ELECTRICITY Coulomb’s Law

Electricity - a fundamental force in the universe, - Like charges repel each other while unlike
governing the behavior of charged particles and charges attract each other. If the charges
influencing countless aspects of our world. are at rest, then the force between them is
known as the electrostatic force.

Electric Charge - Electric charge is a - The electrostatic force was first studied in
fundamental property of matter that causes it to detail by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
experience a force when placed in an electric and around 1784. Through his observations he
magnetic field. It is the source of electric fields was able to show that the magnitude of the
and is responsible for electric forces. electrostatic force between two point-like
charges is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the
Electric charge comes in two types: charges.
• Positive
• Negative.
Electrical Quantities and Units
Charge, Coulomb, C
Electric Charge and Matter
Current, Ampere, A
- Electricity is fundamentally linked to
Voltage, Volt, V
matter
- Matter is made of atoms: These contain Resistance, Ohm, Ω
protons (positive charge), neutrons (no
Power, Watt, W
charge), and electrons (negative charge).
- Electric charge arises from these Energy, Joule, J
particles: The balance of protons and
electrons determines if matter is neutral or
charged. Ohm’s Law
- This law states the relationship between
Materials have different electrical properties: electric current and potential difference.
The current that flows through most
- Conductors: Allow easy charge flow conductors is directly proportional to the
(electrons move freely). voltage applied to it.
- Insulators: Resist charge flow (electrons
tightly bond).
- Semiconductors: Have controllable
conductivity.
Electric Circuits - Muscle Contractions: Motor neurons
transmit signals from the brain to muscles.
- Are closed-loop or paths, forming a
network of electrical components where - Heartbeat: The heart is a specialized muscle
electrons can flow. that pumps blood throughout the body.

- Electrolytes: Electrolytes are minerals that

carry an electrical charge when dissolved in
• Power Source: Provides energy to the
fluids, such as blood and lymph.
circuit, like a battery

• Conductors: Wires or materials that allow - Medical Applications: Electrocardiograms

electric current to flow. (ECGs) measure the electrical activity of the
heart, helping diagnose heart conditions.
• Load: Components that consume electric
power, like light bulbs or motors.
Effects of Electricity on the Body
• Switch: Allows or prevents the flow of
Current Effect
electricity in the circuit.
Below 1 Mild Shock

1-5 Painful Shock

Types of Electric Circuits
6-35 (women), 9-30 (men) Severe Shock
Series Circuit: Components are connected in a single
path, so the same current flows through each 50 – 150 Cardiac Arrest
component.
1,000 – 4,300 Extreme Shock

Parallel Circuit: Components are connected in

ELECTROMAGNETISM
multiple paths, allowing current to split and flow
through different parts of the circuit. An object which is capable of producing magnetic field and
attracting unlike poles and repelling like poles.

Commonly Used Magnets

Electric Circuit Symbols - BAR MAGNET
- MAGNETIC NEEDLE
- HORSESHOE MAGNET

Types of Magnets

Permanent Magnet – are magnets that are commonly used. They

are known as permanent magnets because they do not lose their
magnetic property once they are magnetized.

It’s four types:

Electricity in the Body
• Ceramic or Ferrite
- Nerve Impulses: Nerve Cells (neurons) are • Alnico
responsible for transmitting information • Samarium Cobalt (SmCo)
throughout the body. • Neodymium Iron Boron (NiB)
Temporary Magnet – can be magnetized in the presence of a - Magnetic Fields – Magnetic fields arise from moving
magnetic field. When the magnetic field is removed, these electrics charges, like currents in a wire. These fields can
materials lose their magnetic property. attract or repel magnetic materials and influence other
magnetic fields nearby.
Common Examples:
- Electromagnetic Waves – These are waves that spread
• Iron Nails through the vacuum of space, carrying electromagnetic
• Paper Clips energy without requiring a medium. Light, microwaves,
X-rays, and radio waves are all examples of
Electromagnets – consists of a coil of wire wrapped around the
electromagnetic waves.
metal core made from iron. When is material is exposed to an
electric current a magnetic field is generated making the material - Electromagnetic Induction - This phenomenon occurs
behave like a magnet the strength of the magnetic field can be when a magnetic field changes near a conductor (like a
controlled by controlling the electric current. coil of wire) and induces a voltage that creates an
electric current. It’s the principle behind generators and
transformers.
Properties of Magnet
James Clerk Maxwell developed the mathematica
• Attractive Property of Magnet – A magnet attracts Maxwell’s Equations are four partial differential
ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt. equations that form the foundation of classical
electrodynamics, optics, and electric circuits. They
• Directive Property of a Magnet – If a magnet is
describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated
suspended from rigid support such that it can rotate
by charges, currents, and changes of each other.
freely, the magnet always points towards the north-south
direction.
Uses of Electromagnetism
• Poles of a Magnet – magnets have two poles, where the
strength of the magnetic field is the strongest. Magnetic - Electric Power Delivery
poles exist in pairs. No matter how small a magnet is, it - Communication Systems
is impossible to separate one pole. - Medical Technologies
- Electronic Devices
- Industrial Applications
Like charges always repel each other but opposite poles attract. - Magnetic Storage

Electromagnetic Induction

History of Electromagnetism - A process of generating electric current or voltage in a

conductor through a changing magnetic field, a principle
- The study of electromagnetism began in 1820 when
discovered by Michael Faraday.
Hans Christian Orsted, linking electricity to magnetism.
- It occurs due to the interaction between moving charges
Andre-Marie Ampere developed a mathematical theory
and magnetic fields, as described by Faraday’s Law,
to explain this connection.
which relates the induced EMF to the rate of magnetic
flux change.

- In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell advanced the field

with Maxwell’s equation, which describe the interplay of
Types of Electromagnetic Induction
electric and magnetic fields and predict electromagnetic
waves travelling at the speed of light. Heinrich Hertz - Metal Detectors
confirmed this prediction in the 1880s by demonstrating - Wireless Power Transmission
radio waves. - Induction Motors
- Energy Harvesting
- Induction Cooking
Types of Electromagnetism
Generating Electricity
- Electric Fields – surround electric charges. They exert
forces on other electric charges within the field, either - Electricity is a fundamental part of modern society:
pulling or pushing them, depending on wether the o Powering homes
charges are opposite or the same. o Industries
o Transportation
 o Communication.

Methods of Generating Electricity

- Thermal Power Plants

o They burn fossil fuels like coal, oil, or natural
gas to produce steam.
- Hydropower
o Widely used in regions with rivers or large water
reservoirs.
- Wind Energy
Optics - The branch if physics which is concerned with light and it’s
o Kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy.
behavioral pattern and properties.
- Solar Power
o Uses photovoltaic (PV) cells to convert sunlight - A branch of physics that deals with the determination of
directly into electricity. behavior and the properties of light, along with its interactions
- Nuclear Energy with the matter.
o Generates electricity through nuclear fission,
Geometrical Optics - also known as Ray optics, it studies how light
where atomic nuclei split to release energy,
behaves when it interacts with lenses, mirrors, and other optical
which is then used to produce steam to drive
components. It uses geometry and trigonometry to analyze light’s
turbines. behavior, assuming that light travels in straight lines. It is used in the design
- Geothermal Energy of cameras, telescopes and microscopes.
o Uses heat from beneath the Earth’s surface to
Physical Optics – also known as Wave optics, this branch of optics studies
generate steam that drives turbines.
the nature and properties of light, including how it behaves when it
- Biomass Energy
encounters objects that are close to or a smaller than its wavelength. It is
o Involves burning organic materials like wood, used in the design of many optical systems, including in the medical field.
agricultural waste, or even algae to produce
electricity. Electromagnetic Spectrum – is the range of all types of electromagnetic
radiation.

The major types of radiation, ordered from longest to shortest wavelength:

• Radio waves – Longest wavelengths, used for communication

• Microwaves – These are used in cooking and communication
• Infrared – used in Thermal imaging, remote controls, and heat
sensing.
• Visible light – part of the spectrum that human eyes can detect
• Ultraviolet (UV) – beyond visible light and can cause sunburns.
Used in sterilization and black lights.
• X-Ray – Have high energy and are used for medical imaging and
in examining the internal structure of objects.
• Gamma rays – have the shortest wavelength and highest
frequencies, with very high energy.

Nature of Light or propagation of light can be explained by these

theories:

• Wave Theory of Light – Christian Huygens (1678) proposed that

light behaves like a wave.
• Corpuscular Theory of Light – Isaac Newton (17th Century) as
an alternative to Huygens Wave Theory:
o Reflection – light particles bouncing off surfaces
could explain how we see images.
o Refraction – light bending when passing from one
medium to another could be explained by the change
in speed of the light particles.
• Electromagnetic Theory of Light – light is the small part of
electromagnetic spectrum which affects our vision. Light is
propagated in space as electromagnetic waves. Different
frequencies of electromagnetic waves produce different kinds
of light.
 • Wave-Particle Duality – Light can behave both as a wave and Reflection on Plane and Concave Mirror
as a particle. Wave particle Duality is the idea that light and
matter can act both like waves and like particles, depending on Reflection on a Plane Mirror
how we observe them.
A plane mirror is a flat, smooth surface that reflects light.
Lightspeed and Relativity
• Reflection Type: Specular reflection
- Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity • Image Formation: Virtual, upright, and laterally inverted image
o This states that nothing can travel faster than light, • Image Distance: Equal to object distance
fundamentally altering our understanding of space, • Magnification: 1 (no magnification)
time, and energy.
• Applications: Dressing tables, rearview mirrors, and optical
- Effects of Speed on Time and Space
instruments
o As an object approaches the speed of light, time
dilation occurs, causing time to slow down relative to
an outside observer, a key relativistic effect.
- Mass and energy Relationship Reflection on a Concave Mirror
o The famous equation E=mc Illustrates the
• A concave mirror is a curved mirror with the reflecting surface
relationship between mass and energy, showing how
inward.
mass increases with speed and approaches infinity
• Reflection Type: Specular reflection
at light speed.
• Image Formation: Real or virtual, inverted or upright image
Early Theories and Experiments on Light Speed • Image Distance: Depends on object distance and focal length
• Magnification: Variable (can be magnified or reduced)
- Galileo’s Attempt to measure lightspeed
• Applications: Telescope mirrors, magnifying glasses, and
o Galileo conducted an experiment using lanterns to
optical instruments.
measure light speed, but findings were inconclusive
due to the limitations of human reaction times. Human Eye
- Roemer’s Observation of Io’s Orbit
o In 1676, Roemer observed the orbits of Jupiter’s - The eye is perhaps the most interesting of all optical
moon Io to estimate light, demonstrating the finite instruments. The eye is remarkable in how it forms images and
nature of light. in the richness of detail and color it can detect. However, our
- Fizeau’s Interference Experiment eyes commonly need some correction, to reach what is called
o Fizeau’s 1850 experiment used a rotating toothed “normal” vision, but should be called ideal rather than normal.
wheel to measure light speed accurately, marking a Image formation by our eyes and common vision correction are
significant advancement in optical physics. easy to analyze with the optics discussed in Geometric Optics.

Utilization of Light Speed in Telecommunications Process of how light propagates through Human Eye

- Fiber Optic Communication Systems - The cornea and lens work together to bend and focus light. First,
o Fiber optic cables transmit data as light signals, light passes through the cornea, which provides most of the
enabling rapid communication over vast distances eye’s optical power. The light then moves through the aqueous
with minimal loss, revolutionizing global humor, a clear fluid that nourishes the eye, before reaching the
telecommunications. lens.
- Satellite Communication - The lens fine-tunes the focus by adjusting its shape—a process
o Satellites rely on the speed of light to transmit signals known as accommodation—to focus the light rays onto the
back to Earth, facilitating instant communication for retina.
television, internet, and military applications.
The Retina & Photoreceptors - Millions of photoreceptors are at the
- 5G wireless Networks
heart of the retina. These specialized cells detect light.
o 5G technology uses high-frequency signals that
approach the speed of light, enhancing mobile data They come in 2 main types:
rates and connectivity for smart devices and
applications. - Rods: Responsible for vision in low-light conditions
- Cones: Enable color vision and operate best under bright light
Difference between Speed of Sound and Sound of Light
When light photons hit these photoreceptors, they trigger chemical
Speed of Sound – The speed of sound refers to how fast pressure waves, reactions that transform light into electrical signals. These signals are then
like sound waves, travel through a medium such as air, water, or solids. relayed to the brain through the optic nerve.

Speed of Light – the speed of light refers to how fast electromagnetic FUNCTIONS OF EYES ANATOMY
waves such as light travel through a vacuum and is a fundamental constant
of nature. Cornea: The eye’s outermost layer that begins the process of focusing light

Iris and pupil:The colored part of the eye (iris) regulates how much light
enters and controls the size of the pupil

Lens: This clear structure further fine-tunes the focus, directing light to the
retina
Retina: A layer at the back of the eye filled with photoreceptors that convert
light into neural signals

Optic nerve: Carries these signals to the brain, where they are interpreted
as images