2.2.2.

Perform Design of Dams

2.2.2.1. Definition of Dam

2.2.2.2. GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR DAMS

2.2.2.3. Advantages of Dams

2.2.2.4. Components of Dams
1. Water-retaining structure – Components of Dam
1. Heel
2. Toe
3. Abutment
4. Crest/Roadway of Dams
5. Cut off
6. Parapet wall
2. Water-releasing structure: Components of dams
1. Galleries
2. Spillway
3. Diversion tunnel
4. Sluice way
5. Freeboard
3. Water conveying structure – Components of dams
1. Conduit
2.2.2.5. Examples of some major dams
1. Kadahokwa Dam (Earthern dam)
2. Bhakra Dam (Gravity dam)
3. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Masonry Dam)

2.2.2.6. Sluice Concreate Gravity Dams

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 2.2.2.1. Definition of dam

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a reservoir
on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. These purposes may be Irrigation,
Hydropower, Water-supply, Flood Control, Navigation, Fishing and Recreation. Dams may be built
to meet the one of the above purposes or they may be constructed fulfilling more than one. As such,
Dam can be classified as: Single-purpose and Multipurpose Dam

2.2.2.2. GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR DAMS

Abutment – That part of the valley side or concrete walls against which the dam is constructed.
An artificial abutment is sometimes constructed where there is no suitable natural abutment. The
wall between a spillway or gate structure and the embankment can also be referred to as an
abutment. (Also see Spillway Abutment)

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Alterations – Changes in the design or configuration of the dam that may affect the integrity or
operation of the dam and thereby have a potential to affect the safety of persons, property, or
natural resources. (Also see Reconstruction)

Appurtenant Works – Structures or machinery auxiliary to dams which are built for
operation and maintenance purposes (e.g., outlet works, spillway, powerhouse, tunnels,
etc.).

Auxiliary Spillway (Emergency Spillway) – A secondary spillway designed to operate only

during large flood events; an auxiliary gate is a standby or reserve gate only used when the normal
means to control water are not available or at capacity.

Boil – An upward disturbance in the surface layer of soil caused by water escaping under
pressure from behind or under a dam or a levee. The boil may be accompanied by deposition of
soil particles (usually silt) in the form of a ring around the area where the water escapes.
Breach – An opening or a breakthrough of a dam sometimes caused by rapid erosion of a section of
earth embankment by water; dams can be breached intentionally to render them incapable of
impounding water.

Capacity (Hydraulic Capacity) – Amount of water a dam can convey through designed
spillway structures, typically expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs).

Conduit – Closed channel (e.g., pipe) to convey the discharge of water through or under a dam.

Core/Corewall – Vertical zone of material of low permeability (e.g., compacted clay)

typically in the center of an embankment dam to prevent seepage.

Crest of Dam (Top of Dam) – The top of the dam not designed to flow water; also known as
the top of dam.

Crest of Spillway – The top of the spillway where water flows over.

Cutoff Wall – A wall of impervious material (e.g., concrete, asphaltic concrete, steel sheet piling)
built into the foundation to reduce seepage through the dam.

Dam – Artificial barrier built for impounding or diverting the flow of water; see NR 333.03(3).

Dam Failure Analysis (DFA) – Analysis completed by an engineer/consultant to estimate the

downstream impact if the dam were to fail during a 100-year event; results of analysis used to
assign hazard rating. (Also see Hydraulic Shadow Map)

Design Spillway Capacity – The largest storm event or flowrate that a given dam/project is
designed to pass safely. The inflow hydrograph (graph showing how inflow to an impoundment
changes over time) is used to estimate the amount of water that the spillway needs to convey and
maximum water surface elevation of the impoundment.

Dike (Levee/Berm) – An embankment built to protect land from flooding; no water control
structure present.

Drain, Layer, or Filter Blanket – A layer of pervious material in a dam to facilitate controlled
drainage and reduce seepage velocities; includes toe drain, weepholes, chimney drains, etc.

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Drainage Area – The area that drains naturally to a specified point on a river/stream.

Drawdown – Intentional lowering of water surface level due to a controlled release of water
from an impoundment; maximum drawdown rate is typically no more than 6 inches per day.

Embankment – A constructed bank of material, commonly earth or rock, to hold back water.

Embankment Dam (Earth Dam/Earthfill Dam) – Any dam primarily constructed of

excavated natural materials, usually earth or rock, with sloping sides and a designated water
control structure.

Emergency Action Plan (EAP) – A predetermined plan of action to be taken to reduce the
potential for property damage and loss of life associated with a dam emergency or failure; EAP
includes details specific to each dam.

Energy Dissipater – Device constructed within or at the outlet of a spillway to reduce energy
of fast- flowing water.

Engineer/Consultant – Licensed or registered professional engineer (PE) in a given state;

offers experience and expertise in the design and inspection of dams.

Face – Upstream or downstream side slope of dam.

Failure – Incident resulting in an uncontrolled release of water from a dam.

Flashboards – Boards, often constructed of wood or steel, used for increasing the depth of water
behind a dam that are designed to deploy (break away) at a designed height of water.

Foundation of Dam – Natural material on which the dam structure is placed.

Freeboard – Vertical distance between the upstream water level (headwater) and the top of a dam.

Gate – Device which can be operated across the waterway to control or stop the flow. Common
types of gates include slide (sluice), split-leaf, crest, and tainter (radial).

Gravity Dam – Dam constructed of concrete and/or masonry that relies on its weight for

stability. Groin – Area along the contact (or intersection) of the face of a dam with the

abutments. Headwater – Water surface elevation of the impoundment on the upstream

side of the dam.

Height of Dam (Structural Height) – Difference in elevation between the point of lowest
elevation on the top of the dam before overtopping and the lowest elevation of the natural stream
or lake bed at the downstream toe of the dam.

Hydraulic Height – Difference in elevation between the headwater and tailwater.

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Hydraulic Shadow Map – Map delineating the area that would be inundated due to a dam failure
during a 100-year flood event.

Impoundment (Pool/Lake/Reservoir) – Water held back by a dam; water on the upstream side
of the dam.

Intake – Any structure in an impoundment which water can be drawn through the dam.

Maintenance – The upkeep necessary for efficient operation and safety of dam and appurtenance
works;
involves labor and materials but is not to be confused with alterations or repairs.

Ogee Spillway (Ogee Section) – A weir where the spillway crest, slope, and bottom form an "S"
or ogee curve.

One percent (1%)/One Hundred Year (100-year)/Regional Flood The regional flood is based
upon a statistical analysis of stream flow records available for the watershed or an analysis of
rainfall or runoff characteristics in the watershed or both. In any given year, there is a 1% chance
that the regional flood may occur or be exceeded.

Operator – The owner, designated agent, or employee of the owner charged with
overseeing and physically operating the dam.

Outlet – An opening through which water discharges from an impoundment.

Overtopping – Uncontrolled release of water over parts of the dam that are not designed to pass
flow;
overtopping does not necessarily mean that the dam has failed.

Owner – A person, or group of people (e.g., Lake District), utility, corporation who is
responsible for operating, maintaining, and managing a dam.

Phreatic Surface – Upper surface of saturation in an embankment.

Piping – The progressive development of internal erosion by seepage; appears on the downstream
side of the dam as a hole or seam where water containing soil particles is discharged.

Plunge Pool (Stilling Basin) – A natural or sometimes artificially created pool that dissipates the
energy of free-flowing water.

Primary Spillway (Principal Spillway) – Main spillway designed to convey water during normal
flows.

Reconstruction – Altering an existing dam in a way that affects its hydraulic capacity or
structural integrity.

Repair – Activity to restore a dam to its approved design condition.

Riprap – Large stones placed to protect against wave action, ice action and scour.

Scarp – Nearly vertical, exposed earth surface created at the upper edge of a slide or a breach.

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 Seepage – Movement of water through the dam foundation, abutments, or embankment.

Slide – Movement of a mass of earth fill down a slope along the failure plane for a considerable
distance. In embankments and abutments, this involves a surficial separation of a portion of the
slope from the surrounding material.

Slump – A portion of earth embankment which moves downslope, often along a curved surface;
sometimes happens suddenly, often with cracks developing.

Spillway – Structure over or through which flows are discharged. If the flow and level are
controlled by gates it is considered a controlled spillway, but if the spillway crest is at a fixed
elevation (and cannot be changed) it is considered an uncontrolled spillway.

Spillway Abutment – Wall between a spillway or gate structure and the embankment.

Spillway Channel – Channel conveying water from the impoundment to the river downstream.

Stop Log – Logs, timbers, steel beams, or concrete beams placed on top of each other with their
ends held in channels/guides/brackets on each side of a channel or conduit; stop logs may be
added or removed to raise or lower the impoundment water level.

Storage – Volume of water held behind a dam, typically expressed in units of acre-feet.
Maximum storage capacity means the volume of water stored before overtopping occurs.

Tailwater – The level of water in the discharge channel immediately downstream of the dam.

Toe Drain – Drains installed at the toe of the dam to collect and convey seepage that occurs
through embankment.

Toe of Dam (Toe of Embankment) – The junction of the downstream face of a dam with the
ground surface, also referred to as the downstream toe. For an embankment dam, the junction of
the upstream face with the ground surface is called the upstream toe.

Trash Rack –Metal or concrete bars located in the waterway across the upstream end of a
conduit or spillway channel to prevent the entry of floating or submerged debris.

Valve – Device fitted to a conduit in which the closure member is either rotated or moved
transversely or longitudinally in the waterway to control or stop the flow.

Weir –A barrier built across the width of a stream to raise the upstream water level; called a
fixed-crest weir; when top is at a permanent elevation and cannot be moved up or down. Weirs
can also be built across a stream, channel or discharge point to measure or gauge flow. Types of
weirs include broad crested, sharp crested, ogee, and V-notched weirs.

2.2.2.3. Advantages of Dams

The dams provide a range of environmental, economic and social benefits. One of the most
important benefits of dams is water storage. The stored water is used for drinking, cleaning, bathing,
gardening, irrigation purposes, and industrial purposes.

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Dams may be constructed to meet the following functions

• Water storage: Dams are one of the major sources of water for domestic uses like
cooking, cleaning, bathing, washing, drinking water, gardening, agricultural uses,
industrial purposes, etc. The water is supplied through the canal or with the help of a
pipe system from the dam.

• Irrigation – The water from the dams is diverted through canals to the field where
the water level is low for irrigation purposes.

• Hydroelectric power – The water stored in the dam is passed through turbines for
hydroelectric power generation.

• Flood prevention – The water level of rivers, streams, etc is maintained by

constructing dams across it. This prevents the loss and damage from unexpected
floods.

• Recreation – The water stored in the dam is used for fishing, boating, and other
recreational activities.

• Debris control – The dam also provides the retention of hazardous material and
protects the environment.

2.2.2.4. Components of Dams

The components of dams play an important role in maintaining the primary responsibility of water
management. The parts of the dams are broadly classified as follows.

• Water-retaining structure
• Water-releasing structure
• Water conveying structure.

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Fig.1.1. Components of dam

Water-retaining structure – Components of Dam

The water-retaining structure is the dam’s walled structure that resists water while allowing a
controlled amount to flow downstream. Accordingly, the side of the barrier where water is collected
is known as the upstream side, and where the water flows is known as the downstream side. Generally,
the following component of dams makes up the dam’s water-retention section

• Heel
• Toe
• Abutment
• Crest
• Cutoff
• Parapet wall

Heel
The part of the dams meeting with the groundwater or upstream side is called the heel. (Ref fig.)

Toe

The portion of the dams meeting with the groundwater or downstream side is called the Toe. (Ref
fig)

Abutment

Abutments support the lateral pressure. These are the sides of the valley. These are concrete or
masonry structures. (Ref fig.)

Crest/Roadway of Dams
The section of the dams used as a roadway or walkway is the crest. It is the upper area of the dam.
(Ref fig.)

Cut off
The cut-off is an impervious barrier constructed beneath the earthen dams. The main function is to
reduce the loss of stored water in the reservoir by preventing seepage. (Ref fig.)

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Fig.2. (Ref fig.)

Parapet wall
The parapet wall is seen below the crest near the roadway. This assists in the dam investigation and
safety barriers. (Ref to fig 3)

Water-releasing structure: Components of dams

Mainly, the components of dams that allow water to flow downstream are known as the water-
releasing structure. Generally, these dam components are technically known as the dam’s spillways.
Generally, the spillway’s mechanism allows for controlled water volume. A spillway contains the
following components.

• Galleries
• Spillways
• Diversion tunnel
• Sluiceway
• Freeboard

Galleries
These are hollow openings passing through the dam as shown in fig. The main purpose of providing
a drainage gallery is to collect seepage water from the foundation and body of the dam and drain it
out. The seepage water received by foundation galleries is drained away under gravity. The galleries
are broadly divided into …

• Grouting gallery
• Inspection Gallery
• Drainage gallery
• Valve gallery

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 • Transformer Gallery

Fig.3. Gravity dam with Drainage Gallery

Spillway

The role of the Spillway is to convey excess water and prevent damage. The water passes from
upstream to downstream. The spillway helps in the emergency discharge of water.
They are two varieties

• Controlled spillway
• Uncontrolled spillway

In a controlled spillway the flood flow is regulated by the gate.

Diversion tunnel
The purpose of the diversion canal is to redirect the water. Diversion tunnels are constructed during
the construction stage of dams.

A diversion tunnel may also be constructed to divert floodwater to divert water from mountainous
regions to low-lying areas experiencing a water shortage supply.

Sluice way
The role of the sluiceway is to remove the silt accumulated.

Freeboard
The interval between the dam heads to the maximum water level on the upstream side.

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Water conveying structure – Components of dams
Water-conveying structure mainly conduit and conveys the water from reservoirs through, around, or
under an embankment dam

Conduits
These are closed pipe structures. Conduits act as passages for the water supply. Bottom
discharge conduits are pipes that cross the body of the dam from the upstream to the downstream sides
enabling water flow.

2.4.2.5. Examples of Some Major Dams

The Kadahokwa Dam (Earthen dam)

The Kadahokwa dam is located in Rwanda, Huye district over two rivers, Kadahokwa and
Nyanyamasharaza rivers. The main purpose of the dam is to store water used to supply Kadahokwa
water treatment Plant. The dam is owned and managed by WASAC.

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Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Masonry Dam)
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is a stone masonry dam completed in 1967. The dam is a symbol of modern
architecture. The purpose of this project was to generate hydroelectricity. It has a 26-crest gate.

Bhakra Nangal Dam (Gravity dam)

The Bhakra Dam is an Indian gravity dam built across the river Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh. This
dam is constructed in 1963. The height of the dam is 226 meters. The length of the dam is 518
meters.
Gobind Sagar is a reservoir of this dam. The Bhakra Dam is composed of alternating layers of light
red clays and sandstone.
This dam has four spillways. It helps in irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and recreation.
The major source of irrigation water supply in Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan is this dam.

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 2.2.2.6. Concreate Gravity Dams

1. Cross Sectional parts/Components & terminologies of Concreate Gravity

Dams:

Fig.3. Dam cross sectional illustration

• Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a roadway or
walkway over the dam.

• Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
• Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
• Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
• Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of dam for the passage of
surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
• Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end of
dam are fixed to.
• Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse or
longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally provided
for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be used to
accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
• Sluice way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in the
reservoir.
• Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of the
dam.
• Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be withdrawn.
• Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to bypass the
dam construction site. The dam is built while the river flows through the diversion tunnel.

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2. Different aspects of stability and design of concrete gravity dam

Different Forces on Gravity Dam

A gravity dam is subjected to the following forces.

i. Self-weight of the Dam

Self-weight of a gravity dam is main stabilizing force.

ii. Water pressure

Water pressure on the upstream side (Figure 2.1) is the main destabilizing force in gravity dam.
Downstream side may also have water pressure. Though downstream water pressure produces counter
overturning moment, its magnitude is much smaller as compared to the upstream water pressure and
therefore generally not considered in stability analysis.

Fig. 2.1. Water pressure

iii. Uplift water pressure

The uplift pressure is the upward pressure of water at the base of the dam as shown in Figure 2.2. It
also exists within any cracks in the dam.

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 Fig. 2.2. Uplift water pressure

In addition to the above-mentioned forces, a gravity dam may also subject to the following forces.

• Earth pressure
• Wave pressure
• Earthquake
• Force due to Wind
• Ice pressure

These forces have very little effect on the stability and therefore generally be neglected in stability
analysis.

General Requirement for Stability

A gravity dam may fail in the following modes,

• Overturning
• Sliding
• Compression
• Tension

Therefore, the requirements for stability are,

• The dam should be safe against overturning.

• The dam should be safe against sliding.
• The induced stresses (either tension or compression) in the dam or in the foundation
should not exceed the permissible value.

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