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Fluid Mechanics An Introduction 4th Edition Ethirajan
Rathakrishnan Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Ethirajan Rathakrishnan
ISBN(s): 9789389347913, 9389347912
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 29.87 MB
Year: 2022
Language: english
Fourth Edition
FLUID
MECHANICS
An Introduction
Dye Tank
Water
Glass tube
Jet Dye streak
Water flow
FLUID MECHANICS
An Introduction
FOURTH EDITION
Professor of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Delhi-110092
2022
ISTUDY
To
my parents
Thammanur Shunmugam Ethirajan
and
Aandaal Ethirajan
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................... xiii
Preface to the Third Edition............................................................xv
Preface to the Second Edition........................................................xvii
Preface to the First Edition........................................................... xix
1.SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT FLUID MECHANICS............. 1–29

1.1 General Description.................................................................. 1
1.2 Fluids and the Continuum .................................................... 3
1.3 Dimensions and Units.............................................................. 5
1.4 Law of Dimensional Homogeneity........................................... 5
1.5 The Perfect Gas: Equation of State..................................... 6
1.6 Regimes of Fluid Mechanics.................................................... 7
1.7 Fluid Statics ........................................................................... 9
1.7.1 Scalar, Vector, and Tensor Quantities......................... 9
1.7.2 Body and Surface Forces........................................... 10
1.7.3 Forces in Stationary Fluids........................................ 10
1.7.4 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics................................. 12
1.7.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces............... 16
1.7.6 Pressure Variation with Elevation for a Static
Compressible Fluid..................................................... 23
1.8 Summary......................................................................... 25
1.9 Problems.......................................................................... 25
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS....................... 30–172

2.1 Introduction............................................................................ 30
2.2 Properties of Fluids............................................................... 30
2.2.1 Pressure....................................................................... 31
2.2.2 Temperature................................................................ 32
2.2.3 Density........................................................................ 32
2.2.4 Viscosity...................................................................... 33
2.2.5 Absolute Coefficient of Viscosity............................... 33
2.2.6 Kinematic Viscosity Coefficient.................................. 36
2.2.7 Thermal Conductivity of Air..................................... 36
2.2.8 Compressibility............................................................ 37
2.3 Thermodynamic Properties.................................................... 37
2.3.1 Specific Heat............................................................... 38
2.3.2 The Ratio of Specific Heats....................................... 38
vii
ISTUDY
viii CONTENTS
2.4 Surface Tension...................................................................... 39

2.5 Analysis of Fluid Flow.......................................................... 41
2.5.1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Specifications..................... 41
2.5.2 Relation Between Local and Material
Rates of Change......................................................... 42
2.5.3 Graphical Description of Fluid Motion...................... 45
2.6 Basic and Subsidiary Laws for Continuous Media............... 46
2.6.1 Systems and Control Volumes................................... 47
2.6.2 Integral and Differential Analysis.............................. 47
2.6.3 State Equation............................................................ 47
2.7 Kinematics of Fluid Flow...................................................... 48
2.7.1 Rotational and Irrotational Motion............................ 58
2.8 Stream Function.................................................................... 62
2.8.1 Relationship Between Stream Function and
Velocity Potential....................................................... 66
2.9 Potential Flow........................................................................ 69
2.9.1 Bernoulli Equation...................................................... 71
2.9.2 Two-Dimensional Source and Sink............................. 74
2.9.3 Simple Vortex............................................................. 75
2.9.4 Source–Sink Pair......................................................... 78
2.9.5 Doublet....................................................................... 78
2.10 Combination of Simple Flows................................................ 81
2.10.1 Flow Past a Half-Body.............................................. 81
2.11 Flow Past a Circular Cylinder.............................................. 88
2.11.1 Flow without Circulation............................................ 88
2.11.2 Flow with Circulation................................................ 90
2.12 Viscous Flows......................................................................... 94
2.12.1 Drag of Bodies............................................................ 97
2.12.2 Turbulence.................................................................102
2.12.3 Flow Through Pipes..................................................108
2.13 Gas Dynamics.......................................................................116
2.13.1 Perfect Gas................................................................117
2.13.2 Speed of Sound..........................................................117
2.13.3 Flow with Area Change............................................118
2.13.4 Normal Shock Relations............................................124
2.13.5 Oblique Shock Relations............................................126
2.13.6 Flow with Friction....................................................129
2.13.7 Flow with Simple T0-Change....................................133
2.14 Summary........................................................................135
2.15 Problems.........................................................................143
3. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY................173–194

3.1 Introduction...........................................................................173
3.2 Dimensionless Groups...........................................................173
3.3 Dimensional Homogeneity Principle......................................174
ISTUDY
CONTENTS ix
3.4 Buckingham’s p-Theorem......................................................177

3.5 Dimensionless Group in Fluid Dynamics.............................177
3.6 Calculation of the Dimensionless Groups.............................178
3.7 Similarity...............................................................................180
3.8 Relationship Between Dimensional Analysis
and Similarity.......................................................................181
3.9 Similarity Requirements from the Equations of Flow.........185
3.10 Scale Factors .......................................................................186
3.11 Summary........................................................................191
3.12 Problems.........................................................................192
4. BOUNDARY LAYER............................................................195–242
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................195
4.2 Boundary Layer Development..............................................196
4.2.1 Velocity Profile............................................................197
4.3 Boundary Layer Thickness...................................................198
4.3.1 Displacement Thickness.............................................198
4.3.2 Momentum Thickness................................................200
4.3.3 Kinetic Energy Thickness..........................................201
4.3.4 Non-Dimensional Velocity Profile..............................201
4.3.5 Types of Boundary Layer.........................................202
4.4 Boundary Layer Flow...........................................................204
4.5 Boundary Layer Solutions....................................................206
4.6 Momentum-Integral Estimates..............................................207
4.6.1 Conservation of Linear Momentum...........................207
4.6.2 Karman’s Analysis of the Flat Plate
Boundary Layer.........................................................208
4.7 Boundary Layer Equations...................................................209
4.8 Flat Plate Boundary Layer..................................................214
4.8.1 Laminar Flow............................................................215
4.8.2 Boundary Layer Thickness........................................216
4.9 Turbulent Boundary Layer for Incompressible Flow
Along a Flat Plate...............................................................224
4.10 Flows with Pressure Gradient..............................................227
4.11 Laminar Integral Theory......................................................228
4.12 Summary........................................................................235
4.13 Problems.........................................................................239
5. VORTEX THEORY...............................................................243–318
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................243
5.2 Vorticity Equation in Rectangular Coordinates...................244
5.2.1 Vorticity Equation in Polar Coordinates...................246
5.3 Circulation................................................................................. 248
5.4 Line (Point) Vortex................................................................... 252
5.5 Laws of Vortex Motion.............................................................. 254
ISTUDY
x CONTENTS
5.6 Helmholtz’s Theorems............................................................... 255

5.7 Vortex Theorems....................................................................... 256
5.7.1 Stokes’ Theorem............................................................ 261
5.8 Calculation of uR, the Velocity due to Rotational Flow............ 265
5.9 Biot–Savart Law........................................................................ 269
5.9.1 A Linear Vortex of Finite Length.................................. 271
5.9.2 Semi-infinite Vortex ..................................................... 272
5.9.3 Infinite Vortex............................................................... 273
5.9.4 Helmholtz’s Second Vortex Theorem............................ 278
5.9.5 Helmholtz’s Third Vortex Theorem.............................. 281
5.9.6 Helmholtz’s Fourth Vortex Theorem............................. 282
5.10 Vortex Motion........................................................................... 282
5.11 Forced Vortex........................................................................... 285
5.12 Free Vortex............................................................................... 287
5.12.1 Free Spiral Vortex......................................................... 288
5.13 Compound Vortex..................................................................... 292
5.14 Physical Meaning of Circulation................................................ 293
5.15 Rectilinear Vortices................................................................... 298
5.15.1 Circular Vortex.............................................................. 298
5.16 Velocity Distribution................................................................. 300
5.17 Size of a Circular Vortex........................................................... 302
5.18 Point Rectilinear Vortex........................................................... 302
5.19 Vortex Pair................................................................................ 304
5.20 Image of a Vortex in a Plane.................................................... 305
5.21 Vortex between Parallel Plates................................................. 305
5.22 Force on a Vortex .................................................................... 307
5.23 Mutual Action of Two Vortices................................................. 308
5.24 Energy due to a Pair of Vortices............................................... 308
5.25 Line Vortex............................................................................... 310
5.26 Summary...................................................................................311
5.27 Problems....................................................................................317
6. FLOW THROUGH PIPES....................................................319–388

6.1 Introduction...........................................................................319
6.2 Flow in Circular Pipes.........................................................319
6.3 Laminar to Turbulent Transition.........................................320
6.4 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe...........................325
6.4.1 Shear Stress Distribution...........................................328
6.4.2 Volume Flow Rate.....................................................328
6.4.3 Average Velocity........................................................329
6.4.4 Point of Maximum Velocity......................................329
6.5 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully Developed
Pipe Flow .......................................................................... 332
6.6 Head Loss Due to Friction...................................................333
6.7 Poiseuille’s Law.....................................................................335
ISTUDY
CONTENTS xi
6.8 Friction Factor Variation.....................................................336

6.9 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow.............................343
6.10 Velocity Distribution in Smooth Pipes................................345
6.10.1 Friction Factor for Smooth Pipes.............................349
6.10.2 Velocity Distribution and Friction Factor for
Rough Pipes...............................................................355
6.10.3 Universal Features of the Velocity Distribution
in Turbulent Flow ................................................. 359
6.11 Energy Considerations...........................................................360
6.11.1 Kinetic Energy Coefficient.........................................362
6.11.2 Head Loss..................................................................362
6.12 Minor Losses.........................................................................365
6.12.1 Inlets and Exits.........................................................365
6.12.2 Contractions and Enlargements.................................368
6.12.3 Loss in Bends............................................................372
6.12.4 Valves and Fittings...................................................372
6.13 Noncircular Ducts.................................................................377
6.14 Pipe Flow Solution...............................................................380
6.14.1 Single-Path Systems...................................................380
6.15 Multiple-Path Systems..........................................................381
6.16 Summary...............................................................................381
6.17 Problems................................................................................386
7. FLOW WITH FREE SURFACE...........................................389–486

7.1 Introduction...........................................................................389
7.2 Steady-Flow Energy Equation for Open Channels..............391
7.2.1 Energy Gradient .................................................... 393
7.3 Steady Uniform Flow............................................................394
7.4 Boundary Layer in Open Channels......................................398
7.4.1 Partially Filled Flow in Closed Conduits.................402
7.5 Waves and Surges in Open Channels..................................405
7.6 Specific Energy and Alternative Depth of Flow..................411
7.6.1 Dimensionless Forms of Specific-Energy Curves.......420
7.7 The Hydraulic Jump.............................................................424
7.7.1 Force on an Obstacle in a Stream...........................432
7.8 Critical Flow.........................................................................435
7.9 The Broad-Crested Weir.......................................................436
7.9.1 Drowned Weir and Free Outfall...............................443
7.10 Rapid Flow Approaching a Weir or Other Obstruction.....444
7.10.1 Flow Through Venturi..............................................447
7.11 Gradually Varied Flow.........................................................451
7.12 Governing Equations of Gradually Varied Flow..................452
7.13 Classification of Surface Profile............................................459
7.13.1 The Basic Equations of Motion................................461
7.14 Gravity Waves......................................................................465
ISTUDY
xii CONTENTS
7.15 Capillary Waves....................................................................466

7.16 Motion of Individual Particles..............................................466
7.16.1 Wave Energy..............................................................467
7.17 Energy Transmission Rate....................................................469
7.18 Group Velocity......................................................................470
7.19 Waves Moving into Shallower Liquid...................................472
7.19.1 Standing Waves..........................................................473
7.20 Summary...............................................................................475
7.21 Problems................................................................................482
8. HYDRAULIC MACHINERY—PUMPS AND TURBINES.....487–563

8.1 Introduction...........................................................................487
8.2 Pumps ...................................................................................487
8.3 Head Developed by a Pump.................................................490
8.3.1 Effect of Blade Angle on Pump Head......................494
8.4 Efficiency of Pump...............................................................499
8.5 Similarity Laws for Pumps...................................................505
8.6 Performance Characteristics of Pumps at
Constant Speed.....................................................................507
8.7 Performance Characteristics at Different Speeds
and Sizes...............................................................................509
8.8 Operating Point of a Pump.................................................510
8.9 Specific Speed of Pumps......................................................512
8.10 Peripheral-Velocity Factor.....................................................515
8.11 Cavitation in Pumps.............................................................516
8.12 Selection of Pumps...............................................................520
8.13 Pumps Operating in Series and in Parallel.........................521
8.14 Hydraulic Turbines................................................................521
8.15 Impulse Turbine....................................................................522
8.16 Impulse Turbine Operation...................................................525
8.17 Head and Efficiency of Impulse Turbine..............................532
8.18 Nozzles for Impulse Turbines...............................................539
8.19 Reaction Turbine...................................................................539
8.20 Performance of Reaction Turbines........................................541
8.21 Draft Tubes and Effective Head on Reaction Turbines......548
8.22 Efficiency of Turbines...........................................................549
8.23 Similarity Law for Reaction Turbine....................................551
8.24 Peripheral-Velocity Factor and Specific Speed of
Turbines.................................................................................553
8.25 Cavitation in Turbines..........................................................554
8.26 Pump Turbines......................................................................555
8.27 Summary...............................................................................555
8.28 Problems................................................................................560
Bibliography.................................................................... 565
Index........................................................................567–571
ISTUDY
Preface
The third edition of this book, developed to serve as text for a course
fluid mechanics at the introductory level for undergraduate course and
for an advanced level course at graduate level was well received all over
the world, because of its completeness and proper balance of theoretical
and application aspects of this science.
Over the years, the feedback received from the faculty and students
made the author to realize the need for adding following material to
serve as text for students of all branches of engineering. Considering
the feedback from faculty and students the following material is added
in this edition.
• Three new chapters; Pipe Flows, Flow with Free Surface and
Hydraulics Machinery have been added to this edition.
• Large number of solved examples are included in all the chapters to
enable the user to gain an insight in to the theory and application
aspects of the concepts introduced.
I would like to thank the faculty and students all over the world for
adopting this book for their courses. I thank my doctoral and masters
students, for checking the material added in this edition and the Solution
Manual.
For instructors, a companion Solutions Manual that contains solutions
to all the end-of-chapter problems is available from the publisher.
xiii
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Preface to the Third Edition
My sincere thanks to the students and instructors who adopted this book
for their courses. In this edition, the subject matter has been given a
fine tuning, clarifying the vital aspects of the processes associated with
potential and viscous flows. This exercise is made to make the book
effective for both theory and application. Few new examples are added.
Some new problems along with answers are added at the end of
Chapter 4. A new chapter on Vortex Theory is added, beginning from
the definition of vortex and covering all the fundamental and application
aspects of the vortices, which play a dominant role in dictating the
performance of almost all engineering devices.
For instructors only a companion Solutions Manual, that contains
typed solutions to all the end-of-chapter problems, is available from
PHI Learning. I am grateful for the financial support extended by the
Continuing Education Centre of the Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur, for the preparation of the manuscript.
My sincere thanks to my undergraduate and graduate students at
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, who are directly and indirectly
responsible for the development of this book.
xv
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Preface to the Second Edition
This book was originally written as an attempt to provide an overall
view of fluid mechanics in a concise form. To make this book simple
and easy to understand, many rigid proofs of mathematical formulae
are omitted, and simplifications made to others. Also, detailed tables
of experimental data have been avoided as far as possible; the students
are encouraged to acquaint themselves with these at a later stage by
consulting standard reference books. On the other hand, in this book,
considerable attention has been paid to explain the limitations of any
derived equations. Chapter 2 has been completely revised to include the
vital aspects of potential flow, vortex motion and pipe flow. A new chapter
(Chapter 4) on boundary layer theory has been added to this edition.
Throughout the book, considerable emphasis is placed on the physical
phenomena of fluid flows, and their limitations of applicability are
stressed. A large number of solved numerical examples are presented to
demonstrate the application of basic principles. Problems with answers
are provided at the end of each chapter to provide the students with an
exercise to check and augment their understanding of the fundamental
principles of the subject. A list of selected references is given to serve as
a guide for those students who wish to study in more detail the various
branches of fluid mechanics.
In this revised augmented edition, special attention has been given to
the second chapter. Direct definitions and descriptions of the concepts
introduced are expected to provide a valuable insight into the subject
in an easy but effective manner.
For instructors only, a companion Solutions Manual is available from
Prentice-Hall of India that contains typed solutions to all of the end-
of-chapter problems. The financial support extended by the continuing
Education Center of Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur for the
preparation of the Solutions Manual is gratefully acknowledged.
I deeply appreciate the many comments and suggestions that I received
from the users of the first edition of this book. My sincere thanks go
to my doctoral students Professor V.N. Sukumar, Shibu Clement, P.
Lovaraju and B.R. Vinoth and masters students Amit Kumar, Mohan
Murali and Jayaprakash for their help during the preparation of this edition.
The editorial and production staff at Prentice-Hall of India have
been a great help and I sincerely thank them.
xvii
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Preface to the First Edition
Fluid Mechanics is a basic science that deals with the motion of fluids
such as gases and liquids and has long been considered as an essential part
of engineering education all over the world. This concise and condensed
book is intended for use by students and practising engineers to have
an overall view of the subject in a short span of time.
The entire spectrum of the subject is briefly covered in this book,
with the necessary explanations on every aspect. This approach is meant
to arouse the interest in the subject in the minds of the readers.
Fluid mechanics is often perceived as a difficult subject. However, in
my opinion, it is a simple subject, and an observant mind approaching
it with proper perspective should have no difficulty in understanding
it. For, the basic laws involved in any fluid flow analysis are just four:
conservation of mass, conservation of momentum, conservation of energy,
and the second law of thermodynamics.
The material covered in this book is so designed that any beginner
can follow it easily. The order of coverage followed is such as to enable
the reader to get a complete picture of the subject after having gone
through the material covered in the text.
Diagrams are used wherever necessary to elucidate the concepts, which
cannot be effectively explained otherwise. The examples given should be
of interest in understanding the concepts covered.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my Ph.D. students
K. Srinivasan, Ignatius John and Himanshu for their help and suggestions
while preparing the manuscript. Further, I wish to thank Prof. S.
Elangovan, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gurunanak Dev
Engineering College, Bidar, Karnataka, for his valuable suggestions.
The financial support given by the Continuing Education Centre of
the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, for the preparation of the
manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
xix
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Chapter 1
Some Basic Facts About

Fluid Mechanics
1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Fluid Mechanics is a science of fluid flow where the temperature changes
encountered are less than five per cent. This corresponds to speeds up to
650 kmph or Mach numbers up to 0.5, under standard sea level conditions.
Thus, for the study of fluid mechanics, among the four main governing
equations—continuity, momentum, energy equations and increase-of-entropy
principle—the energy equation assumes no significance. On the other hand,
when the temperature change associated with a flow is more than five per
cent, the flow science is termed gas dynamics, for which the energy equation
is of primary importance. Thus, fluid mechanics essentially deals with sub-
sonic flows up to Mach 0.5 and which is incompressible up to Mach 0.3 and
compressible from Mach 0.3 to 0.5.
Fluid Mechanics, the subject dealing with the investigation of the
motion and equilibrium of fluids, is one of the oldest branches of physics and
the foundation for the understanding of many other aspects of the applied
sciences and engineering. It is a subject of enormous interest in numerous
fields like biology, biomedicine, geophysics, meteorology, physical chemistry,
plasma physics, and almost all branches of engineering.
Nearly two hundred years ago, man thought of laying down scientific rules
governing the motion of fluids, water and air, mainly to use the rules to under-
stand these elements so that he could not only protect himself from their fury
during natural calamities like cyclone and floods but also utilize their pow-
ers to develop fields like civil engineering and naval architecture. In spite of
this common origin, two distinct schools of thought gradually developed. On
the one hand, through the concept of an ideal fluid, mathematical physicists
developed the theoretical science, known as classical hydrodynamics. On the
other hand, realizing that idealized theories were of no practical application
ISTUDY
2 CHAPTER 1. SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT FLUID MECHANICS
without empirical correction factors, engineers developed from experimental

studies the applied science known as hydraulics, for the specific fields of irri-
gation, water supply, river flow control, hydraulic power, and so on. Further,
the development of aeronautical, chemical and mechanical engineering during
the last few decades, and the exploration of space from 1960s have increased
the interest in the study of fluid mechanics. Thus, it now ranks as one of the
most important basic subjects in engineering science.
The science of Fluid Mechanics has been extended into fields like regimes
of hypervelocity flight and flow of electrically conducting fluids. This has
introduced new fields of interest such as hypersonic flow and magneto-fluid
dynamics. In this connection, it has become essential to combine the
knowledge of thermodynamics, heat transfer, mass transfer, electromagnetic
theory and fluid mechanics for the complete understanding of the physical
phenomenon involved in any flow process.
Fluid dynamics is one of the rapidly growing basic sciences whose principles
find application even in daily life. For instance, the flight of a bird in air and
the motion of fish in water are governed by the fluid dynamic rules. The
design of various types of aircraft and ships are based on the principles of
fluid dynamics. Even natural phenomena like tornadoes and hurricanes can
also be explained by the science of fluid dynamics. In fact, the science of
fluid dynamics dealing with such natural phenomena has been developed to
such an extent that they can be predicted well in advance. Since the earth is
surrounded by an environment of air and water to a very large extent, almost
everything that happens on earth and its atmosphere, in some way or the
other, is associated with the science of fluid dynamics.
This science is referred to as the Mechanics of Fluids, an allied subject
of the mechanics of solids and engineering materials, and is built on the same
fundamental laws of motion. Therefore, unlike empirical hydraulics it is based
on the physical principles, and has close correlation with experimental studies
which both complement and substantiate the fundamental analysis, unlike the
classical hydrodynamics which is based purely on mathematical treatment.
For understanding the fluid flows, it is essential to know the properties of
fluids. Before discussing the fluid properties, it will be useful if the differences
between solids and fluids are understood. From the basic studies on physics,
it is known that solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter. In
general, the liquids and gases are called fluids. It can be shown that this
division into solid and fluid states constitutes a natural grouping of matter
from the standpoint of internal stresses and strains in elastic media, that is, the
stress in a linear elastic solid is proportional to strain, while the stress in a fluid
is proportional to its time rate of strain. In fact, among fluids themselves, only
some fluids exhibit the above stated stress–strain relation, and they are called
newtonian fluids. The fluids which do not obey this stress–strain relation are
termed non-newtonian fluids. The above mentioned behaviour of solids and
fluids may also be expressed in a simpler way as follows:
ISTUDY
1.2. FLUIDS AND THE CONTINUUM 3
• When a force is applied to a solid, deformation will be produced in the

solid. If the force per unit area, namely the stress, is less than the yield
stress, i.e. within the proportional limit of the material, the deformation
disappears when the applied force is removed. If the applied stress is
more than the yield stress of the material, it will acquire a permanent
setting or may even break.
• If a shearing force is applied to a fluid, it will deform continuously as
long as the force is acting on it, regardless of the magnitude of the force.
This difference in behaviour between solids and liquids can be explained

by their molecular properties. The existence of very strong intermolecular
attractive forces in solids lends them rigidity. These forces are comparatively
weaker in liquids and extremely small in gases. This characteristic enables the
liquid molecules to move freely within a liquid mass while still maintaining
a close proximity to one another, whereas the gas molecules have freedom to
the extent of completely filling any space allotted to them.
The study of all the aspects of fluid behaviour can be divided into:
1. Statics: This study deals with fluid elements, at rest with respect to
one another and therefore is free of shearing stresses. The static pres-
sure distributions in a fluid and on bodies immersed in a fluid can be
determined from a static analysis.
2. Kinematics: This study deals with the translation, the rotation and
the rate of deformation motion of a fluid element and with the analy-
sis of flow patterns. However, the velocity and acceleration of the fluid
elements cannot be obtained from kinematic study alone, since the inter-
action of fluid elements with one another makes the fluid a distributed
medium.
3. Dynamic analysis: This study deals with the determination of the
effects of the fluid and its surroundings on the motion of the fluid. This
involves the consideration of forces acting on the fluid elements in motion
with respect to one another. Since there is relative motion between
fluid elements, shearing forces must be taken into consideration in the
dynamic analysis.
1.2 FLUIDS AND THE CONTINUUM

Fluid flows may be modelled either on a macroscopic level or on a micro-
scopic level. The macroscopic model regards the fluid as a continuum and
the description is in terms of the variations of the macroscopic velocity, den-
sity, pressure and temperature with distance and time. On the other hand,
the microscopic or molecular model recognizes the particulate structure of a
fluid as a myriad of discrete molecules and ideally provides information on
the position and velocity of every molecule at all times.
ISTUDY
The description of a fluid motion essentially involves a study of the

behaviour of all the discrete molecules which constitute the fluid. In liquids,
the strong intermolecular cohesive forces make the fluid behave as a continuous
mass of substance and, therefore, these forces need to be analyzed by the
molecular theory. Under normal conditions of pressures and temperatures,
even gases have a large number of molecules in unit volume (e.g. under normal
conditions, for most gases the molecular density is 2.7 × 1025 molecules per
m3 ) and, therefore, they also can be treated as a continuous mass of substance
by considering the average effects of all the molecules within the gas. Such a
fluid model is called continuum.
The continuum approach must be used only where it may yield reasonably
correct results. For instance, this approach breaks down when the mean free
path, the average distance travelled by the molecules between two successive
collisions, of the molecules is of the same order of magnitude as the smallest
significant length in the problem being investigated. Under such circumstances,
the detection of meaningful and gross manifestation of molecules is not possible.
The action of each molecule or a group of molecules is then of significance and
must be treated accordingly.
To understand this, it is essential to investigate the action of a gas on
an elemental area inside a closed container. Even if the quantity of gas is
assumed to be small, innumerable collisions of molecules on the surface result
in the gross, non-time-dependent manifestations of force. That is, the gas
acts like a continuous substance. On the other hand, if only a tiny amount of
gas is kept in the container so that the mean free path is of the same order of
magnitude as the sides of the area element, an erratic activity is experienced,
as individual or groups of molecules bombard the surface. This cannot be
treated as a constant force, but one must deal with an erratic force variation,
as shown graphically in Figure 1.1.
FIGURE 1.1 Force variation with time.
A continuous distribution of mass cannot exhibit this kind of variation.

Thus, it is seen that in the first case the continuum approach would be appli-
cable but in the second case the continuum approach would be questionable.
From Figure 1.1, it is clear that when the mean free path is large in compari-
son with some characteristic length, the gas cannot be considered continuous
ISTUDY
1.3. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 5
and hence must be analyzed on the molecular scale. The mean free path,
the statistical average distance which molecules travel between collisions, of
atmospheric air is between 50 nm and 70 nm. The other factor which influ-
ences the molecular activities of a gas is the elapsed time between collisions.
The elapsed time must be sufficiently small so that the random statistical
nature of the molecular activity is preserved.
This book deals only with continuous fluids. Further, it will be assumed
that the elastic properties are the same at all points in the fluid and are
identical in all directions from any specified point. These stipulations make
the fluid both homogeneous and isotropic.
1.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

In fluid dynamics, mostly the gross, measurable molecular manifestations
such as pressure and density as well as other equally important, measurable
abstract entities, e.g. length and time, will be dealt with. These manifesta-
tions which are characteristic of the behaviour of a particular fluid, and not of
the manner of flow, may be called fluid properties. Density and viscosity are
examples of fluid properties. In order to adequately discuss these properties, a
consistent set of standard units must be defined. Table 1.1 gives the common
systems of units and their symbols.
TABLE 1.1 Common systems of units

Quantity Unit SI CGS FPS MKS
Mass kilogram kg g lb kg
Length metre m cm ft m
Time second s s s s
Force newton N = kg·m/s2 dyne pdl kgf
◦ ◦ ◦
Temperature kelvin K C F C
Throughout this book we shall use the SI system of units. However, the
other systems of units as mentioned in Table 1.1 are equally applicable to all
the equations.
1.4 LAW OF DIMENSIONAL

HOMOGENEITY
This law states: “An analytically derived equation representing a physical
phenomenon must be valid for all systems of units”.√ Thus, the equation for
the frequency of a simple pendulum, f = (1/2π) g/l, is properly stated for
any system of units. This explains why all natural phenomena proceed com-
pletely in accordance with man-made units, and hence fundamental equations
representing such events should have validity for any system of units. Thus the
fundamental equations of physics are dimensionally homogeneous, and conse-
quently all relations derived from these equations must also be dimensionally
ISTUDY
homogeneous. For this to occur under all systems of units, it is necessary that
each grouping in an equation must have the same dimensional representation.
Examine the following dimensional representation of an equation:
L = T2 + T
where L denotes length and T the time. Changing the units of length from
feet to metres will change the value of the left-hand side while not affecting
the right-hand side, thus making the equation invalid in the new system of
units. Dimensionally homogeneous equations only will be considered in this
book.
1.5 THE PERFECT GAS: EQUATION

OF STATE
Gases are basically divided into two broad categories: perfect gases and real
gases.
Perfect gas is a gas in which the intermolecular forces are negligible.
Real gas is a gas where the intermolecular forces are important and must
be accounted for.
In this book, we are concerned only with the fluids which can be regarded
as perfect gases. For perfect gases, the kinetic theory of gases indicates that
there exists a simple relation between pressure, specific volume, and absolute
temperature. For a perfect gas at equilibrium, this relation has the following
form:
pv = RT (1.1)
Equation (1.1) is called the ideal gas equation of state or simply the ideal
gas relation, and a gas which obeys this relation is called an ideal gas. In
this equation p is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature, and
v is the specific volume. The gas constant R is different for each gas and is
determined from
Ru
R= [kJ/kg · K or kPa · m3 /kg · K]
M
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (also called
the molecular weight).
The constant Ru is same for all substances and its value is


 8.314 [kJ/kmol · K]



 8.314 [kPa · m3 /kmol · K]

0.08314 [bar · m3 /kmol · K]
Ru =

 1.986 [Btu/lbmol · R]



 10.73 [psia · ft3 /lbmol · R]

1545.00 [ft · lbf/lbmol · R]
ISTUDY
1.6. REGIMES OF FLUID MECHANICS 7
The molar mass M can be simply defined as the mass of one mole of
a substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol in kilograms. It is essential
to realize that an ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation
pv = RT . It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given
above closely approximates the p–v–T behaviour of real gases at low densities.
At low pressures and high temperatures, the density of a gas decreases, and
the gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.
In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such as air, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton and even heavier gases such
as carbon dioxide can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error (often less
than 1%). However, dense gases such as water vapour in steam power plants
and refrigerant vapour in refrigerators should not be treated as ideal gases.
Essentially, the perfect gases are those which have constant specific heats
and obey the perfect gas law
p
= pv = RT
ρ
This law relates the various gas properties at a particular state; it is known
as the equation of state and as property relation. Perfect gases are sometimes
called the ideal gases. One should not confuse a perfect (ideal) gas with an
ideal fluid.
An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which there is no friction;
it is inviscid (its viscosity is zero). Thus the internal forces at any section
within it are always normal to the section, even during motion. Therefore,
these forces are purely pressure forces. Although such a fluid does not exist in
reality, many fluids approximate frictionless flow at sufficient distances from
solid boundaries, and so we can often conveniently analyze their behaviour by
assuming them to be an ideal fluid.
In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or shearing forces always
develop whenever there is motion relative to a body, thus creating fluid fric-
tion, because these forces oppose the motion of one particle (molecule) past
another. These friction forces give rise to a fluid property called viscosity.
1.6 REGIMES OF FLUID MECHANICS

Based on the fluid properties which characterize the physical situation, the
flows are classified into various types as follows:
Ideal fluid flows

It is only an imaginary situation where the fluid is assumed to be inviscid
or non-viscous and incompressible. Therefore, there is no tangential force
between the adjacent fluid layers. An extensive mathematical theory is avail-
able for the ideal fluid. Although the theory of ideal fluids fails to account
for viscous and compressibility effects in actual fluid flow processes, it gives
ISTUDY
reasonably reliable results in the calculation of lift, induced drag and wave
motion for gas flow at low velocity and for water. This branch of fluid
dynamics is called classical hydrodynamics.
Viscous incompressible flows

The theory of viscous incompressible fluids assumes fluid density to be con-
stant. It finds widespread application in the flow of liquids and the flow of air
at low velocity. The phenomena involving viscous forces, flow separation and
eddy flows are studied with the help of this theory.
Gas dynamics
The theory of gas dynamics deals with the dynamics and thermodynamics of
the flow of a compressible fluid. Based on the dimensionless velocity, namely
Mach number M , defined as the ratio of flow velocity and the local speed of
sound, gas dynamics can be further divided into the fields of study commonly
referred to as subsonic (M < 1), transonic (M ≈ 1), supersonic (1 < M < 5),
and hypersonic (M > 5) gas dynamics.
Rarefied gas dynamics

The concept of continuum fails when the mean free paths of fluid molecules
are comparable with some characteristic geometrical length in the flow field.
A dimensionless parameter, the Knudsen number Kn, defined as the ratio
of mean free path to a characteristic length, aptly describes the degree of
departure from continuum flow. Based on the Knudsen number, the flow
regimes are grouped as follows:
Continuum (Kn < 0.01): All equations of viscous compressible flow are
applicable in this regime. The no-slip boundary condition is valid.
Slip flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.1): Here again the continuum fluid dynamic
analysis is applicable provided the slip boundary conditions are employed.
That is, the no-slip boundary condition of continuum flows, dictating zero
velocity at the surface of an object kept in the flow, is not valid. The fluid
molecules move (slip) with a finite velocity, called the slip velocity, at the
boundary.
Transition flow (0.10 < Kn < 5): In this regime of flow, the fluid
cannot be treated as continuum. At the same time, it cannot be treated
as a free molecular flow since such a flow demands the intermolecular force of
attraction to be negligible. Hence, it is a flow regime between continuum and
free molecular. The kinetic theory of gases must be employed to adequately
describe this flow.
Free molecular flow (Kn > 5): In this regime of flow the fluid molecules
are so widely dispersed that the intermolecular forces can be neglected.
All these regimes of rarefied gas dynamics or super aerodynamics are
encountered at high altitudes, where the molecular density is very low. This
branch of fluid flow is also called the low-density flow.
ISTUDY
1.7. FLUID STATICS 9
Magnetofluidmechanics
The subject of magnetofluidmechanics is an extension of fluid mechanics
with thermodynamics, mechanics, materials and the electrical sciences. This
branch was initiated by astrophysicists. The other names which are used to
refer to this discipline are magnetohydrodynamics, magnetogasdynamics and
hydromagnetics.
Magnetofluidmechanics is the study of the motion of an electrically charged
conducting fluid in the presence of a magnetic field. The motion of the elec-
trically conducting fluid in the magnetic field will induce electric currents in
the fluid, thereby modifying the field. The flow field will also be modified by
the mechanical forces produced by it. The interaction between the field and
the motion makes magnetofluiddynamic analysis difficult.
A gas at normal and moderately high temperatures is a nonconductor. But
at very high temperatures of the order of 10,000 K and above, thermal excita-
tion sets in. This leads to dissociation and ionization. Ionized gas is called a
plasma, which is an electrically conducting medium. Electrically conducting
fluids are encountered in engineering problems like re-entry of missiles and
spacecraft, plasma jet, controlled fusion research and magnetohydrodynamic
generator.
Flow of multicomponent mixtures

This field is simply an extension of basic fluid mechanics. The analysis of
flow of the homogeneous fluid consisting of a single species, termed basic fluid
mechanics, is extended to study the flow of chemically reacting component
mixtures, made of more than one species. All the three transports, namely
the momentum transport, the energy transport, and the mass transport, are
considered in this study, unlike the basic fluid mechanics where only the trans-
ports of momentum and energy are considered.
Non-newtonian fluid flow

Fluids for which the stress is not proportional to time rate of strain are called
non-newtonianf luids. Such fluids show a nonlinear dependence of shearing
stress on velocity gradient. Examples of non-newtonian fluids are: honey,
printers’ ink, paste, and tar.
1.7 FLUID STATICS

1.7.1 Scalar, Vector, and Tensor Quantities
Before entering the field of fluid mechanics, it will be useful to classify certain
types of quantities which are essential for the study of the subject. Some of
the very useful quantities necessary for the study of fluid mechanics are scalar,
vector, and tensor quantities.
ISTUDY
Scalar quantities require only a magnitude to be specified for a complete

description. For example, temperature is a scalar quantity.
Vector quantities require, in addition to magnitude, a complete direc-
tional specification for their description. Usually three values associated with
orthogonal directions are used to specify a vector. These quantities are called
scalar components of a vector. For example, velocity is a vector quantity.
T ensors require the specification of nine or more scalar components for a
complete description. For example, stress, strain, and mass moment of inertia
are tensor quantities.
A field is a continuous distribution of a scalar, vector, or a tensor quantity
described by continuous functions of space coordinates and time. For example,
the scalar quantity temperature at all points in a field may be expressed
mathematically as T (x, y, z, t). In a similar fashion, a vector field like velocity
may also be described mathematically as V (x, y, z, t). However, normally
three scalar fields are employed to designate a vector field. Thus, the velocity
field may be expressed as
Vx = f (x, y, z, t)
Vy = g(x, y, z, t) (1.2)
Vz = h(x, y, z, t)
where Vx , Vy , Vz are the velocity components along x, y, and z directions,

respectively. Likewise, the tensor fields may be designated mathematically by
employing nine or more scalar fields.
1.7.2 Body and Surface Forces

The forces we come across in continuum fluid mechanics may broadly be
divided into body forces and surface forces. All external forces acting on
any material, which are developed without physical contact, are called body
forces. Gravitational force, the effect of the earth on a mass manifesting itself
as a force distribution throughout the material, directed towards the earth’s
centre, is a body force. Body forces are usually expressed per unit mass of
the material acted on. All forces exerted on a boundary by its surroundings
through direct contact are termed surface forces, e.g. pressure.
1.7.3 Forces in Stationary Fluids

Consider an infinitesimal prismatic element in a stationary fluid, as shown in
Figure 1.2. The triangular prismatic element considered has dimensions of δx,
unity and δz along x, y, and z directions, respectively. The force of gravity
is assumed to be the only body force acting on the fluid element. There are
no shear forces acting on the element, since a fluid element cannot withstand
a shear stress, a stationary fluid must necessarily be completely free of shear
stress.
ISTUDY
FIGURE 1.2 A stationary fluid element.
The pressures acting at the faces are shown as px , pz and pn . The pressure
may be defined as “the force per unit area which acts normal to the surface of
any object which is immersed in a fluid”. For equilibrium, the net force acting
on the fluid element along the x and z directions must be zero. Therefore,
δz
px (δz · 1) − pn sin θ = 0 (1.3)
sin θ
δx 1
pz (δx · 1) − pn cos θ − (δxδz · 1)ρg = 0 (1.4)
cos θ 2
Now, letting the size of the element to shrink to zero, we see from Eqs. (1.3)
and (1.4) that
px = pn = pz ≡ p (1.5)
That is, the pressure in a stationary fluid is equal in all directions.
Pressure force on a fluid element

Consider a small fluid element of length δx, δy and δz along x, y and z direc-
tions, respectively, in a stationary fluid, as shown in Figure 1.3. The corner
of the fluid element close to the origin is taken as the position (x, y, z).
FIGURE 1.3 Pressure force on a fluid element.
ISTUDY
The pressure force acting on the fluid element along the x-direction is
given by
( )
∂p ∂p
dFp,x = p(δyδz) − p + δx (δyδz) = − (δxδyδz) (1.6)
∂x ∂x
Similarly, the pressure force acting on the fluid element along the y and z
directions can be expressed as
∂p
dFp,y = − (δxδyδz) (1.7)
∂y
and
∂p
dFp,z = − (δxδyδz) (1.8)
∂z
respectively. Combining the pressure force components given by Eqs. (1.6)–
(1.8), the net pressure force acting on the fluid element can be written as
( )
∂p ∂p ∂p
dFp = − i+ j+ k (δxδyδz) (1.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where i, j, and k are the unit vectors along x, y, and z directions, respectively.
Then the net force per unit volume is
( )
dFp ∂p ∂p ∂p
=f =− i+ j+ k (1.10)
dx dy dz ∂x ∂y ∂z
If cylindrical coordinates rather than Cartesian coordinates were used, f in
Eq. (1.10) would have taken a form different from the one given above. How-
ever, all such formulations have identically the same physical meaning which
is independent of the coordinate system used for evaluation purposes. Hence,
Eq. (1.10) can also be written as
f = −grad p (1.11)
or
f = −∇p (1.11a)
where the operator ∇ is called the gradient operator and has a form dependent
on the coordinate system used. For Cartesian coordinates,
∂ ∂ ∂
grad ≡ i +j +k (1.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1.7.4 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

Consider the element of sides δx, δy, and δz of a stationary fluid, as shown
in Figure 1.4. It is at rest under the action of pressure forces and the gravity
force. The pressure force acting on it is obtained from Eq. (1.9) as
ISTUDY
FIGURE 1.4 Fluid element at equilibrium.
( )
∂p ∂p ∂p
dFp = − i+ j+ k (δxδyδz) = −(∇p)δV (1.13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where δV = δxδyδz is the volume of the fluid element. The gravity force
acting on the element is
dFg = ρgδV (1.14)
For equilibrium, from Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14), we have
−∇p + ρg = 0
or
∇p = ρg (1.15)
Equation (1.15) is the basic equation of fluid statics.
If g is taken as acting in the negative z-direction, i.e. g = – gk, the three
components of Eq. (1.15) will then be
∂p
=0 (1.16)
∂x
∂p
=0 (1.16a)
∂y
∂p
= − ρg (1.16b)
∂z
From Eqs. (1.16), (1.16a) and (1.16b), it is seen that pressure in a stationary
fluid can vary only in the z-direction, which has been selected as the direction
of gravity. In other words, the pressure in a stationary fluid varies only in the
vertical direction, and is constant in any horizontal plane. At this stage, it is
important to note that in the preceding formulations it is assumed that the
free surface of a liquid at rest (or the interface between a liquid and a gas or
between two immiscible liquids) is at right angles to the direction of gravity.
ISTUDY
Hydrostatic pressure distribution

Using the ordinary derivative and realizing that the pressure varies only in
the z-direction and is not a function of x and y, Eq. (1.16b) may be expressed
as
dp
= − ρg (1.17)
dz
For incompressible fluids, i.e. for fluids with constant density ρ, Eq. (1.17)
can be integrated between any desired limits to evaluate the pressure distri-
bution in the static fluid under consideration. Choosing the subscript “0” to
represent conditions at the free surface, integrate Eq. (1.17) from any position
z, where the pressure is p, to position z0 , where the pressure is atmospheric
and denoted as patm . Thus, we have
∫ z0 ∫ patm
−ρg dz = dp
z p
Since ρ and g are constants, the above equation readily gets integrated to
yield
patm − p = −ρg(z0 − z)
or
p = patm + ρg(z0 − z) (1.18)
From Eq. (1.18) it is seen that, in stationary fluids, the pressure increases
linearly with depth (negative z). This linear pressure distribution is called
the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Usually the term (p – patm ), i.e. the pressure above the atmospheric
pressure, is known as the gauge pressure, and is denoted by pg . So,
pg = ρg(z0 − z)
where (z0 − z) in the above equation is the depth h below the free surface.
Therefore,
pg = ρgh (1.19)
In all engineering flow problems the p to be measured by pressure gauges are
above or below that of atmosphere. Therefore, in engineering work the gauge
pressure pg can be negative, with a maximum possible negative value equal
to –patm .
The hydrostatic pressure distribution, given by Eq. (1.18), holds for mov-
ing fluids as well, provided there is no acceleration in the direction normal to
the flow. This finds a very good application in manometry.
EXAMPLE 1.1 A water-in-glass manometer is connected to two vessels

A and B at pressures 100 kPa and 10 kPa, as shown in Figure 1.5. Calculate
the water column height h.
ISTUDY
FIGURE 1.5 Manometer under differential pressure.
Solution For pressure balance,
pA = 10 kPa + ρgh
∴ ρgh = pA − 10 kPa
= (100 − 10) kPa (∵ pA = 100 kPa)
= 90 × 103 Pa
90 × 103
∴ h= = 9.174 m
103 × 9.81
EXAMPLE 1.2 In Figure 1.6, if the pressure pA = 10 kPa, find pB . Take

ρHg = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3 .
FIGURE 1.6 A mercury manometer reading pressures

(all dimensions in mm).
ISTUDY
Solution For equilibrium of mercury, as shown in Figure 1.6
pM = pN + ρHg ghHg
pM = pA = 10 kPa
∴ pN = (10 × 103 − 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 30 × 10−3 ) Pa
= 5.998 kPa
i.e. pB = pN = 5.998 kPa
1.7.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces

Consider a two-dimensional curved plate submerged in a stationary incom-
pressible fluid, as shown in Figure 1.7. Examine the upper surface. The
pressure force acting on the elemental area dA is –p dA (i.e. inwards). By
Eq. (1.18), the pressure p is
p = patm + ρgh
In terms of gauge pressure,

pg = ρgh
FIGURE 1.7 Forces on a submerged body.
Therefore, the force acting on the elemental area dA is
dF = −ρgh dA (1.20)
The total force F acting on the upper surface of the plate, is obtained by
integrating dF over the area as
∫∫
F = −ρg h dA (1.21)
Area
ISTUDY
Equation (1.21) gives the resultant force acting at the upper surface of the
plate due to the gauge pressure.
The vertical component of the resultant force is given by
∫∫ ∫∫
Fz = −ρg h(k · dA) = −ρg h dAz (1.22)
Area Area
where k is the unit vector along the vertical direction and dAz is the projected
area in the vertical direction. But hdAz is the volume dV of the fluid prism
that stands vertically on the area element dA. Therefore,
Fz = −ρgV (1.23)
The negative sign in Eq. (1.23) shows that Fz acts downwards. For thin
plates, the vertical force on the bottom surface is also the same as Fz given by
Eq. (1.23), except that it acts upwards. Similarly, the horizontal component
of the force is given by
∫∫ ∫∫
Fx = −ρg h(i · dA) = ρg h dAx (1.24)
Area Area
where i is the unit vector along the x-direction and dAx is the area projected
on the x-direction. Thus, the horizontal and vertical forces on curved surfaces
are simply estimated with the projected area of the surfaces in the respective
directions.
Buoyancy
The buoyant force on a body is defined as the vertical force due to the fluid or
fluids in contact with the body. A body in floatation is in contact only with
fluids, and the surface force from the fluids is in equilibrium with the force of
gravity on the body.
Consider a three-dimensional body completely submerged in a fluid of
density ρ, as shown in Figure 1.8. The downward force, due to fluid acting
on the upper surface of the body, by Eq. (1.23), is ρgV1 , where V1 is the
volume of fluid prism that stands on the upper surface and extends to the
fluid level. Similarly, the upward force due to fluid acting on the lower surface
is ρgV2 , where V2 is the sum of the volume V1 and the volume of the body.
The net upward force, due to fluid, acting on the body, termed buoyancy, is
given by
FB = ρg(V2 − V1 ) (1.25)
where (V2 − V1 ) is the volume of the body Vs and, therefore, the buoyant
force becomes
FB = ρgVs (1.26)
ISTUDY
FIGURE 1.8 A body experiencing buoyancy.
Equation (1.26) is the mathematical form of the law of buoyancy due to

Archimedes which states that “a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoy-
ant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it”. From Eq. (1.26) it
is also seen that, when ρ is constant, the buoyancy force does not depend on
the depth of submergence.
EXAMPLE 1.3 Compute the magnitude, the direction, and the point of
action of the resultant pressure force, due to water, acting on the parabolic
dam section of width 10 m, as shown in Figure 1.9.
FIGURE 1.9 Parabolic profile of a dam.
Solution The equation of the parabolic profile of the dam is x2 = 10z. The
horizontal component Fx of force by Eq. (1.24), is
∫∫
Fx = ρg h dAx
∫∫
= ρg (90 − z)dAx
ISTUDY
∫ 90∫ 10
= ρg (90 − z) dzdy
0 0
[ ]90
z2
= ρg 90z − [y]10
0
2 0
( )
90 × 90
= 10 × 9.81 90 × 90 −
3
(10)
2
= 397.305 MN
Similarly, the vertical component Fz of the force, using Eq. (1.22), is de-
termined to be Fz = –176.58 MN acting downwards. The resultant force is,
therefore, given by
√
F = Fx2 + Fz2 = 434.8 MN
The resultant force is inclined to the vertical at an angle θ, which is given by
( )
−1 Fx
θ = tan = 66◦ 2′ 15′′
Fz
The point of action of the resultant force is obtained as follows:

x-location:
∫ ( ∫ 30∫ )
10
x2
xf Fz = x dFz = ρg 90 − x dx dy
0 0 10
[ ]30
x2 x4
= 10 × 9.81 90 −
3
[y]10
0
2 40 0
= 0.1986525 × 1010 N·m
0.1986525 × 1010
∴ xf = = 11.25 m from the z-axis
0.017658 × 1010
z-location:
∫ ∫ 90∫ 10
zf Fx = z dFx = ρg (90 − z)z dz dy
0 0
= 1.191915 × 1010 N·m
1.191915 × 1010
∴ zf = = 30 m above the x-axis
0.0397305 × 1010
y-location:
yf = 5 m from the x-z plane because of symmetry.
ISTUDY
EXAMPLE 1.4 Calculate the force exerted by a water jet of 10 mm

diameter and velocity 10 m/s which strikes a flat plate at an angle of 45◦
to the jet axis.
Solution From Figure 1.10 it is seen that the momentum of the given jet
has to be balanced by the force F acting on the flat plate to keep the plate
in equilibrium. For equilibrium,
FIGURE 1.10 Water jet striking a plate.
Fx = momentum of the jet in the x-direction

= (ρAV1 )V1
[ ( )2 ]
π 10
= 10 ×
3
× 10 × 10
4 1000
π
= × 10 = 7.85 N
4
Also,
Fx = F cos 45◦
Therefore,
F = 11.10 N
EXAMPLE 1.5 The cylindrical gate of mass 1000 kg, shown in Figure 1.11,
is 2.5 m long and is hinged at O. What is the torque necessary to hold the
gate in position?
Solution The projected area of the gate in the x-direction is Ax =

(2 × 2.5) m2 = 5 m2 . The projected area of the gate in the z-direction is
Az = (2 × 2.5) m2 = 5 m2 . The fluid pressure acting on the gate in the
x-direction is
px = ρg(1) N/m2
ISTUDY
FIGURE 1.11 A hinged gate.
Therefore, the force Fx = px × Ax = 5ρg N. The moment due to Fx about O

is
10ρg
Mx,O = 5ρg(2/3) = N·m (clockwise)
3
The force due to the fluid on the gate in the z-direction is Fz = ρgV, where V
is the volume of the fluid displaced by the presence of the gate which is equal
to one-fourth of the volume of gate. Fz is the buoyant force and thus given
by
π × 22 × 2.5
Fz = ρg = 2.5πρg N
4
The moment due to Fz about O is
4 20
Mz,O = (2.5πρg) (2) = ρg N·m (clockwise)
3π 3
Therefore, the torque necessary to hold the gate in position is equal to
(Mx,O + Mz,O )counterclockwise = 98.1 kN.m (counterclockwise)
EXAMPLE 1.6 Find the free-fall velocity of a sphere of diameter 200 mm

and weight 5 N, falling through air at sea level state.
Solution Given, d = 0.2 m, W = 5 N. For air at sea level state,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
In free-fall, the weight of the sphere is balanced by the buoyant force FB and
the drag force FD . Thus
∑
Fz = W − FB − FD = 0
where z is the normal direction.

(a) The buoyant and drag forces are given by
FB = ρ V g
( 3)
πd
=ρ× ×g
6
ISTUDY
( )
π × 0.23
= 1.225 × × 9.81
6
= 0.0503 N
1
FD = ρV 2 SCD
2
where
S = πr2
= π × 0.12
= 0.0314 m2
Therefore,
( )
1
5 − 0.0503 − × 1.225 × 0.0314 × V 2 CD =0
2
5 − 0.0503 − 0.0192 V 2 CD = 0
V 2 CD = 257.8
This has to be solved by trial and error, by assuming a value for CD . Using
the velocity obtianed, the drag coefficient for the Reynolds number for this
velocity has to be checked with the Moody’s chart.
Let us assume the drag coefficient to be 0.2. Thus
√
257.8
V =
0.2
= 35.9 m/s
For this velocity,
ρV d
Re =
µ
For sea level air,
288.153/2
µ = 1.46 × 10−6 ×
288.15 + 111
= 1.789 × 10−5 kg/(m s)
Therefore,
1.225 × 35.9 × 0.2
Re =
1.789 × 10−5
= 4.92 × 105
For this Reynoldy’s number, from Moody’s chart, CD ≈ 0.2. Therefore, the
velocity is
V ≈ 36 m/s
ISTUDY
1.7.6 Pressure Variation with Elevation for a Static

Compressible Fluid
The hydrostatic pressure distribution Eq. (1.18) relates the pressure, the
specific weight ρg, and the elevation. For compressible fluids, ρ is a variable
and cannot be treated as a constant. For the discussion of pressure variation
with elevation, let us assume a perfect gas medium like air. Air or most of
its components behave like a perfect gas for relatively large ranges of pressure
and temperature. In general, the density of air is a function of pressure and
temperature. For a perfect gas, the equation of state relating the density to
pressure and temperature is
p = ρRT (1.27)
where R is a constant which is a characteristic of the gas. The variation of

pressure in the z-direction, given by Eq. (1.17), is
dp = −ρg dz
Eliminating ρ in the preceding equation, by using Eq. (1.27), we get
dp g
=− dz (1.28)
p RT
The pressure variation with elevation can be determined by solving Eq. (1.28)
provided the temperature and elevation relation is known. Let us solve
Eq. (1.28) for the specific field, namely, atmosphere. Here the elevation is
altitude, Therefore, to solve Eq. (1.28), the temperature and altitude relation
must be known.
To illustrate the application of Eq. (1.28) to get the pressure variation
with elevation, we consider below the troposphere and the stratosphere of the
earth’s atmosphere.
The troposphere
The layer of air above the earth’s surface up to 11 km altitude is called the
troposphere. The temperature–altitude variation in the troposphere has been
found to be linear and may be expressed as
T = T0 − λz (1.29)
where T0 = 288 K is the standard sea-level temperature and λ is known as

the lapse rate. In the international standard atmosphere, the lapse rate is
assigned a value of 6.5 K/km.
Substituting for dz from Eq. (1.29) into Eq. (1.28), we get
dp g dT
= (1.30)
p Rλ T
ISTUDY
Integrating Eq. (1.30), we get

g
ln p = ln T + const. (1.31)
Rλ
The integration constant in this equation can be evaluated as follows: At sea
level, p = p0 and T = T0 . Using these values in Eq. (1.31), we get
g
const. = ln p0 − ln T0
Rλ
Therefore, Eq. (1.31) becomes
( )
p g T g λz
ln = ln = ln 1 − (1.32)
p0 Rλ T0 Rλ T0
Equation (1.32) may also be written as

( )g/Rλ
p λz
= 1− (1.32a)
p0 T0
Combining Eqs. (1.27) and (1.32a), the density–altitude relation for a
perfect gas can be written as
( )(g/Rλ)−1
ρ λz
= 1− (1.33)
ρ0 T0
From Eqs. (1.32a) and (1.33), the relation between pressure and density
is obtained as ( )1−(Rλ/g)
ρ p
= (1.34)
ρ0 p0
The stratosphere
The layer of air between 11 km and 20 km above the earth’s surface is
known as the stratosphere. The temperature in the stratosphere is approxi-
mately constant at –56◦ C. Now, let the temperature in the stratosphere be T1 .
Equation (1.28) for this isothermal zone can be written as
dp g
=− dz (1.35)
p RT1
Integration of Eq. (1.35) results in

p
= exp[−(g/RT1 )(z − z1 )] (1.36)
p1
where p1 is the pressure at altitude z1 . From Eq. (1.27), we have

p
ρ=
RT1
ISTUDY
1.8. SUMMARY 25
Therefore, the density ratio can be expressed as

ρ p
= = exp[−(g/RT1 )(z − z1 )] (1.37)
ρ1 p1
In the above discussion, the acceleration due to gravity g was assumed to be a
constant. Actually, it varies inversely with the square of the distance from the
centre of the earth. However, the error due to this assumption is insignificant.
1.8 SUMMARY
The forces we come across in continuum fluid mechanics may broadly be
divided into body forces and surfaces forces. All external forces acting on
any material, which are developed without physical contact, are called body
forces. Gravitational force, the effect of the earth on a mass manifesting itself
as a force distribution throughout the material, directed towards the earth’s
centre, is a body force. Body forces are usually expressed per unit mass of
the material acted on. All forces exerted on a boundary by its surroundings
through direct contact are termed surface forces, e.g. pressure.
For a fluid at rest the pressure on a surface must act in the direction
perpendicular to that surface. In other words, the pressure acting at a point
in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascal’s
principle.
The pressure in a stationary fluid varies only in the vertical direction, and
is constant in any horizontal plane.
p = patm + ρ g (z0 − z)
From this equation it is seen that, in stationary fluids, the pressure increases
linearly with depth (negative z). This linear pressure distribution is called
the hydrostatic pressure distribution. Usually, the term (p − patm ), i.e. the
pressure above atmospheric pressure, is known as the gauge pressure, and is
denoted by pg . So,
pg = ρg(z0 − z)
where (z0 − z) in the above equation is the depth h below the free surface.
1.9 PROBLEMS
1.1 What is the pressure difference between the points A and B in the tanks
shown in Figure P1.1?
ISTUDY
FIGURE P1.1
[Ans. pA − pB = ρHg gh1 − (h2 + h3 ) ρH2 O g]

1.2 Determine the pressure at a depth of 10 km below the surface of a sea.
Take the average specific gravity of water to be 1.3.
[Ans. 1.2763 × 108 Pa(abs)]
1.3 Determine the pressure at the point A in the tank shown in Figure P1.3.
FIGURE P1.3
[Ans. 119.5716 kPa]

1.4 Consider a U–tube and a funnel arrangement shown in Figure P1.4.
Mercury is poured into the funnel to trap the air in the tube. The tube has
10 mm inside diameter and 1 m total length. Assuming that the trapped
air is compressed isothermally, determine h at which the funnel will begin to
overflow.
ISTUDY
1.9. PROBLEMS 27
FIGURE P1.4
[Ans. 0.3942 m]
1.5 Find the total force on door AB, shown in Figure P1.5, and the
moment of this force about the bottom of the door. The width of the door is
2 m.
FIGURE P1.5
[Ans. 2601612 N, 2601612 N·m]
1.6 A rectangular plate ABC, shown in Figure P1.6, can rotate about the
hinge B. Determine the length l of BC for which there is no torque about B
due to water weight and pressure. The plate weight is 500 N/m. The width
of the plate is 2 m.
[Ans. 4.86 m]
ISTUDY
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Title: Les mémoires d'un valet de pied
Author: William Makepeace Thackeray
Translator: William L. Hughes
Release date: February 18, 2024 [eBook #72982]
Language: French
Original publication: France: A. Bourdilliat et Cie, 1859
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LES MÉMOIRES

D'UN VALET DE PIED ***
WILLIAM M. THACKERAY
LES MÉMOIRES
D’UN
VALET DE PIED
Traduits par
WILLIAM L. HUGHES
PARIS
LIBRAIRIE NOUVELLE
BOULEVARD DES ITALIENS, 15.
A. BOURDILLIAT ET Cie, ÉDITEURS
La reproduction est réservée.
1859
Paris. — Imp. de la Librairie Nouvelle, A. Bourdilliat, 15, rue Breda.
A
AUGUSTE LACAUSSADE
En souvenir
D’UNE AMITIÉ DÉJÀ ANCIENNE
Le traducteur,
WILLIAM L. HUGHES.
PRÉFACE
« Comment pourrait-on craindre que l’aristocratie vienne jamais à

périr dans un pays où on adore cette admirable institution, où
l’aumônier d’un lord, le précepteur qui a le bonheur d’élever un fils
de lord, et jusqu’au tailleur d’un lord, sont si flattés de cette affinité
temporaire, qu’ils se montrent plus aristocrates que milord lui-
même ? »
Ainsi parle un écrivain anglais dans un récent volume d’agréables
causeries [1] . Cette tendance de ses compatriotes à se jeter à plat
ventre devant quiconque porte un titre, ne pouvait échapper à
l’esprit observateur de M. Thackeray. Un pareil travers ne devait
guère non plus manquer d’éveiller la verve caustique du célèbre
romancier ; c’est pour le combattre qu’il a écrit les pages si
amusantes et si dramatiques à la fois des Yellowplush Papers. Les
Mémoires d’un Valet de pied sont, sinon le premier écrit, du moins le
premier ouvrage de longue haleine de l’auteur de la Foire aux
Vanités. Ils ont paru pour la première fois dans Fraser’s Magazine en
1836, et ont été réimprimés plusieurs fois depuis. Certes, les
confessions de l’ami John ne sont pas un des romans les moins
remarquables de M. Thackeray ; si elles n’ont pas été traduites
depuis longtemps, c’est que l’auteur, sans doute par amour pour la
couleur locale, a eu la bizarre idée de donner à son héros une
orthographe de domestique, bien faite pour dérouter le lecteur
étranger.
[1] J.-H. Boyes : Life and books. London, 1859.
Nulle part l’auteur ne s’est livré avec autant d’abandon à sa verve

satirique. Et pourtant ce n’est pas une caricature qu’il a tracée. Il ne
manque pas de gens en Angleterre, même en dehors de la classe si
estimable des laquais de profession, pour mépriser l’honnête
industrie de M. Frédéric Altamont, et pour s’incliner devant
l’honorable Percy Cinqpoints ou le très-honorable comte de Crabs,
qui, s’ils portaient un nom roturier, passeraient tout bonnement pour
des chevaliers d’industrie. Nous nous rappelons avoir rencontré sur
un champ de course anglais un petit monsieur que, dans notre
ignorance, nous prenions pour un palefrenier mal élevé, bien que
chacun s’empressât de le saluer : ce gentilhomme avait la réputation
de tricher au jeu ; mais c’était le fils d’un lord. Un jour un boutiquier
de Dublin, après s’être vanté de compter au nombre de ses
pratiques le parent d’un grand seigneur, se plaignait devant nous de
ne pouvoir arriver à toucher le montant de sa note. « Pourquoi lui
avoir ouvert un si fort crédit ? » demanda quelqu’un. « Oh ! vous
comprenez, je ne pouvais pas refuser… c’est le neveu de lord X… »
répliqua le marchand.
Du reste, si de l’autre côté de la Manche le commun des mortels
adore la noblesse, la noblesse s’empresse de rendre la pareille aux
plus ignobles des parvenus, dès que ces derniers sont arrivés à la
fortune. Voyez Jeames’ Diary, cette autre satire aristophanesque de
Thackeray contre le culte du veau d’or. — Voyez l’histoire de M.
Merdle, dans la Petite Dorrit de Charles Dickens. Romans que tout
cela, direz-vous. Oui, mais ce sont des romans d’après nature.
Thackeray et Dickens ne sont pas des conteurs ordinaires. Tous deux
pourraient dire, comme Fielding, le père de Tom Jones : « La seule
différence qu’il y ait entre les historiens et moi, c’est que tout ce que
ceux-ci racontent est faux, hormis les dates et les noms propres,
tandis que, dans mes ouvrages, tout est vrai hormis ces deux
choses. » Si M. Thackeray nous montre un banquier offrant la main
de sa fille aînée à un laquais enrichi par les jeux de Bourse, c’est
qu’il a eu sous les yeux l’exemple d’un grand seigneur devenant le
beau-père d’une espèce de sauvage millionnaire, moitié anglais,
moitié indien, qu’il n’a pas tardé à vouloir enfermer dans une maison
de fous, et qui est venu mourir à Paris de cette horrible maladie
qu’on nomme delirium tremens. Maintenant, tous les romans du
monde guériront-ils jamais un peuple du culte de l’aristocratie ou de
l’adoration du veau d’or ? Renverseront-ils les abus du fameux
ministère des circonlutions ? Il est permis d’en douter. Il y a
longtemps que William Cowper, ce poëte que M. Sainte-Beuve a été
le premier à faire connaître en France, écrivait : « Je ne sache pas
qu’on ait jamais disséqué l’œil d’un noble. Je ne puis néanmoins
m’empêcher de croire que si on examinait avec soin cet organe, tel
qu’il existe dans la tête d’un personnage de cette classe, on
trouverait qu’il diffère matériellement, dans sa construction, de l’œil
d’un roturier ; — tant deux hommes, selon la position élevée ou
humble qu’ils occupent, envisagent le même objet d’une façon
opposée ! Ce qui nous paraît grand, sublime, beau et important, à
vous et à moi, dès qu’on le soumet à milord et à Sa Grâce (et cela
avec toute l’humilité possible) devient ou trop microscopique pour
qu’ils puissent l’apercevoir, ou trop trivial pour qu’ils daignent s’en
occuper, si par hasard ils le voient. Ma supposition ne semble donc
pas tout à fait chimérique [2] . »
[2] Lettre à W. Unwin, mars 1785.
Aucun naturaliste n’a jugé à propos de se livrer à l’examen

réclamé par Cowper ; mais quant au phénomène qu’il signale, il n’a
pas changé.
On a reproché à Thackeray d’être un écrivain misanthrope ; mais
le reproche ne nous paraît pas fondé. Nous sommes de l’avis de
l’auteur de Jane Eyre, lorsqu’elle dit : « Il y a chez ce formidable
Thackeray beaucoup de sentiment, qu’il cache avec soin, mais qui
n’en est pas moins sincère et qui transforme en élixir purifiant ce qui
autrement aurait pu devenir un poison corrosif. Si son grand cœur
ne renfermait pas une profonde sympathie pour ses semblables, il se
plairait à les exterminer ; loin de là il ne cherche qu’à les réformer. »
En effet, il aime à démasquer l’hypocrisie, à montrer l’égoïsme qui
affecte la bonté, l’orgueil prenant le masque de l’humilité, la
bonhomie qui a étudié ses effets comme devant un miroir. Si les
personnages de Thackeray pouvaient se reconnaître, ils ne
trembleraient jamais davantage que lorsque leur biographe leur
attribue ce qui ressemble à un bon sentiment — tel, par exemple,
que la vertueuse indignation qu’inspirent au héros de ces Mémoires
les escroqueries de son maître… lorsque ce dernier est tombé dans
le besoin.
Mais nous ne songions pas le moins du monde, en prenant la
plume, à entamer une dissertation sur l’utilité du roman en général
ou sur la tendance morale de ceux de M. Thackeray en particulier.
Peut-être les Mémoires d’un Valet de pied renfermeront-ils une leçon
pour quelques lecteurs ; — mais, à coup sûr, ils n’ennuieront
personne… Ils ont même amusé le traducteur durant sa tâche, et
nous croyons que c’est là une recommandation assez rare pour
mériter d’être signalée.
Pour terminer cette causerie (nous n’osons dire cette préface)
comme nous avions l’intention de la commencer, voici une courte
notice sur l’auteur de ce merle blanc des romans, — un roman qui
n’a pas ennuyé le traître chargé de le faire connaître au lecteur
Français.
William Makepeace Thackeray est né à Calcutta en 1811. Son
père occupait une position élevée parmi les employés civils de la
compagnie des Indes orientales. Après avoir terminé ses études à
l’université de Cambridge, le futur romancier commença son droit ;
mais la facilité avec laquelle il dessinait lui fit croire qu’il avait une
vocation pour les beaux-arts et le décida à courir les musées de
l’Europe. S’il n’est pas devenu un grand peintre, ainsi qu’il s’y
attendait, il a conservé ou acquis un joli talent qui lui permet
d’illustrer ses ouvrages de dessins qui ne jurent pas trop avec le
texte. Son beau-père ayant fondé à Londres un journal intitulé The
Constitutional, Thackeray débuta dans la carrière des lettres en
devenant à vingt-trois ou vingt-quatre ans le correspondant parisien
de cette feuille, qui ne réussit pas et absorba en grande partie la
fortune de son fondateur. Le correspondant sans journal retourna à
Londres. Il avait perdu de son côté une vingtaine de mille francs de
rente dont il avait hérité à sa majorité. Il travailla avec courage pour
les journaux et les magazines, pour le Times, pour Fraser’s, où il
écrivit sous le pseudonyme de Michel-Ange Titmarsh ; pour Punch,
où il signait Le gros collaborateur. Raconter ses mécomptes, ses
épreuves littéraires, ce serait répéter l’histoire de la plupart de ses
confrères. Çà et là quelque critique perspicace, comme John Sterling
par exemple, prédisait qu’il y avait dans l’auteur du Diamant de
famille l’étoffe d’un grand écrivain ; mais le futur rival de Dickens
restait dans l’ombre, malgré le mérite de ses articles qui ne
contribuèrent pas peu à la vogue des feuilles où ils ont paru pour la
première fois. En 1846, la Foire aux Vanités, roman sans héros, fut
présentée, dit-on, au directeur d’un magazine, qui eut l’adresse de
refuser cet ouvrage destiné à un si grand succès. Le romancier se
décida alors à imiter l’exemple de Charles Dickens et à publier son
œuvre par livraisons mensuelles, avec des illustrations sur acier et
sur bois par l’auteur. Longtemps avant la conclusion de l’ouvrage, le
nom de Thackeray était devenu populaire et il n’a rien publié depuis
qui soit de nature à diminuer une réputation si bien méritée. Comme
nous n’avons pas le projet d’analyser son talent, nous nous
contenterons de donner la liste chronologique de ses écrits :
The tin Trumpet, 2 vol. in-8, 1836.
Comic Tales and Sketches, 2 vol. in-8, 1840.
The Paris Sketch book, 2 vol. in-8, 1840.
The second funeral of Napoleon and the chronicle of the drum,
petit in-4, 1840.
The Irish sketch book, 2 vol. in-8, 1843.
Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Cairo, 1 vol. in-12, 1846.
Mrs Perkins’ Ball, petit in-4, 1846.
Vanity Fair, a novel without a hero, 1 vol. in-8, 1846-48.
Our Street, petit in-4, 1847.
Doctor Birch and his young friends, petit in-4, 1848.
The book of Snobs (réimpression), 1 vol. in-12, 1848.
Rebecca and Rowena, petit in-4, 1848.
History of Samuel Titmarsh and the Great Hoggarty diamond,
petit in-4 (réimpression), 1849.
The history of Pendennis, 2 vol. in-8, 1849-50.
The Kickleburys on the Rhine, petit in-8, 1850.
The history of Henry Esmond, 1 vol. in-8, 1852.
Lectures on the English Humourists, 1 vol in-8, 1853.
The Newcomes, 1 vol. in-8, 1855.
The Rose and the Ring, or the history of Prince Bulbo, petit in-4,
1855.
The Virginians, 1857-59, vingt-quatre livraisons mensuelles, in-8,
en cours de publication.
Presque tous ces ouvrages ont été illustrés par l’auteur. Si notre
mémoire ne nous trompe pas, cette liste devrait comprendre un
mélodrame représenté il y a assez longtemps déjà sur un de nos
petits théâtres, mais sur lequel nous n’avons pu réussir à mettre la
main. On sait que M. Thackeray, qui a fait de longues et fréquentes
visites à la bonne ville de Paris, parle très-facilement notre langue.
Ajoutons, en terminant, que MM. Bradbury et Evans réimpriment
depuis quelques années, sous le titre de Miscellanies, les mélanges
en prose et en vers dont Michel-Ange Titmarsh a enrichi la littérature
anglaise. Sur la couverture jaune des volumes de cette collection on
voit un enfant à grosse tête joufflue, les cheveux ébouriffés, une
paire de lunettes sur le nez, assis les jambes croisées et tenant à la
main un masque et une marotte. Cette tête est celle de l’auteur
dessinée par lui-même. Empressons-nous d’ajouter qu’il a eu la
modestie de ne pas se flatter.
Aujourd’hui M. Thackeray est rédacteur en chef d’une revue
mensuelle, fondée tout récemment par MM. Bradbury et Evans. La
rumeur publique lui accorde les magnifiques appointements de
cinquante mille francs par an. Dame renommée a la réputation de
faire la généreuse à peu de frais ; — espérons que cette fois elle
n’aura rien exagéré.
W. L. H.
LES MÉMOIRES
D’UN
VALET DE PIED
PREMIÈRE PARTIE
LE MARI DE Mlle SHUM
I
UNE FAMILLE INTÉRESSANTE
Les mémoires sont à la mode. Pourquoi donc n’écrirais-je pas les

miens ? Je possède toutes les qualités requises pour réussir dans ce
genre de littérature : une haute opinion de mon propre mérite, et
une bonne envie de médire du prochain.
Ceci dit, je commence sans autre préambule.
Je me nomme John-Herbert-Sigismond-Fitz-Roy de la Pluche. Ces
noms de baptême, dont je m’enorgueillis, me furent donnés en
souvenir de plusieurs gentilshommes qui avaient honoré ma mère de
leur amitié. Quant à mon nom de famille, je l’ignore. Peut-être suis-
je le rejeton ignoré d’une race illustre ; peut-être voyez-vous en moi
le fils d’un cocher de bonne maison dont le portrait ornait la
chambre à coucher de ma mère. Quoi qu’il en soit, je me console du
mystère qui a présidé à ma naissance en songeant que le berceau
des plus grands hommes de l’antiquité est entouré d’une obscurité
non moins profonde que celle qui couvre le mien. Tout ce que l’on
sait de l’état civil du divin Platon, c’est qu’il eut un père. L’histoire ne
nous apprend-elle pas aussi qu’Homère est né dans sept villes
différentes, fait bizarre qui n’empêche pas certains sceptiques
d’affirmer que ce poëte n’a jamais existé ?
Je n’ai donc pas connu l’auteur de mes jours. Quant à ma mère,
que je perdis de bonne heure, il ne me reste qu’un souvenir assez
confus de la vie étrange que j’ai menée auprès d’elle, vie mélangée
de rayons de soleil et de jours de pluie. Tantôt elle portait chapeau à
plumes, robe de velours et bottines de satin : tantôt, une toilette
fanée et des souliers éculés. Lorsqu’elle ne m’étouffait pas de
caresses, elle m’accablait de coups. Un jour, nous déjeunions de
perdrix arrosées de vin de Champagne ; le lendemain, notre unique
repas se composait de quelques croûtes de pain rassis.
Mais jetons le voile épais de l’oubli sur cette époque bigarrée de
mon existence. Un beau matin, ma mère s’avisa de mourir
subitement. Je restai pendant près de deux jours dans un coin de sa
chambre, osant à peine bouger, effrayé de son immobilité et de son
silence, pleurant plutôt de frayeur que de froid ou de faim. J’y serais
sans doute encore sans quelques voisines qui eurent pitié du petit
orphelin. Permettez-moi de vous dire en passant qu’on trouve
souvent plus de cœur chez une seule de ces pauvres filles que chez
une douzaine de lords. Cependant, bien que je n’aie aucun reproche
à adresser à mes bienfaitrices, certains souvenirs que l’éponge du
temps n’a pu effacer des tablettes de ma mémoire, me donnent à
croire que ma moralité aurait eu à souffrir si les protectrices de mon
enfance eussent été chargées de compléter mon éducation.
Heureusement pour moi, un digne philanthrope me fit admettre
comme interne à l’école gratuite de Saint-Bartholomé, admirable
institution dont les élèves portaient à cette époque des blouses vert-
pomme, des inexpressibles de cuir jaune, une plaque d’étain au bras
gauche et une calotte microscopique. J’y passai six années. Il
paraîtrait que vers la fin de mon séjour je montrai quelques
dispositions musicales, car je fus chargé de tenir l’orgue que l’on
jouait tous les jours à l’office du matin. Oui, pendant deux ans, j’ai
fait mouvoir le soufflet de cet instrument sonore… Il y avait bien là
un autre artiste qui promenait ses doigts sur le clavier ; mais le
paresseux se donnait bien moins de peine que moi.
Raconterai-je les folles espiègleries de ma première jeunesse ?
Dirai-je les pommes dérobées à la vieille fruitière du coin, ou le
tabac répandu à pleines mains dans les livres de notre vieux
professeur ? A quoi bon ? Passons sous silence cette période peu
intéressante de ma biographie. Je me contenterai de vous dire qu’à
l’âge de treize ans je sortis de l’école de Saint-Bartholomé pour
entrer au service d’un industriel nommé Bags (il signait Bago), qui
fabriquait dans les environs du marché de Smithfield des pâtes
d’Italie et de l’huile d’olives. Je me suis laissé dire que cet épicier
frauduleux gagnait quelque chose comme douze cents francs par an
rien qu’à louer ses croisées aux jours de pendaison. Ses fenêtres
donnaient juste en face de la prison de Newgate et on y pendait pas
mal alors. En ce temps-là, on savait au moins faire respecter les lois
et on vous accrochait un homme par le cou pour presque rien.
J’ai hâte d’ajouter que les ignobles détails du commerce de Bago
ne me regardaient en rien ; j’habitais sa villa, où j’avais pour mission
de nettoyer les couteaux et d’ouvrir la porte. C’est là, pour ainsi dire,
que je fis mon entrée dans le monde fashionable. Je ne rougis pas
d’un début si peu digne de moi ; car il est clair que ce n’est qu’à
force de mérite personnel que j’ai pu m’élever d’aussi bas à la
position que j’occupe aujourd’hui. Du reste, je ne restai que
quelques mois chez mon premier maître, ma mine éveillée et ma
tournure pleine de distinction m’ayant fait agréer par un jeune
homme qui exerçait en apparence une profession libérale.
Je dis en apparence, car je ne pus découvrir quelle était
l’occupation de mon maître. Tout ce que je savais, c’est que ses
affaires le retenaient une grande partie de la journée dans le
quartier commerçant de Londres. Comme nous habitions le faubourg
de Pentonville, je le menais chaque matin à la City dans son
cabriolet, où il remontait vers cinq heures et qui l’attendait toujours
au même endroit.
Il me semblait assez singulier qu’un jeune homme aussi distingué
que M. Frédéric Altamont n’habitât pas un quartier plus fashionable
et un appartement plus commode : en effet, notre logis se
composait d’un rez-de-chaussée assez mesquin, que nous sous-
louait le ménage Shum, couple pauvre mais prolifique, dont la
nombreuse famille occupait le reste de la maison.
Le vieux Shum se vantait d’avoir servi dans la marine, et la chose
n’est pas incroyable, puisqu’il avait eu le courage d’épouser en
secondes noces une veuve ornée de quatre filles. Pauvre marin ! ce
fut un jour néfaste que celui où il s’aventura de nouveau sur les flots
incertains de l’hyménée !
Voici la statistique de cette famille intéressante à l’époque où le
hasard me mit en rapport avec elle :
1o Le lieutenant Shum ;
2o Mme Shum, veuve Buckmaster ;
3o Mlle Betsy, Mlle Fanny, Mlle Biddy, Mlle Elisa Buckmaster ;
4o Mlle Mary, seule et unique Shum du premier lit ;
5o Sept Shum du second lit, dont il est inutile d’énumérer les
noms de baptême.
Toutes ces demoiselles, à l’exception de Mary, étaient laides à
faire peur, et si méchantes, qu’elles se disputaient du matin au soir.
Quand elles ne se battaient pas, elles faisaient de la musique ; mais
elles n’étaient jamais moins d’accord que lorsqu’elles tapaient
l’infernal ustensile qu’elles appelaient leur piano. Dès que les quatre
demoiselles Buckmaster avaient exécuté la Bataille de Prague, les
sept demoiselles Shum du second lit les remplaçaient l’une après
l’autre et miaulaient leur romance favorite : « Où peut-on être mieux
qu’au sein de sa famille ? » Elles ne connaissaient guère que ces
deux morceaux ; mais comme chacune y mettait beaucoup du sien,
on pouvait aisément se figurer qu’elles venaient de massacrer onze
mélodies différentes. Mary seule épargnait nos oreilles : aussi ne
tarda-t-elle pas à devenir notre favorite.
La vieille Shum faisait la grande dame, c’est-à-dire qu’elle passait
sa journée, étendue sur un canapé, à boire de l’ale, à lire des
romans de cabinet de lecture, à gronder et à grogner. De temps à
autre, pour varier ses plaisirs, elle feignait une attaque de nerfs.
Quant au mari, il employait ses loisirs à lire dix fois de suite le même
numéro du Times.
Quel motif avait donc pu décider Altamont à habiter sous le
même toit que ces gens-là ? Le motif saute aux yeux : il était
amoureux de Mary Shum.
J’ai déjà dit que Mary formait un charmant contraste avec ses
belles-sœurs. C’était une jolie petite personne, rose et blanche,
craintive et modeste, avec de grands yeux bleus et de longs cheveux
blond-cendré. La pression de son buste admirablement modelé
menaçait de faire craquer de toutes parts le corsage des robes
fanées qui oubliaient de grandir avec elle. Il eût été difficile de
trouver plus de gentillesse unie à plus de douceur. Ses sœurs
enrageaient de la voir si jolie et tourmentaient à qui mieux mieux la
pauvre enfant, qui endurait tout avec une patience exemplaire : j’ai
vu au théâtre des anges qui ne la valaient pas, malgré leurs ailes de
gaze et leurs torches à esprit-de-vin.
Un jour que mon maître vaquait à ses affaires, j’étais assis au bas
de l’escalier, écoutant ce qui se passait chez nos voisins. On s’y
disputait comme à l’ordinaire, et le piano allait son train. Le vieux
Shum ayant hasardé une remarque antimusicale, miss Betsy (l’aînée
des Buckmaster) s’interrompit au milieu du plus brillant passage de
la Bataille de Prague pour s’écrier :
— Oh ! papa, que vous êtes donc bête !
Les autres filles et la mère se mirent à rire : toutes, excepté
Mary, que l’insulte adressée à son père avait révoltée. L’agneau
insurgé témoigna son indignation par un vigoureux soufflet appliqué
sur la joue de la coupable.
La vieille Shum poussa un mugissement, et je reconnus au
craquement du plancher qu’elle venait de quitter le canapé. Je
montai doucement et, m’approchant de la porte entr’ouverte, je vis
les bras de la grosse marâtre qui retombaient comme les ailes d’un
moulin sur les épaules de Mary.
Celle-ci, qui d’ordinaire pleurait pour un rien, loin de laisser
échapper la moindre plainte, s’écria avec le juste orgueil d’un devoir
rempli :
— Je recommencerai chaque fois que Betsy insultera papa !
— Fi donc ! miss, dit le vieux Shum. Affliger ainsi votre mère !
Lever la main sur votre aînée !
— Mais, papa, elle vous a appelé…
— Eh bien, mademoiselle, c’était à moi de la corriger, interrompit
le père en cherchant à se donner un air digne.
— Me corriger ! Je voudrais bien voir cela !
Et le nez naturellement camus de Betsy se retroussa encore
davantage.
Mme Shum, retombant sur le canapé comme un hippopotame
essoufflé, termina la discussion en ordonnant à Mary de quitter le
salon, avec défense d’y reparaître de la journée.
— Miss Mary, lui dis-je en la voyant sangloter de façon à
compromettre son corsage, mon maître est sorti, entrez donc chez
nous. Il y a du veau froid et des concombres.
— Merci, John ; mais je suis trop malheureuse pour avoir faim,
répondit-elle en secouant tristement ses jolies boucles.
Elle entra néanmoins, et se jeta sur un fauteuil.
Au moment où je songeais le moins à lui, Altamont parut. Je
tenais en ce moment la main de Mary. Je crois même que j’allais y
déposer un baiser de consolation, lorsque mon maître arriva à
l’improviste.
— Sortez ! me dit-il d’un ton peu rassurant.
Je m’empressai d’obéir, car l’extrémité d’une botte étrangère
venait de communiquer à ma personne une impulsion irrésistible.
La conduite d’Altamont ne me laissa plus aucun doute. Il aimait
Mary. C’est pour cela que tant de fois il avait souri avec indulgence
en contemplant le morceau de roast-beef ou de veau de la veille,
dont la dent vorace des Shum avait singulièrement diminué le
volume. Il s’apercevait bien de ce communisme forcé dont il faisait
tous les frais, — mais un amour désintéressé s’inquiète-t-il de
quelques livres de bœuf ?
A dater de l’entrevue en question, il se montra fort attentionné
pour la famille de son propriétaire. Miss Betsy encouragea ses
avances et fut souvent invitée à prendre le thé chez nous. Comme
les convenances lui défendaient d’y venir seule, elle se faisait
accompagner par Mary, qu’elle affectait de regarder comme une
enfant.
Un jour, mon maître rentra un peu plus tôt que de coutume,
rapportant des billets pour le théâtre de Drury-Lane, où il offrit de
conduire Betsy et Mary. Son dîner terminé, il m’adressa la question
suivante :
— John, tu n’es pas dénué d’intelligence ?
Je répondis de façon à ne pas blesser la vérité ni offenser la
modestie.
— Eh bien, poursuivit Altamont, il y a deux guinées pour toi, si tu
exécutes adroitement mes ordres. Nous allons au spectacle. J’ai
choisi exprès un jour où il pleut à verse. Tu nous attendras à la
sortie avec les parapluies ; tu m’en remettras un, et de l’autre tu
abriteras miss Betsy. Tu la feras tourner à gauche, au lieu de la
mener à droite, c’est-à-dire à la voiture… As-tu bien compris ?
— Monsieur peut compter sur moi ; j’aurai soin de me tromper de
chemin.
Le spectacle terminé, je me trouvai à mon poste. Il pleuvait
toujours. Altamont parut donnant le bras à Mary, et suivi de Betsy,
qui semblait fort contrariée de cette préférence. Je remis un
parapluie à mon maître ; puis je jetai un grand châle sur les épaules
de Betsy, sans toutefois l’étouffer complétement. Tandis que j’étais
ainsi occupé, l’autre couple avait disparu dans la foule.
— Soyez tranquille, dis-je à miss Betsy, la voiture est à deux pas.
Elle nous attend à gauche.
Après avoir pataugé quelque temps dans la boue, je commençai
à craindre de ne plus retrouver notre véhicule, et je demandai
naïvement aux gens rassemblés à l’entrée du théâtre :
— Quelqu’un a-t-il vu la voiture de M. Frédéric Altamont ?
On me répondit naturellement par des plaisanteries de fort
mauvais goût, par des lazzi à faire rougir un policeman.
— Que faire ? m’écriai-je d’un ton désespéré. Mon maître ne me
pardonnera jamais !… Et dire que je n’ai pas un penny sur moi pour
payer un fiacre !
Nous fûmes obligés de rentrer à pied, par une pluie battante, et
nous n’arrivâmes chez nous qu’à deux heures du matin. Mary, qui
n’avait pas trempé dans la conspiration, se jeta dans les bras de sa
sœur, tandis qu’Altamont jurait et menaçait de me chasser, pour
avoir tourné à gauche au lieu de prendre à droite. Ils nous avaient
attendus près d’une heure avant de se décider à revenir seuls, disait-
il.
J’ignore si cette aventure eut pour effet d’éclairer miss Betsy sur
les véritables sentiments de mon maître. Dans tous les cas, comme
notre thé était excellent et que nous avions toujours une ample
provision de gâteaux ou de sandwiches, ses visites furent aussi
fréquentes que par le passé.
II
QUEL EST DONC CE MYSTÈRE ?
— Quels sont les moyens d’existence de mon maître ? Quelle est

sa profession ? S’il vit de ses rentes, pourquoi ces absences
quotidiennes et régulières ? me demandais-je sur tous les tons.
J’avais beau m’interroger, j’avais beau l’espionner : M. Frédéric
Altamont restait l’homme le plus impénétrable du monde.
Un matin, craignant qu’il ne s’enrhumât, je lui dis, avec ma
politesse habituelle :
— Il va pleuvoir aujourd’hui ; monsieur veut-il que le tilbury aille
le prendre à son bureau ?
Au lieu de me remercier de l’intérêt que je prenais à sa santé, il
me pria de me mêler de mes affaires.
Une autre fois, — le jour même où miss Betsy avait reçu le
soufflet en question, — j’entendis Mary qui demandait à mon
maître :
— Cher Frédéric (ils en étaient déjà là), pourquoi ce mystère ?
Pourquoi me cacher quelque chose ?
— Qu’il vous suffise de savoir que je suis un honnête homme et
que je vous aime. Un secret, dont la connaissance ne servirait qu’à
vous attrister, doit envelopper mon existence depuis neuf heures du
matin jusqu’à six heures du soir.
Impossible d’obtenir de lui une réponse plus explicite. Au
moment où j’allais me retirer, croyant la conversation terminée,
l’arrivée de la vieille Shum me coupa la retraite. Avertie par une de
ses filles de la rentrée d’Altamont, elle venait interrompre le tête-à-
tête. Je crus de mon devoir de parler très-haut et de renverser un
fauteuil sur son passage ; mais elle écarta l’obstacle et entra chez
mon maître en s’écriant :
— Êtes-vous venu chez moi en qualité de serpent ou en qualité
de simple locataire ? Répondez, monsieur !
— Je suis venu chez vous parce que j’aime votre fille Mary, et la
preuve, c’est que je l’épouse si elle veut bien accepter ma main.
Qu’elle choisisse entre vous et moi. Maintenant que je vous ai
répondu, vous aurez peut-être l’obligeance de nous laisser
tranquilles.
— Frédéric, je vous suivrai jusqu’au bout du monde ! dit la jeune
fille en se jetant dans ses bras.
— Fort bien, mademoiselle ! reprit la marâtre furieuse (car elle
espérait qu’Altamont aurait épousé Betsy) ; fort bien ! Unissez-vous à
l’homme qui me foule aux pieds sous mon propre toit… où il n’y a
personne pour me défendre !
Ce dernier membre de phrase fut la préface d’une attaque de
nerfs. Le tapage ne tarda pas à rassembler Shum et ses onze
rejetons, dont l’arrivée calma un peu les coups de pied de la belle-
mère.
— Venez, monsieur Shum, s’écria-t-elle. Venez admirer la
conduite de votre fille, qui a l’impudeur de s’enfermer avec un
homme !… avec un homme amoureux d’elle, encore !
— Lui, amoureux de Mary ! Le monstre ! le trompeur ! et Betsy se
mit à crier plus fort que sa mère.
— Silence ! commanda mon maître d’une voix qui domina les
clameurs féminines… Monsieur Shum, j’aime votre fille, je suis aimé
d’elle, et, comme mes moyens me permettent de la prendre sans
dot, je vous demande sa main.
— Monsieur, répliqua Shum en se rengorgeant, nous allons
causer de cette affaire… Mes filles, retirez-vous, et donnez des soins
à votre mère.
Pour la première fois de leur vie, les enfants obéirent. Il est vrai
que mon maître vint en aide à l’autorité paternelle, si souvent
méconnue, en les prenant par les épaules, afin de les pousser
dehors.
La timide Mary s’était enfuie dès le commencement de l’émeute.
Shum n’hésita pas à donner son consentement. Il était ravi de
trouver un mari pour sa fille, qu’il aimait tendrement, bien qu’il n’eût
jamais eu le courage de la défendre. Mais, chose étrange, mon
maître se refusa à toute espèce d’explication quant à ses moyens
d’existence.
— Je gagne environ trois cents livres sterling par an, dit-il pour
toute réponse ; Mary disposera de la moitié de cette somme. Quant
au reste, je me dispense de satisfaire votre curiosité.
Deux semaines plus tard, Frédéric Altamont épousait miss Mary
Shum. Nous allâmes habiter une jolie petite maison que mon maître
avait achetée dans le faubourg d’Islington. Le mystérieux époux
continuait à visiter chaque matin le quartier commerçant de Londres,
où il restait jusqu’à six heures du soir.
Que diable pouvait-il y faire ?
III
LA LUNE ROUSSE
Une félicité parfaite semblait devoir planer sur notre jeune

ménage ; cependant, deux mois à peine s’étaient écoulés que déjà
nous subissions l’odieuse influence de la lune rousse. De rose et
rieuse, Mme Altamont devint tout à coup pâle et morose. Miss Betsy,
qui n’avait rien oublié, détestait cordialement les nouveaux mariés,
et cherchait à troubler leur bonheur en inspirant à ma maîtresse une
foule de mauvaises pensées. La vieille Shum l’aidait de son mieux.
Il va sans dire qu’il nous arriva bientôt un amour de petit enfant ;
Mary n’en fut pas plus gaie. Au contraire, elle se livrait à des accès
de tristesse que rien ne pouvait dissiper. Elle passait des journées
entières devant le berceau du chérubin endormi, lui adressant des
discours auxquels il ne comprenait rien.
— Mon enfant, mon pauvre enfant ! disait-elle, ton père me
trompe. Il a des secrets pour moi… Que deviendras-tu, lorsque ta
mère aura succombé sous le poids du malheur ?
Tout cela était du cru de la vieille Shum et de miss Betsy.
Altamont avait fini par leur défendre de mettre les pieds chez lui ;
mais elles venaient en cachette, tandis qu’il vaquait à ses
mystérieuses affaires. Depuis notre accouchement, leurs visites
étaient même devenues plus fréquentes que jamais.
Un matin que Mme Altamont pleurait selon son habitude et que
ses aimables parentes la consolaient à leur façon, c’est-à-dire en la
faisant pleurer davantage, j’entendis…
Mais pourquoi ne reproduirais-je pas cette scène telle que je
l’écrivis à l’époque où j’avais l’intention de faire un drame
domestique de l’histoire que je raconte ?
PERSONNAGES
MADAME SHUM, berçant un enfant en bas âge.

MARY, assise à la croisée.
BETSY, au fond, mangeant n’importe quoi.
MOI, derrière la porte.
La scène se passe à Islington, près de Londres. — Le théâtre représente une

chambre à coucher bourgeoise.
MADAME SHUM. — Do, do, l’enfant do… Bon, le voilà parti… (Elle
pousse un profond soupir.) Oui, dors, pauvre enfant, fils d’une mère
infortunée et d’un père anonyme quant à la profession…
MOI, à part. — Vieille folle !
MARY. — Maman, ne dites plus de mal de Frédéric, il m’adore.
MADAME SHUM, avec ironie. — Ah, c’est juste !… Il vous a donné un
beau châle hier ; mais avec quel argent l’a-t-il acheté, ce châle ? voilà
la question… Qui est-il ? Que fait-il ?… Plaise à Dieu que vous n’ayez
pas épousé un assassin !… Mary, j’en ai l’intime conviction, votre
mari est un affreux bandit.
(Tout le monde pleure, excepté l’enfant et moi.)
MARY. — Frédéric tient peut-être un magasin ; peut-être exerce-t-il

une profession que sa fierté l’empêche d’avouer.
BETSY, la bouche pleine. — Lui, un magasin ? Non, non ! crois-moi,
Mary, c’est un scélérat qui égorge les gens toute la journée, et qui te
rapporte chaque soir le fruit de ses rapines.
(Ici l’enfant fait entendre des vagissements plaintifs,

au milieu desquels il est impossible de saisir sa
pensée. Mary lui ferme la bouche d’une façon qui
paraît le satisfaire.)
MARY.— Comment Frédéric serait-il un assassin ?… Il est trop

doux pour cela… D’ailleurs, les assassins exercent leur profession la
nuit, et mon mari ne s’absente que pendant le jour.
BETSY. — Alors, c’est un faussaire !… Pourquoi passe-t-il ses
journées loin de toi ? Pour fabriquer ses faux billets… Pourquoi ne se
fait-il jamais conduire ailleurs que dans le quartier commerçant de
Londres ? Parce qu’ailleurs il ne serait pas à même de changer lesdits
billets. Pour moi, la chose est claire comme le jour.
MARY. — Allons donc ! Il me rapporte tous les soirs de vingt à
trente shillings, rarement davantage. Un faux monnayeur ferait plus
d’argent que cela !
L’ENFANT. — Glou… glou… glou…
MADAME SHUM, sans faire attention à cette interruption.
— J’y suis ! Le
monstre a deux femmes ; toi la nuit, l’autre le jour. Voilà la véritable
cause de tout ce mystère.
(Sensation. — Mary se trouve mal. Au même instant,

un triple coup de marteau retentit à la porte de la
rue.)
J’avais reconnu le coup de marteau d’Altamont ; je m’empressai

de descendre et de lui ouvrir.
— Que se passe-t-il donc ? demanda-t-il en entendant le
tintamarre qui se faisait au premier étage.
— Miss Betsy et sa mère sont là-haut, et madame vient de se
trouver mal.
Altamont monta l’escalier quatre à quatre, et se précipita comme
une bombe dans la chambre à coucher. Sa femme était étendue sur
un canapé, où Betsy l’étouffait à moitié, sous prétexte de la ranimer.
L’enfant criait et se démenait sur le tapis. La vieille Shum hurlait
comme un chien qui aboie à la lune.
— Me dira-t-on la cause de tout ce tapage ? demanda Altamont.
— Vous la connaissez mieux que nous, répliqua la belle-mère.
C’est votre conduite qui met la pauvre enfant dans cet état.
— Comment ça, s’il vous plaît ?
— Osez-vous le demander ?… Elle sait tout, monsieur ! Elle sait
que vous êtes un affreux bigame !
Altamont parut hésiter un moment ; mais bientôt, ouvrant la
porte toute grande, il prit Betsy par les épaules et la poussa hors de
la chambre ; puis il s’avança vers Mme Shum, afin de lui faire prendre
le même chemin.
— Mon enfant ! répétait la marâtre, tandis que mon maître
l’envoyait, bon gré mal gré, rejoindre miss Betsy.
— John ! me cria-t-il… (je venais, par discrétion, de me retirer au
bas de l’escalier)… reconduisez ces dames, et désormais ne leur
ouvrez plus la porte.
J’obéis avec empressement, et je me hâtai de remonter, devinant
qu’il allait y avoir une explication orageuse.
— Mary, disait Altamont, lorsque je revins à mon poste
d’observation, tu n’es plus du tout l’enfant confiante que j’ai connue
à Pentonville. Ta mère et tes belles-sœurs auraient fini par te gâter.
C’est pourquoi je les ai mises à la porte.
— Tu sais bien que c’est le mystère dont tu t’entoures qui me
rend si malheureuse… Pourquoi me quittes-tu tous les jours pendant
huit heures ?
— Pourquoi ?… Parce que je ne trouve pas sous mon oreiller
l’argent dont nous avons besoin pour vivre.
La conversation continua sur ce ton pendant près d’une heure.
Elle se termina pour la première fois par une belle et bonne querelle.
Je m’y attendais depuis quelque temps, car il n’est pas naturel que
deux époux restent onze grands mois sans se disputer. Altamont,
fatigué de l’obstination de sa femme, finit par abandonner la place.
Il sortit en disant que, puisqu’on faisait un enfer de sa maison, il
allait s’amuser ailleurs. En effet, il s’amusa si bien qu’il ne rentra qu’à
trois heures du matin, sans chapeau, gris comme un Polonais.
A dater de ce jour, tout alla de travers dans notre ménage. On
s’adressait à peine la parole pendant les repas. Monsieur sortait plus

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1.SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT FLUID MECHANICS............. 1–29

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS....................... 30–172

2.4 Surface Tension...................................................................... 39

3. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY................173–194

3.4 Buckingham’s p-Theorem......................................................177

5.6 Helmholtz’s Theorems............................................................... 255

6. FLOW THROUGH PIPES....................................................319–388

6.8 Friction Factor Variation.....................................................336

7. FLOW WITH FREE SURFACE...........................................389–486

7.15 Capillary Waves....................................................................466

8. HYDRAULIC MACHINERY—PUMPS AND TURBINES.....487–563

Some Basic Facts About

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

without empirical correction factors, engineers developed from experimental

• When a force is applied to a solid, deformation will be produced in the

This diﬀerence in behaviour between solids and liquids can be explained

1.2 FLUIDS AND THE CONTINUUM

The description of a ﬂuid motion essentially involves a study of the

FIGURE 1.1 Force variation with time.

A continuous distribution of mass cannot exhibit this kind of variation.

1.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

TABLE 1.1 Common systems of units

1.4 LAW OF DIMENSIONAL

1.5 THE PERFECT GAS: EQUATION

1.6 REGIMES OF FLUID MECHANICS

Ideal fluid flows

Viscous incompressible flows

Rarefied gas dynamics

Flow of multicomponent mixtures

Non-newtonian fluid flow

1.7 FLUID STATICS

Scalar quantities require only a magnitude to be speciﬁed for a complete

where Vx , Vy , Vz are the velocity components along x, y, and z directions,

1.7.2 Body and Surface Forces

1.7.3 Forces in Stationary Fluids

FIGURE 1.2 A stationary ﬂuid element.

Pressure force on a fluid element

FIGURE 1.3 Pressure force on a ﬂuid element.

1.7.4 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

FIGURE 1.4 Fluid element at equilibrium.

Hydrostatic pressure distribution

EXAMPLE 1.1 A water-in-glass manometer is connected to two vessels

FIGURE 1.5 Manometer under diﬀerential pressure.

Solution For pressure balance,

EXAMPLE 1.2 In Figure 1.6, if the pressure pA = 10 kPa, ﬁnd pB . Take

FIGURE 1.6 A mercury manometer reading pressures

Solution For equilibrium of mercury, as shown in Figure 1.6

1.7.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces