an informal introduction to isosceles and equilateral triangles.
• Quadrilaterals, including an informal introduction to squares, rectangles, parallelograms,
trapezia and rhombuses.
• Informal experience with translations, reflections, rotations and enlargements, and with
symmetry in the context of activities such as folding an isosceles triangle, rectangle or
rhombus.
MOTIVATION
Geometry is used to model the world around us. A view of the roofs of houses
reveals triangles, trapezia and rectangles, while tiling patterns in pavements and bathrooms
use hexagons, pentagons, triangles and squares.
Builders, tilers, architects, graphic designers and web designers routinely use
geometric ideas in their work. Classifying such geometric objects and studying their
properties are very important. Geometry also has many applications in art.
Just as arithmetic has numbers as its basic objects of study, so points, lines and
circles are the basic building blocks of plane geometry.
We begin with a number of intuitive ideas (points, lines and angles) which are not at
all easy to precisely define, followed by some definitions (vertically opposite angles, parallel
lines, and so on) and from these we deduce important facts, which are often referred to as
theorems. The level of rigor should develop slowly from one year to the next, but at every
stage clear setting out is very important and should be stressed.
Thus, geometry gives an opportunity for students to develop their geometric
intuition, which has applications in many areas of life, and also to learn how to construct
logical arguments and make deductions in a setting which is, for the most part, independent
of number.
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The simplest objects in plane geometry are points and lines. Because they are so
simple, it is hard to give precise definitions of them, so instead we aim to give students a
rough description of their properties which are in line with our intuition. A point marks a
position but has no size.
In practice, when we draw a point, it clearly has a definite width, but it represents a
point in our imagination. A line has no width and extends infinitely in both directions. When
we draw a line, it has width and it has ends, so it is not really a line, but represents a line in
our imagination. Given two distinct points A and B then there is one (and only one) line
which passes through both points. We use capital letters to refer to points and name lines
either by stating two points on the line, or by using small letters such as ℓ and m. Thus, the
given line below is referred to as the line AB or as the line ℓ.
Given two distinct lines, there are two possibilities: They may either meet at a single
point or they may never meet, no matter how far they are extended (or produced). Lines
which never meet are called parallel. In the second diagram, we write AB||CD.
Three (or more) points that lie on a straight line are called collinear.
Three (or more) lines that meet at a single point are called concurrent.
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ACTIVITY 1
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Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 1. Draw three lines that are not concurrent such that no two are parallel.
EXERCISE 2. Make a large copy of the diagram below. The points X, Y, Z are any points on
the line ℓ and A, B ,C are any points on the line m. Join AY and XB call their intersection R.
Join BZ and YC and call their intersection P. Join CX and ZA and call their intersection Q.
What do you notice about the points P, Q, R? (This result is called Pappus’ theorem, c. 340
AD.)
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Suppose A and B are two points on a line. The interval AB is the part of the line
between A and B, including the two endpoints.
The point A in the diagram divides the line into two pieces called rays. The ray AP is
that ray which contains the point P (and the point A).
angle AOB or the angle BOA. The angle sign ∠ is written so we write ∠AOB.
Angles In the diagram, the shaded region between the rays OA and OB is called the
The shaded region outside is called the reflex angle formed by OA and OB. Most of
the time, unless we specify the word reflex, all our angles refer to the area between the rays
and not outside them.
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The Size of an Angle
Imagine that the ray OB is rotated about the point O until it lies along OA. The
amount of turning is called the size of the angle AOB. We can similarly define the size of the
reflex angle. We will often use small Greek letters, α, β, γ, ... to represent the size of an
angle.
The size of the angle corresponding to one full revolution was divided (by the
Babylo- nians) into 360 equal parts, which we call degrees. (They probably chose 360 since
it was close to the number of days in a year.) Hence, the size of a straight-angle is 180° and
the size of a right-angle is 90°. Other angles can be measured (approximately) using a
protractor.
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Angles are classified according to their size. We say that an angle with size α is acute
(a word meaning ‘sharp’) if 0° < α < 90°, α is obtuse (a word meaning ‘blunt’) if 90° < α <
180° and α is reflex if 180° < α < 360°.
Since the protractor has two scales, students need to be careful when drawing and
measuring angles. It is a worthwhile exercise to use a protractor to draw some angles such as
30°, 78°, 130°, 163°.
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ACTIVITY 2
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
Fold an A4 sheet of paper matching up the (diagonally) opposite corners. Draw a line
along the crease that is formed and measure the angles between the crease and the side.
Additionally, In the exercise above, the two angles together form a straight line and so add to
180°. Two angles that add to 180° are called supplementary angles; thus 45° and 135° are
supplementary angles. Two angles that add to 90° are called complementary; thus 23° and
67° are complementary angles.
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LESSON 3: ANGLES AT A POINT
the angles marked ∠AOX and ∠BOY are called vertically opposite.
When two lines intersect, four angles are formed at the point of intersection. In the diagram,
Since
• ∠BOY is also the supplement of ∠BOX (straight angle), we can conclude that these
vertically opposite angles, ∠AOX and ∠BOY are equal. We thus have our first important
geometric statement: Vertically opposite angles are equal.
A result in geometry (and in mathematics generally) is often called a theorem. A
theorem is an important statement which can be proven by logical deduction. The argument
above is a proof of the theorem; sometimes proofs are presented formally after the statement
of the theorem.
If two lines intersect so that all four angles are right-angles, then the lines are said to
be perpendicular.
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Angles at a point – Geometric Arguments
The following reasons can be used in geometric arguments:
• Adjacent angles can be added or subtracted.
• Angles in a revolution add to 360°.
• Angles in a straight line add to 180°.
• Vertically opposite angles are equal.
Corresponding angles
Various angles are formed by the transversal. In the diagrams below, the two marked
angles are called corresponding angles.
We now look at what happens when the two lines cut by the transversal are parallel.
Intuitively, if the angle α were greater than β then CD would cross AB to the left of F
and if it were less than β, it would cross to the right of F. So since the lines do not cross at
all, α can be neither less nor more than β and so equals β.
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Alternatively, imagine translating the angle QGD along GF until G coincides with F.
Since the lines are parallel, we would expect that the angle α would coincide with the angle
β. This observation leads us to conjecture that: Corresponding angles formed from parallel
lines are equal.
We cannot prove this result, although we have shown that it is geometrically
plausible. We will accept it as an axiom of geometry. An axiom is a statement which we
cannot prove, but which is intuitively reasonable. Note that many of the facts we have
already stated such as: adjacent angles may be added, and two points determine a line etc.,
are also axioms, although we have not explicitly stated them in this way.
Alternate Angles
In each diagram the two marked angles are called alternate angles (since they are on
alternate sides of the transversal).
If the lines AB and CD are parallel, then the alternate angles are equal. This result
can now be proven.
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Co-interior Angles
Finally, in each diagram below, the two marked angles are called co-interior angles
and lie on the same side of the transversal.
If the lines AB and CD are parallel, then it is obvious that the co-interior angles are
not equal but it turns out that they are supplementary, that is, their sum is 180°.
This is a result which is also easy to prove: ∠BFG = β (alternate angles, AB||CD) α
+ β = 180° (straight angle at F)
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Numerical Examples
Given information about the angles in a diagram, we can use the above results to find
the size of other angles in the diagram. This is a simple but very important skill, often
referred to informally as angle chasing. In solving problems, the sequence of steps is not
always unique. There may be several different, but equally valid, approaches.
For example, in the following diagram, we seek the size of angle BAC.
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ACTIVITY 3
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 2. Using only properties of parallel lines, find (with reasons) the missing angles
in the following diagram.
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LESSON 4: CONVERSE STATEMENTS
Many statements in mathematics have a converse, in which the implication goes in
the opposite direction. For example, the statement
‘Every even number ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.’
has converse
‘Every number that ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 is even.’
This particular statement and its converse are both true, but this is by no means
always the case.
For example, the following two statements are converses of each other:
‘Every multiple of 4 is an even number.’
‘Every even number is a multiple of 4.’
and here, the first statement is true, but the second is false.
∠∠
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Proofs of the Three Converses
We suppose that the corresponding angles formed by the transversal are equal and
we show that the lines are parallel.
Now since BD and EF are parallel ∠ABD = ∠BEF and so ∠ABC = ∠ABD which
is clearly impossible unless the lines BC and BD are the same. Hence the lines BC and EF
are parallel.
The other proofs follow in the same fashion.
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ACTIVITY 4
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 7. Write down:
1. a true geometrical statement whose converse is also true,
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EXERCISE 3. Give a proof of the second converse theorem (alternate angles).
EXERCISE 4. By dividing the quadrilateral ABCD into two triangles, find the sum of the
angles.
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LESSON 5: PARTS OF A RIGHT TRIANGLE
In order to understand the Pythagorean Theorem, it's important that you know the
different parts of a right triangle. The two sides that form the 90° angle are called the legs.
These two sides are always the shortest two sides of the right triangle. The side that is
across from the right angle is called the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is always the longest
side of the right triangle.
Want an easy way to remember which ones are the legs? If you trace them, they'll form
the letter "L" for legs. If you have trouble figuring out which one is the hypotenuse, start at
the square that marks the right angle and go across the triangle to the other side - that side
will be the hypotenuse.
A common mistake is for students to assume that the hypotenuse is always the one
that's at a slant, but it just depends on how the triangle was drawn. You could easily rotate
the picture and a different side could be slanted. Always look across from the 90° angle to
find the hypotenuse.
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How Do You Use the Pythagorean Theorem?
Why is the Pythagorean Theorem useful? If we know any two sides of a right
triangle, it allows us to find the missing third side. You can use it if you're missing a leg or
if you're missing the hypotenuse.
Example 1
Find x.
Step 1: Identify a, b, and c. The two sides that form the right angle are the legs a and b. We
can see that the sides with lengths 6 and 7 form the letter "L" so they must be the legs. It
doesn't matter which one is a and which one is b, you'll get the same answer either way.
a=6
b=7
The hypotenuse is across from the right angle. In this diagram, it's the missing side x.
c=x
Step 2: Plug the values into the Pythagorean Theorem.
Step 4: Solve for the missing value. The 36 and the 49 are on the same side of the equals
sign, so we can add them together and rewrite it as an 85. To undo squaring a number, we
take the square root of both sides. This means that x is the square root of 85, which is
approximately equal to 9.22
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Example 2
Find x.
Step 1: Identify a, b, and c. The legs a and b form the right angle. The sides that form the
letter "L" are the x and the 14, so they must be a an b. It doesn't matter which one is a and
which one is b, you'll get the same answer either way. Let's say:
a=x
b = 14
The hypotenuse c is always across from the right angle. This means:
c = 20
A common mistake here is that students assume either the 14 or the x must be the
hypotenuse since they're slanted. Remember, the diagram could be easily rotated around so
any of the sides could be drawn at an angle. Always start at the square that marks the right
angle and go across to the other side of the triangle to find the hypotenuse.
Step 3: Simplify.
Step 4: Solve.
The 196 and the 400 are not on the same side of the equals sign, so we can't add
them together. We need to first get the x-squared term by itself on the left. To undo adding
196, we can subtract 196. Once we have the x-squared term by itself, we can take the square
root of both sides to solve for x. This means x is equal to the square root of 204, which is
approximately equal to 14.28.
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ACTIVITY 5
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
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EXERCISE 2. Solve the following problem.
1.Two hikers leave a cabin at the same time, one heading due south and the other headed due
west. After one hour, the hiker walking south has covered 2.8 miles and the hiker walking
west has covered 3.1 miles. At that moment, what is the shortest distance between the two
hikers?
2. A right triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2x, a leg of length x, and a leg of length y.
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LESSON 6: ISOSCELES AND EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES
In the first section of our study of triangles, we learned how to classify triangles by
the measures of their angles and by the lengths of their sides. However, aside from the
names we give triangles, it will be important to understand and recognize the characteristics
that make certain triangles special. In this section, we will take a closer look at the properties
of some unique figures: Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles.
Isosceles Triangles
Let’s begin our study of isosceles triangles by learning new terminology that will
help us identify various characteristics of these kinds of triangles. Recall that an isosceles
triangle is a triangle with at least two congruent sides. These congruent sides are called legs.
The point at which these legs meet is called the vertex point of the isosceles triangle, and
the angle formed by the legs is called the vertex angle. The other two angles of the triangle
are called base angles.
If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite those sides are
congruent.
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Converse also true: If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite
those angles are congruent.
We will practice using these theorems to help us solve the following exercises.
Exercise 1
Solution:
the Triangle Angle Sum Theorem to figure out what the total degree measure is at ∠B.
Now, let’s try to determine the value of x. In order to figure this out, we must use
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Since we’ve determined that ∠B must have a measure of 76°, we can write an
algebraic equation to help us solve for x. This method is shown below.
Exercise 2
Solution:
take this problem in. We are given that ∠TUS and ∠QSR are congruent.
Let’s look at the information we’ve been given to see which direction we’d like to
Now, let’s try to find a special relationship that either ∠TUS or ∠QSR may have
with another angle in the diagram. Notice that ∠QSR and ∠TSU are vertical angles, so by
the Vertical Angles Theorem, we can say that they are congruent to each other.
We can now apply the Transitive Property to show that ∠TUS and ∠TSU are
congruent.
Finally, by the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, we know that the sides opposite of two
congruent angles are also congruent. Thus, segments TS and TU are congruent to each other.
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Our new diagram and the two-column geometric proof for this exercise are shown
below.
Exercise 3
Solution:
We first want to notice that ∠BCA and ∠BCD are supplementary. Recall, that this
measure of ∠BCA:
means that their sum of their degree measures is 180°. Thus we will try to determine the
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By the Triangle Angle Sum Theorem, we know that the sum of ∠A, ∠B,
and ∠BCA is 180°, so we will try to determine the values of x and y by figuring out what
the sum of ∠A and ∠B should be.
So, by the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, we know that ∠A is congruent to ∠B (since they
Let’s look at the diagram again. Notice that segment AC is congruent to segment BC.
are the angles opposite of the congruent sides). Therefore, we can divide the remainder of
measure of each angle should be. When we do this, we see that ∠A and ∠B should come
the angle measures of the triangle, 124, by the two congruent angles to determine what the
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Equilateral Triangles
The congruent sides of the triangle imply that all the angles are congruent. We can
also use the converse of this, which is that three congruent angles imply three
congruent sides in a triangle. Each of the angles above is 60°.
Exercise 4
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Solution:
In order to solve this problem, we must recognize the fact that the triangle shown
is an equilateral triangle. We notice this by the tick marks on all three sides of the triangle.
This indicates to us that all three sides of the triangle are congruent.
Moreover, we must be able to understand the relationship between the angles of the
triangle. In order to solve for x, we will need to keep in consideration that every angle of an
equilateral triangle is 60°.
We will solve for x first. In order to do this, we need to use the information given to
us about the sides of the triangles to solve for x. We will set 2(2x + 1) equal to 14 since
equilateral triangles have congruent sides. Thus, we have
Now that we have solved for x, let’s determine the value for y. This part of the
exercise requires our knowledge of the angles of equilateral triangles. As mentioned before,
every angle has a measure of 60, so we have
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We have already determined the value of x, so we can plug this value right into our
equation to solve for y.
Exercise 5
Solution:
more useful information from it. We are given that ∠RQS and ∠TQS are congruent, as
First, we will consider the information we’ve been given to see if we can derive any
shown in the diagram. Also, we are told that ∠RQT is an equilateral triangle. This fact will
be of use to us as we continue the exercise.
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Since ∠RQT is an equilateral triangle, we know that all three sides and angles of the
triangle are congruent. Thus, we can say that segments RQ and TQ are congruent to each
other.
other. If we can prove that one more pair of corresponding sides of ∠RQS and ∠TQS are
Now, we have one pair of sides and one pair of angles that are congruent to each
congruent, then we can use the SAS Postulate to prove that the triangles are congruent.
Indeed, if we use the Reflexive Property to show that QS is congruent to itself, we see that
the two triangles are congruent to each other. Now, our figure looks like this:
Finally, we can say that segment RS is congruent to segment TS because they are
corresponding sides of congruent triangles, so they are congruent.
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ACTIVITY 6
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 1: Solve for x.
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LESSON 7: BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT CIRCLES
A circle is all points in the same plane that lie at an equal distance from a center
point. The circle is only composed of the points on the border. You could think of a circle as
a hula hoop. It's only the points on the border that are the circle. The points within the hula
hoop are not part of the circle and are called interior points.
The distance between the midpoint and the circle border is called the radius. A line
segment that has the endpoints on the circle and passes through the midpoint is called the
diameter. The diameter is twice the size of the radius. A line segment that has its endpoints
on the circular border but does not pass through the midpoint is called a chord.
The distance around the circle is called the circumference, C, and could be
determined either by using the radius, r, or the diameter, d:
C=2πr
C=πd
A circle is the same as 360°. You can divide a circle into smaller portions. A part of
a circle is called an arc and an arc is named according to its angle. Arcs are divided into
minor arcs (0° < v < 180°), major arcs (180° < v < 360°) and semicircles (v = 180°).
The length of an arc, l, is determined by plugging the degree measure of the Arc, v,
and the circumference of the whole circle, C, into the following formula:
V
l=C⋅ 360
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When diameters intersect at the central of the circle, they form central angles. Like
when you cut a cake you begin your pieces in the middle.
Example
As in the cake above we divide our circle into 8 pieces with the same angle. The
circumference of the circle is 20 length units. Determine the length of the arc of each piece.
First, we need to find the angle for each piece, since we know that a full circle is
360
360°, we can easily tell that each piece has an angle of = 45°. We plug these values
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into our formula for the length of arcs:
V
l=C⋅ 360
45
l=20⋅ 360 =2.5
Hence the length of our arcs are 2.5 length units. We could even easier have told this
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by simply diving the circumference by the number of same size pieces: = 2.5
8
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ACTIVITY 7
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
1. Let the radius of a circle be 14 cm. What is the length of the arc with an angle of
18°?
2. Let the radius of a circle be 3 cm. What is the angle of the arc with the length 4?
3. A pizza is divided in 3 number of equal pieces. How big is the angle of each piece,
round off to closest integer.
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LESSON 8. INSCRIBED ANGLES AND POLYGONS
An inscribed angle is an angle that has its vertex on the circle and the rays of the
angle are cords of the circle.
If we have one angle that is inscribed in a circle and another that has the same
starting points but its vertex is in the center of the circle then the second angle is twice the
angle that is inscribed:
2∠ABC=∠ADC
Just as an angle could be inscribed into a circle a polygon could be inscribed into a
circle as well:
If a quadrilateral (as in the figure above) is inscribed in a circle, then its opposite
angles are supplementary:
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∠A and ∠C are supplementary
∠B and ∠D are supplementary
ACTIVITY 8
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
2. In the following figure we have the angle x=18°. How big is the angle y?
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LESSON 9. ADVANCED INFORMATION ABOUT CIRCLES
A line that intersects a circle in exactly one point is called a tangent and the point
where the intersection occurs is called the point of tangency. The tangent is always
perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.
When a tangent and a secant, two secants, or two tangents intersect outside a circle
then the measure of the angle formed is one-half the positive difference of the measures of
the intercepted arcs.
1
m∠A= ( m DE −m BC )
2
When two chords intersect inside a circle, then the measures of the segments of each
chord multiplied with each other is equal to the product from the other chord:
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AE⋅EB=CE⋅ED
If two secants are drawn to a circle from one exterior point, then the product of the
external segment and the total length of each secant are equal:
AB⋅AD=AC⋅AE
If one secant and one tangent are drawn to a circle from one exterior point, then the
square of the length of the tangent is equal to the product of the external secant segment and
the total length of the secant:
AB2=AC⋅AD
If we have a circle drawn in a coordinate plane, with the center in (a,b) and the radius
r then we could always describe the circle with the following equation:
(x−a)2+(y−b)2=r2
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ACTIVITY 8
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
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LESSON 9. PARALLELOGRAM AND TRIANGLES
The area of a parallelogram is determined by multiplying the base, b, with the height,
h, of the parallelogram:
A=b⋅h
The area of a triangle is determined by multiplying the base, b, with the height, h, of
the triangle and divide by two:
A=b⋅h2
The area of a trapezoid is determined by multiplying the mean value of the two
bases, b1 and b2, with the height, h, of the trapezoid:
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b 2+b 2
A=h⋅
2
The area of a rhombus is determined by half the product of the two diagonals:
1
A= (AC)(BD)
2
The area of a regular polygon is determined by the product of the perimeter, P, and
what is called an apothem, a (see figure below):
Pa
A=
2
The area of a circle is determined by multiplying the square of the radius, r, with the
constant π, pi:
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A=πr2
ACTIVITY 9
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
2. What is the area of a trapezoid with the base of 3 km and top base of 2 km and height
of 4 km?
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LESSON 10: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Trigonometric functions are also known as Circular Functions can be simply
defined as the functions of an angle of a triangle. It means that the relationship between the
angles and sides of a triangle are given by these trig functions. The basic trigonometric
functions are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant.
There are a number of trigonometric formulas and identities that denotes the relation
between the functions and help to find the angles of the triangle.
The angles of sine, cosine, and tangent are the primary classification of functions of
trigonometry. And the three functions which are cotangent, secant and cosecant can be
derived from the primary functions. Basically, the other three functions are often used as
compared to the primary trigonometric functions. Consider the following diagram as a
reference for an explanation of these three primary functions. This diagram can be referred
to as the sin-cos-tan triangle. We usually define trigonometry with the help of the right-
angled triangle.
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Sine Function
Sine function of an angle is the ratio between the opposite side length to that of the
hypotenuse. From the above diagram, the value of sin will be:
CB
Sin a =Opposite/Hypotenuse =
CA
Cosine Function
Cos of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the
hypotenuse. From the above diagram, the cos function will be derived as follows.
AB
Cos a = Adjacent/Hypotenuse =
CA
Tangent Function
The tangent function is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to that of the adjacent
side. It should be noted that the tan can also be represented in terms of sine and cos as their
ratio. From the diagram taken above, the tan function will be the following.
CB
Tan a = Opposite/Adjacent =
BA
Also, in terms of sine and cos, tan can be represented as:
sin a
Tan a =
cos a
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cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and cotangent (cot) respectively. The formula of each of these
functions are given as:
Note: Inverse trigonometric functions are used to obtain an angle from any of the
angle’s trigonometric ratios. Basically, inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant functions are represented as arcsine, arccosine, arctangent, arc
cotangent, arc secant, and arc cosecant.
Formulas
Let us discuss the formulas given in the table below for functions of trigonometric
ratios (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant) for a right-angled triangle.
Identities
Below are the identities related to trig functions.
The cos and sec functions are even functions; the rest other functions are odd functions.
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sin(-x) = -sin x cot(-x) = -cot x
Periodic Functions
The trig functions are the periodic functions. The smallest periodic cycle is 2π but for
tangent and the cotangent it is π.
Pythagorean Identities
sin(x+y) = sin(x).cos(y)+cos(x).sin(y)
sin(x–y) = sin(x).cos(y)–cos(x).sin(y)
cos(x+y) = cosx.cosy–sinx.siny
cos(x–y) = cosx.cosy+sinx.siny
tan(x+y) = [tan(x)+tan(y)]/[1-tan(x)tan(y)]
tan(x-y) = [tan(x)-tan(y)]/[1+tan(x)tan(y)]
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Solved Examples on Trigonometric Functions
Example 1: Find the values of Sin 45°, Cos 60° and Tan 60°.
Solution: Using the trigonometric table, we have
Sin 45° = 1/√2
Cos 60° = 1/2
Tan 60° = √3
Example 2: Evaluate Sin 105° degrees.
Solution: Sin 105° can be written as sin (60° + 45°) which is similar to sin (A + B).
We know that, the formula for sin (A + B) = sin A • cos B + cos A • sin B
Therefore, sin 105° = sin (60° + 45°) = sin 60° • cos 45° + cos 60° • sin 45°
√3 √2 1 √2
= • + •
2 2 2 2
√6 √2
= +
4 4
=
√6 +√ 2
2
Example 3: A boy sees a bird sitting on a tree at an angle of elevation of 20°. If a boy is
standing 10 miles away from the tree, at what height bird is sitting?
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Solution: Consider ABC a right triangle, A is a bird’s location, B = tree is touching the
ground and C = boy’s location.
So BC 10 miles, angle C = 20° and let AB = x miles
We know, tan C = opposite side/adjacent side
tan(20°) = x/10
or x = 10 • tan(20°)
or x = 10 • 0.36 = 3.6
Bird is sitting at the height of 3.6 miles from the ground.
ACTIVITY 10
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
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EXERCISE 2. Calculate / Solve the following.
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LESSON 11. SOLID GEOMETRY (THREE-DIMENSIONAL
GEOMETRY)
Geometry, the shape or the figure that has three (even higher) dimensions are known
as solids or three-dimensional shapes. The study of the properties, volume and surface area
of three-dimensional shapes is called Solid Geometry. Let us go ahead and focus more on
the study of geometrical solids.
Geometric Shapes
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Higher-dimensional shapes – There are few shapes expressed in dimensions higher
than 3, but we usually do not study them in middle-level mathematics.
In geometry, there are various types of solids. Solids are three-dimensional shapes
because they have three dimensions such as length, breadth and height. The bodies which
occupy space are called solids.
Solids are classified in terms of their properties. To analyze the characteristics and
properties of 3-D geometric shapes, count the number of faces, edges, and vertices in
various geometric solids. Let us discuss the properties and formulas for the different solid
shapes.
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ACTIVITY 11
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
1. Find the volume and surface area of a cube whose side is 5 cm.
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2. Find the volume of the sphere of radius 7 cm.
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3. Find the total surface area of a cuboid of dimensions 5 cm • 6 cm • 7 cm.
We can observe different types of polygons in our daily existence and we might be
using them knowingly or unknowingly. In this article, you will learn the meaning and
definition of a polygon, types of a polygon, real-life examples of polygon shapes along with
their properties and related formulas in detail.
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What are Polygons?
A Polygon is a closed figure made up of line segments (not curves) in a two-
dimensional plane. Polygon is the combination of two words, i.e., poly (means many) and
gon (means sides).
Polygon shape
By definition, we know that the polygon is made up of line segments. Below are the
shapes of some polygons that are enclosed by the different number of line segments.
Types of Polygons
Depending on the sides and angles, the polygons are classified into different types,
namely:
Regular Polygon
Irregular Polygon
Convex Polygon
Concave polygon
Regular Polygon
If all the sides and interior angles of the polygon are equal, then it is known as
a regular polygon. The examples of regular polygons are square, equilateral triangle, etc.
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Irregular Polygon
If all the sides and the interior angles of the polygon are of different measure, then it
is known as an irregular polygon. This means that either the sides are of different lengths or
the angles are different, which is sufficient for a polygon to be said to be irregular. For
example, a scalene triangle, a kite, etc.
Convex Polygon
If all the interior angles of a polygon are strictly less than 180 degrees, then it is
known as a convex polygon. The vertex will point outwards from the center of the shape.
Concave Polygon
If one or more interior angles of a polygon are more than 180 degrees, then it is
known as a concave polygon. A concave polygon can have at least four sides. The vertex
points towards the inside of the polygon.
However, a number of polygons are defined based on the number of sides, angles
and properties.
Angles of Polygon
As we know, any polygon has as many vertices as it has sides. Each corner has a
certain measure of angles. These angles are categorized into two types namely interior
angles and exterior angles of a polygon.
For example, a quadrilateral has four sides, therefore, the sum of all the interior
angles is given by:
= 2 • 180°
= 360°
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Exterior angle property
The sum of interior and the corresponding exterior angles at each vertex of any
polygon are supplementary to each other. For a polygon;
Properties
The properties of polygons are based on their sides and angles.
Perimeter: Perimeter of a polygon is the total distance covered by the sides of a polygon.
The formulas of area and perimeter for different polygons are given below:
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Triangles (3-gon)
A triangle is the simplest form of the polygon that has three sides and three vertices.
The triangles are also classified into different types, based on the sides and angles.
The Sum of all the angles of the triangle is always equal to 180° (straight
angle).
Equilateral triangle – Having all sides equal and angles of equal measure. It is also
called an equiangular triangle.
Isosceles triangle – Having any 2 sides equal and angles opposite to the equal sides
are equal.
Scalene triangle – Has all the 3 sides unequal.
See the below figure, to see the difference between the three types of triangles.
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The below figure shows the three types of angles, based on angles.
Quadrilaterals (4-gon)
A Quadrilateral is a polygon having a number of sides equal to four. That means a
polygon is formed by enclosing four - line segments such that they meet at each other at
corners/vertices to make 4 angles.
Square
Rectangle
Parallelogram
Rhombus
Trapezium
The below figure shows the classification of quadrilaterals.
The table below gives the comparison of Opposite sides, angles, and diagonals of
different Quadrilaterals.
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Names of Polygon
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These are the shapes that can be projected on a piece of paper but cannot be drawn
on paper. These shapes are known as solids.
ACTIVITY 12
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 1: Answer the following.
1. What is a polygon?
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3. What is called a polygon with 9 sides?
A Cube is a solid three-dimensional figure, which has 6 square faces, 8 vertices and
12 edges. It is also said to be a regular hexahedron. You must have seen 3 × 3 Rubik’s
cube, which is the most common example in the real-life and it is helpful to enhance brain
power. In the same way, you will come across many real-life examples, such as 6-sided dice,
etc. Solid geometry is all about three-dimensional shapes and figures, which have surface
areas and volumes. The other solid shapes are cuboid, cylinder, cone, sphere. We will
discuss here its definition, properties and its importance in Maths. Also, learn the surface
area formula for the cube along with its volume formula.
A cube is a 3-D solid shape, which has 6 faces. A cube is one of the simplest shapes
in three-dimensional space. All the six faces of a cube are squares, a two-dimensional shape.
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Cube Shape
Sometimes, the shape of a cube is considered as “cubic”. We can also say that a cube
is considered as a block, where all the length, breadth and height are the same. Along with
that, it has 8 vertices and 12 edges such that 3 edges meet at one vertex point. Check the
given image below, defining its faces, edges and vertices. It is also known as a square
parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and a right rhombohedron. The cube is one of the
platonic solids and it is considered as the convex polyhedron where all the faces are square.
We can say that the cube has octahedral or cubical symmetry. A cube is the special case of
the square prism.
In the above figure, you can see, edge, face and vertex of the cube. Here, L stands for
length, B stands for breadth and H stands for height. We can see the length, breadth and
height of the cube, which represents the edges of the cube, connected at a single point which
is the vertex. The faces of the cube are connected by four vertices. Since the cube is a 3D
shape, the two important parameters used to measure the cube are surface area and
volume. Now let us discuss the properties of the cube along with the formula for surface
area and volume.
We know that for any shape, the area is defined as the region occupied by it in a
plane. A cube is a three-dimensional object, therefore, the area occupied by it will be in a 3d
plane. Since a cube has six faces, therefore, we need to calculate the surface area of the
cube, covered by each face. The formula to find the surface area can be found as given
below.
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Lateral surface area (excluding the top and bottom faces) = 4 • Area of one face
LSA = 4a2
Total surface area = LSA + Area of the top and bottom faces
TSA = 4a2 + a2 + a2
TSA = 6a2
Volume of Cube
The volume of the cube is the space contained in it. Suppose, if an object is in
cubical shape and we need to immerse any material in it, say water, then the measure of
water in liters to be kept in the object is calculated by its volume. The formula of the volume
is given by:
Properties of Cube
The following are the important properties of cube:
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Difference Between Square and Cube
The major difference between the square and the cube is the square is a two-
dimensional figure and it has only two dimensions such as length and breadth, whereas the
cube is a three-dimensional figure and its three dimensions are length, breadth and height.
The cube is obtained from the shape square.
Example 1:
If the value of the side of the cube is 10 cm, then find its surface area and volume.
Solution:
Given, side, a = 10 cm
Therefore, by the surface area and volume formula of the cube, we can write;
= 6 • 102
= 6 • 100.
= 600 cm2
Volume = a3
= 103
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= 1000 cm3
Example 2:
Solution:
We know that the formula for the volume of a cube is a3 cubic units.
Therefore, 512 = a3
83 = a3
Therefore, a= 8
ACTIVITY 13
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
EXERCISE 1: Solve the following problems given below:
1. The side length of the cube is 6 cm. Find its surface area.
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2. Determine the volume of a cube whose side length is 4 cm.
5. What is a cube?
70
8. How to calculate the volume of a cube?
Cylinder is one of the basic 3d shapes, in geometry, which has two parallel circular
bases at a distance. The two circular bases are joined by a curved surface, at a fixed distance
from the center. The line segment joining the center of two circular bases is the axis of the
cylinder. The distance between the two circular bases is called the height of the cylinder.
LPG gas-cylinder is one of the real-life examples of cylinders.
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Here we will learn about its definition, formulas, properties of cylinder and will
solve some examples based on them. Apart from this figure, we have concepts of Sphere,
Cone, Cuboid, Cube, etc. which we learn in Solid Geometry.
Cylinder Shape
A cylinder is a three-dimensional shape consisting of two parallel circular bases,
joined by a curved surface. The center of the circular bases overlaps each other to form a
right cylinder. The line segment joining the two centers is the axis, that denotes the height of
the cylinder.
The top view of the cylinder looks like a circle and the side view of the cylinder
looks like a rectangle.
Unlike cones, cube and cuboid, a cylinder does not have any vertices, since the
cylinder has a curved shape and no straight lines. It has two circular faces.
Properties
Each shape has some properties that differentiate one shape from another. Therefore,
cylinders also have its characteristics.
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If the bases are in an
elliptical Total surface area, A = 2πr(r+h) square units shape, then it is
called an “Elliptical
Cylinder”.
Formulas
The cylinder has three major quantities, based on which we have the formulas.
Volume of Cylinder
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Every three-dimensional shape or a solid has volume that occupies some space.
The volume of the cylinder is the space occupied by it in any three-dimensional plane. The
amount of water that could be immersed in a cylinder is described by its volume. The
formula for the volume of cylinder is given by:
Examples
Question 1: Find the total surface area of the cylinder, whose radius is 5cm and height is
10cm?
Therefore,
A = 2π • 5(5 + 10)
= 2π • 5(15)
= 2π • 75
= 150 • 3.14
= 471 cm2
Question 2: What is the volume of a cylindrical shape water container, that has a height of
7cm and diameter of 10cm?
Solution: Given,
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Thus, the radius of the container = 10/2 = 5cm
V = π • 25 • 7
= (22/7) • 25 • 7
= 22 • 25
V = 550 cm3
ACTIVITY 14
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
75
EXERCISE 1: Answer the following.
1. What are the characteristics of cylinder?
76
apex or vertex. We can also define the cone as a pyramid which has a circular cross-section,
unlike pyramid which has a triangular cross-section. These cones are also stated as a circular
cone.
A cone is a shape formed by using a set of line segments or the lines which connects
a common point, called the apex or vertex, to all the points of a circular base (which does
not contain the apex). The distance from the vertex of the cone to the base is the height of
the cone. The circular base has measured value of radius. And the length of the cone from
apex to any point on the circumference of the base is the slant height. Based on these
quantities, there are formulas derived for surface area and volume of the cone. In the figure
you will see, the cone which is defined by its height, the radius of its base and slant height.
Cone Formula – Slant Height, Surface Area of Cone & Volume of Cone
The formula for the surface area and volume of the cone is derived here based on its
height(h), radius(r) and slant height(l).
Slant Height
The slant height of the cone (specifically right circular) is the distance from the
vertex or apex to the point on the outer line of the circular base of the cone. The formula for
slant height can be derived by the Pythagoras Theorem.
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Surface Area of the Cone
The surface area of a right circular cone is equal to the sum of its lateral surface area
(πrl) and surface area of the circular base(πr2). Therefore,
Types of Cone
As we have already discussed a brief definition of the cone, let’s talk about its types
now. Basically, there are two types of cones;
Oblique Cone
A cone which has a circular base but the axis of the cone is not perpendicular with
the base, is called an Oblique cone. The vertex of this cone is not located directly above the
centre of the circular base. Therefore, this cone looks like a slanted cone or tilted cone.
Properties of Cone
A cone has only one face, which is the circular base but no edges
A cone has only one apex or vertex point.
The volume of the cone is ⅓ πr2h.
The total surface area of the cone is πr(l + r)
The slant height of the cone is √(r2+h2)
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Frustum of Right Circular Cone
Frustum of a cone is a piece of the given circular or right circular cone, which is cut
in a manner that the base of the solid and the plane cutting the solid are parallel to each
other. Based on this, we can calculate the surface area and volume also. For more details,
read the frustum of a cone from here.
ACTIVITY 15
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
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2. What is the total surface area of the cone with the radius = 3 cm and height = 5 cm?
Prism is a three-dimensional solid object in which the two ends are identical. It is
the combination of the flat faces, identical bases and equal cross-sections. The faces of the
prism are parallelograms or rectangles without the bases. And the bases of the prism could
be triangle, square, rectangle or any n-sided polygon. For example, a pentagonal prism has
two pentagonal bases and 5 rectangular faces.
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Prism Shape
A prism has a solid shape consisting of two identical ends (such as triangle, square,
rectangle, etc.), flat faces or surfaces and uniform cross-section across its length. The cross-
section looks like a triangle hence called triangular prism. The shape of the prism does not
have any curve. Therefore, a prism can have square, rectangular, pentagonal and other
polygon shapes but not the circular shape.
If a prism is intersected by a plane, parallel to the base, then the shape of cross-
section will be same as the base. For instance, a square pyramid is cut by a plane, parallel to
the base, then the shape of cross-section of pyramid will also be a square.
Types of Prism
Depending upon the cross-sections, the prisms are named. It is of two types, namely;
Regular Prism
Irregular Prism
Regular Prism
If the bases of the prism are in the shape of a regular polygon, it is called regular prism.
Irregular Prism
If the bases are in the shape of an irregular polygon, then the prism is called an
irregular prism.
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Triangular prism (has triangular bases)
Square prism (has square bases)
Rectangular prism (has rectangular bases)
Pentagonal prism (has pentagonal bases)
Hexagonal prism (has hexagonal bases)
Right Prism
Oblique Prism
The difference between both the prism for triangular bases are;
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For any kind of prism, the surface area can be found using the formula;
Volume of a Prism
The volume of the prism is defined as the product of the base area and the prism height.
Therefore,
For example, if you want to find the volume of a square prism, you must know the
area of a square, then its volume can be calculated as follows:
V = s2 • h cubic units
ACTIVITY 16
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
1. Find the volume of a triangular prism whose area is 60 cm2 and height is 7 cm.
83
2. Find the height of the square prism whose volume is 360 cm3 and the base area is 60
cm2.
3. What is Prism?
84
Pyramid Shape
A pyramid is a three-dimensional shape. A pyramid has a polygonal base and flat
triangular faces, which join at a common point called the apex. A pyramid is formed by
connecting the bases to an apex. Each edge of the base is connected to the apex, and forms
the triangular face, called the lateral face. If a pyramid has an n-sided base, then it has n+1
faces, n+1 vertices, and 2n edges.
Types Of Pyramids
Based on the shape of the base, the pyramid is classified into different types. Now,
let us discuss the different types of pyramid shape one by one.
Triangular Pyramid
If the base of the pyramid is in a triangular shape (base with 3 sides), then the
pyramid is called a triangular pyramid. As the triangle has 3 sides, then the triangular
pyramid has the following properties:
Square Pyramid
If the base of the pyramid is in the shape of a square (base with 4 sides), then it is
called a square pyramid. As the square has 4 sides, then the square pyramid has the
following properties:
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Pentagonal Pyramid
If the base of the pyramid is in the shape of a pentagon (base with 5 sides), then it is
called a pentagonal pyramid. As the pentagon has 5 sides, then the pentagonal pyramid has
the following properties:
The apex of this pyramid is exactly over the middle of the base, hence named as Right
Pyramid.
Oblique Pyramid
The apex of this pyramid is not exactly over the middle of its base and named as
Oblique Pyramid.
To distinguish between regular and irregular Pyramid, you need to consider the
shape of the base. If the base of a polygon is regular, it is labelled as Regular Pyramid, else
it is considered as Irregular Pyramid. The figure given below illustrates the regular pyramid
and an irregular pyramid.
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Pyramid Formulas
The standard formula to find the surface area and the volume of the pyramid are
given as follows:
The total surface area of a pyramid is the sum of the base area and half the product of
the base perimeter and the slant height.
Thus,
The general form to find the volume of the pyramid is one-third of the base area and
the height of the pyramid.
Thus,
ACTIVITY 16
Name: _____________________________________________
Section: ____________ Day: ____________ Time: _________
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2. Find the total surface area of the square pyramid if each side of the base measures 16
cm, and the slant height is 17 cm, and the altitude is 15 cm.
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